Ebook Western Civilization A Brief History PDF Full Chapter PDF

Western Civilization: A Brief History -
eBook PDF
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://ebooksecure.com/download/western-civilization-a-brief-history-ebook-pdf/
Western Civilization
A BRIEF HISTORY
Copyright 2017 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Western Civilization
A BRIEF HISTORY
Volume I: To 1715
NINTH EDITION
J ACKSON J. S PIELVOGEL
The Pennsylvania State University
Australia • Brazil • Mexico • Singapore • United Kingdom • United States
This is an electronic version of the print textbook. Due to electronic rights restrictions,
some third party content may be suppressed. Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed
content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. The publisher reserves the right
to remove content from this title at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it. For
valuable information on pricing, previous editions, changes to current editions, and alternate
formats, please visit www.cengage.com/highered to search by ISBN#, author, title, or keyword for
materials in your areas of interest.
Important Notice: Media content referenced within the product description or the product
text may not be available in the eBook version.
Western Civilization: A Brief History, ª 2017, 2014, 2011 Cengage Learning
Volume I: To 1715, Ninth Edition WCN: 02-200-203
Jackson J. Spielvogel
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this work covered by the copyright herein
Product Director: Paul R. Banks may be reproduced, transmitted, stored, or used in any form or by any means
Product Manager: Scott Greenan graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including but not limited to photocopying,
recording, scanning, digitizing, taping, web distribution, information networks,
Senior Development Editor: Margaret or information storage and retrieval systems, except as permitted under
McAndrew Beasley Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without the prior
Product Assistant: Andrew Newton written permission of the publisher.
Marketing Development Manager: Kyle
Zimmerman For product information and technology assistance, contact us at
Cengage Learning Customer & Sales Support, 1-800-354-9706
Senior Content Project Manager: Carol
For permission to use material from this text or product,
Newman
submit all requests online at www.cengage.com/permissions.
Senior Art Director: Cate Rickard Barr Further permissions questions can be emailed to
Manufacturing Planner: Fola Orekoya permissionrequest@cengage.com.
IP Analyst: Alexandra Ricciardi

IP Project Manager: Nick Barrows Library of Congress Control Number: 2015942011
Production Service and Compositor:
Cenveo Publisher Services Student Edition:
Text and Cover Designer: Dale Porter, ISBN: 978-1-305-63347-6
Real Time Design Loose leaf Edition:
Cover Image: A court festival. From the ISBN: 978-1-305-86531-0
‘‘Roman de Saint Graal,’’ Ms.527, fol.1
recto. 15th C.E. / Erich Lessing /Art Cengage Learning
Resource NY. 20 Channel Center Street
Boston, MA 02210
USA
Cengage Learning is a leading provider of customized learning solutions with

employees residing in nearly 40 different countries and sales in more than 125
countries around the world. Find your local representative at
www.cengage.com.
Cengage Learning products are represented in Canada by Nelson

Education, Ltd.
To learn more about Cengage Learning Solutions, visit www.cengage.com.

Purchase any of our products at your local college store or at our preferred
online store www.cengagebrain.com.
Printed in Canada
Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2015
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
J A CKS O N J. S P I E L V O G E L is associate professor emeritus of history at The Pennsylvania State
University. He received his Ph.D. from The Ohio State University, where he specialized in
Reformation history under Harold J. Grimm. His articles and reviews have appeared in such
journals as Moreana, Journal of General Education, Catholic Historical Review, Archiv für
Reformationsgeschichte, and American Historical Review. He has also contributed chapters or articles
to The Social History of the Reformation, The Holy Roman Empire: A Dictionary Handbook, the Simon
Wiesenthal Center Annual of Holocaust Studies, and Utopian Studies. His work has been supported
by fellowships from the Fulbright Foundation and the Foundation for Reformation Research. At
Penn State, he helped inaugurate the Western civilization courses as well as a popular course on
Nazi Germany. His book Hitler and Nazi Germany was published in 1987 (seventh edition, 2014).
He is the author of Western Civilization, first published in 1991 (ninth edition, 2015), and the
coauthor (with William Duiker) of World History, first published in 1994 (eighth edition, 2016).
Professor Spielvogel has won five major university-wide teaching awards. During the year 1988–
1989, he held the Penn State Teaching Fellowship, the university’s most prestigious teaching
award. In 1996, he won the Dean Arthur Ray Warnock Award for Outstanding Faculty Member,
and in 2000, he received the Schreyer Honors College Excellence in Teaching Award.
TO DIANE,
WHOSE LOVE AND SUPPORT MADE IT ALL POSSIBLE
J.J.S.
Brief Contents
DOCUMENTS XIV 9 THE RECOVERY AND GROWTH OF EUROPEAN

SOCIETY IN THE HIGH MIDDLE AGES 198
MAPS XVII
FEATURES XIX 10 THE RISE OF KINGDOMS AND THE GROWTH OF
CHURCH POWER 221
PREFACE XX
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS XXVI 11 THE LATER MIDDLE AGES: CRISIS AND
DISINTEGRATION IN THE FOURTEENTH
INTRODUCTION TO STUDENTS OF WESTERN
CENTURY 249
CIVILIZATION XXX
STUDYING FROM PRIMARY SOURCE MATERIALS XXXI
12 RECOVERY AND REBIRTH: THE AGE OF THE
RENAISSANCE 273
1 THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST: THE FIRST

13 REFORMATION AND RELIGIOUS WARFARE IN
THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY 301
CIVILIZATIONS 1
2 THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST: PEOPLES AND
14 EUROPE AND THE WORLD: NEW ENCOUNTERS,
1500–1800 327
EMPIRES 27
3 THE CIVILIZATION OF THE GREEKS 48

15 STATE BUILDING AND THE SEARCH FOR ORDER
IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY 357
4 THE HELLENISTIC WORLD 73
16 TOWARD A NEW HEAVEN AND A NEW EARTH:
5 THE ROMAN REPUBLIC 94 THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION AND THE
EMERGENCE OF MODERN SCIENCE 385
6 THE ROMAN EMPIRE 120
7 LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE EMERGENCE OF THE GLOSSARY 405

MEDIEVAL WORLD 146
INDEX 413
8 EUROPEAN CIVILIZATION IN THE EARLY
MIDDLE AGES, 750–1000 173
vi
Detailed Contents
DOCUMENTS
MAPS XVII
XIV
2 The Ancient Near East: Peoples
and Empires 27
FEATURES XIX
On the Fringes of Civilization 28
PREFACE XX
The Impact of the Indo-Europeans 28
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS XXVI
The Hebrews: ‘‘The Children of Israel’’ 30
INTRODUCTION TO STUDENTS OF WESTERN
Was There a United Kingdom of Israel? 30
CIVILIZATION XXX
The Kingdoms of Israel and Judah 30
STUDYING FROM PRIMARY SOURCE MATERIALS XXXI The Spiritual Dimensions of Israel 32
The Neighbors of the Israelites 34
1 The Ancient Near East: The First

Civilizations 1
The Assyrian Empire
Organization of the Empire 37
The Assyrian Military Machine 37
36
Assyrian Society and Culture 38

The First Humans 2 OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS
The Emergence of Homo sapiens 2 T HE G OVERNING OF E MPIRES : T WO A PPROACHES 39
The Hunter-Gatherers of the Old Stone Age 3
The Neolithic Revolution (ca. 10,000–4000 B.C.E.) 4
The Persian Empire 40
Cyrus the Great (559–530 B.C.E.) 40
The Emergence of Civilization 6 Expanding the Empire 42
Governing the Empire 42
Civilization in Mesopotamia 7
The Great King 44
The City-States of Ancient Mesopotamia 7
Persian Religion 44
Empires in Ancient Mesopotamia 9
The Culture of Mesopotamia 12 Chapter Summary, Timeline, and Review 45
Egyptian Civilization: ‘‘The Gift of the Nile’’ 14

The Impact of Geography
OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS
T HE G REAT F LOOD : T WO V ERSIONS 15
14
3 The Civilization of the
Greeks 48
The Old and Middle Kingdoms 16
Early Greece 49
Society and Economy in Ancient Egypt 18 Minoan Crete 49
The Culture of Egypt 18 The First Greek State: Mycenae 51
Disorder and a New Order: The New Kingdom 20
Daily Life in Ancient Egypt: Family and Marriage 21 The Greeks in a Dark Age
IMAGES OF EVERYDAY LIFE (ca. 1100–ca. 750 B.C.E.) 51
T HE E GYPTIAN D IET 22 Homer and Homeric Greece 52
Chapter Summary, Timeline, and Review 24 Homer’s Enduring Importance 52
vii
The World of the Greek City-States Culture in the Hellenistic World 85
(ca. 750–ca. 500 B.C.E.) 54 New Directions in Literature 86
The Polis 54 Hellenistic Art 87
A New Military System: The Greek Way of War 54 A Golden Age of Science 88
Colonization and the Growth of Trade 55 Philosophy: New Schools of Thought 89
Tyranny in the Greek Polis 56
Religion in the Hellenistic World 90
Sparta 56
Mystery Religions 90
Athens 58
The Jews in the Hellenistic World 90
The High Point of Greek Civilization: Classical Chapter Summary, Timeline, and Review 91
Greece 59
The Challenge of Persia 59
The Growth of an Athenian Empire in the Age of
Pericles 60
The Great Peloponnesian War 61
5 The Roman Republic
The Emergence of Rome 95
94
The Decline of the Greek States The Greeks in Italy 95

(404–338 B.C.E.) 62 The Etruscans 96
Early Rome 97
The Culture and Society of Classical
Greece 62 The Roman Republic (ca. 509–264 B.C.E.) 98
The Writing of History 62 The Roman State 98
Greek Drama 63 The Roman Conquest of Italy 99
The Arts: The Classical Ideal 64
The Greek Love of Wisdom 65
The Roman Conquest of the Mediterranean
Greek Religion 67
(264–133 B.C.E.) 102
The Struggle with Carthage 102
Life in Classical Athens 68
The Eastern Mediterranean 103
OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS
W OMEN IN A THENS AND S PARTA 69 The Nature of Roman Imperialism 104
Chapter Summary, Timeline, and Review 70 Evolution of the Roman Army 104
Society and Culture in the Roman World 105
4 The Hellenistic World

Macedonia and the Conquests of
73
Roman Religion 106
The Growth of Slavery 106
The Roman Family 107
The Evolution of Roman Law 108
Alexander 74
The Development of Literature 109
Philip and the Conquest of Greece 74
Roman Art 111
OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS
D EMOSTHENES AND I SOCRATES A DDRESS P HILIP OF
Values and Attitudes 111
M ACEDONIA 75
The Decline and Fall of the Roman Republic
Alexander the Great 76
(133–31 B.C.E.) 111
FILM & HISTORY
Background: Social, Economic, and Political
A LEXANDER (2004) 79
Problems 112
The World of the Hellenistic Kingdoms 81 The Reforms of the Gracchi 112
Hellenistic Monarchies 81 A New Role for the Roman Army: Marius and
The Threat from the Celts 81 Sulla 113
Political and Military Institutions 82 The Death of the Republic 113
Hellenistic Cities 83 OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS
Economic Trends in the Hellenistic World 84 T HE E ND OF THE R EPUBLIC : T HREE V IEWS 114
New Opportunities for Women 85 Chapter Summary, Timeline, and Review 117
viii Detailed Contents
6 The Roman Empire
The Age of Augustus (31 B.C.E.–14 C.E.)
120
121
The End of the Western Empire 150
OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS
T WO V IEWS OF THE H UNS 151
The New Order 121

The Germanic Kingdoms 152
The Ostrogothic Kingdom of Italy 152
Augustan Society 123
The Visigothic Kingdom of Spain 153
Significance of the Augustan Age 124
The Frankish Kingdom 154
The Early Empire (14–180) 124 Anglo-Saxon England 154
The Julio-Claudians and Flavians 124 The Society of the Germanic Kingdoms 154
The Five ‘‘Good Emperors’’ (96–180) 125
The Roman Empire at Its Height: Frontiers and
Development of the Christian Church 156
The Power of the Pope 156
Provinces 125
The Monks and Their Missions 157
Prosperity in the Early Empire 127
Christianity and Intellectual Life 160
Roman Culture and Society in the Early
Empire 129 The Byzantine Empire 162
The Reign of Justinian (527–565) 162
The Golden Age of Latin Literature 129
From Eastern Roman to Byzantine Empire 165
The Silver Age of Latin Literature 132
The Upper-Class Roman Family 132 The Rise of Islam 166
Imperial Rome 132 Muhammad 167
IMAGES OF EVERYDAY LIFE The Teachings of Islam 167
C HILDREN IN THE R OMAN W ORLD 133 The Spread of Islam 168
The Gladiatorial Shows 135 Chapter Summary, Timeline, and Review 170
FILM & HISTORY
G LADIATOR (2000) 136
Transformation of the Roman World: Crises in

the Third Century 137
8 European Civilization in the
Early Middle Ages,
Political and Military Woes 137 750–1000 173
Economic and Social Crises 138
The World of the Carolingians 174
Transformation of the Roman World: The Rise Charlemagne and the Carolingian Empire
of Christianity 138 (768–814) 174
The Religious World of the Roman Empire 138
The Carolingian Intellectual Renewal 178
The Jewish Background 139
Life in the Carolingian World 178
The Origins of Christianity 139
OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS Disintegration of the Carolingian
R OMAN A UTHORITIES AND A C HRISTIAN ON Empire 181
C HRISTIANITY 140 Invasions of the Ninth and Tenth Centuries 181
The Growth of Christianity 142
Chapter Summary, Timeline, and Review 143 The Emerging World of Lords
and Vassals 183
Vassalage 183
7 Late Antiquity and the

Emergence of the Medieval
Fief-Holding 184
OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS
L ORDS , V ASSALS , AND S AMURAI
AND J APAN 185
IN E UROPE
World 146 The Manorial System 186

The Late Roman Empire 147 The Zenith of Byzantine Civilization 187
The Reforms of Diocletian and Constantine 147 The Macedonian Dynasty 188
The Empire’s New Religion 149 Women in Byzantium 188
Detailed Contents ix
The Slavic Peoples of Central and Eastern Christian Reconquest: The Spanish Kingdoms 227
Europe 190 The Lands of the Holy Roman Empire: Germany
Western Slavs 190 and Italy 228
Southern Slavs 191 New Kingdoms in Northern and Eastern Europe 229
Eastern Slavs 191 Impact of the Mongol Empire 230
Women in the Slavic World 191 The Development of Russia 231
The World of Islam 192 The Recovery and Reform of the Catholic
Islamic Civilization 194 Church 232
Chapter Summary, Timeline, and Review 195 The Problems of Decline 232
The Cluniac Reform Movement 232
Reform of the Papacy 232
9 The Recovery and Growth of

European Society in the High
Christianity and Medieval Civilization
Growth of the Papal Monarchy 233
233
Middle Ages 198 New Religious Orders and Spiritual Ideals 233
FILM & HISTORY
Land and People in the High Middle Ages 199 V ISION (2009) 236
The New Agriculture 200 Popular Religion in the High Middle Ages 237
The Life of the Peasantry 202 Voices of Protest and Intolerance 238
The Aristocracy of the High Middle Ages 202
The Crusades 239
The New World of Trade and Cities 204 Background to the Crusades 239
The Revival of Trade 204 The Early Crusades 241
The Growth of Cities 207 OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS
OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS T HE S IEGE OF J ERUSALEM : C HRISTIAN AND M USLIM
T WO V IEWS OF T RADE AND M ERCHANTS 208 P ERSPECTIVES 244
Life in the Medieval City 209 The Crusades of the Thirteenth Century 245
IMAGES OF EVERYDAY LIFE What Were the Effects of the Crusades? 245
L IFE IN A M EDIEVAL T OWN 210 Chapter Summary, Timeline, and Review 246
Industry in Medieval Cities 211
The Intellectual and Artistic World of the High

Middle Ages 211
The Rise of Universities 211
A Revival of Classical Antiquity 213
11 The Later Middle Ages:
Crisis and Disintegration in
The Revival of Roman Law 214
the Fourteenth
The Development of Scholasticism 214
Century 249
Romanesque Architecture: ‘‘A White Mantle of A Time of Troubles: Black Death and Social
Churches’’ 216 Crisis 250
The Gothic Cathedral 217 The Black Death: From Asia to Europe 250
Chapter Summary, Timeline, and Review 218 The Black Death in Europe 251
OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS
10
C AUSES OF THE B LACK D EATH : C ONTEMPORARY V IEWS 252
The Rise of Kingdoms and Economic Dislocation and Social Upheaval 254
the Growth of Church War and Political Instability 256
Power 221 The Hundred Years’ War 256
Political Instability 258
The Emergence and Growth of European
FILM & HISTORY
Kingdoms, 1000–1300 222 J OAN OF A RC (1948)
England in the High Middle Ages 222 T HE M ESSENGER : T HE S TORY OF J OAN OF A RC (1999) 259
The Growth of the French Kingdom 224 Western Europe: England and France 260
x Detailed Contents
The German Monarchy 261 The Church in the Renaissance 296
The States of Italy 261 Dealing with Heresy and Reform 296
The Renaissance Papacy 297
The Decline of the Church 262
Boniface VIII and the Conflict with the State 262 Chapter Summary, Timeline, and Review 298
The Papacy at Avignon (1305–1378) 263
The Great Schism 264
The Conciliar Movement 265
Culture and Society in an Age of Adversity 265
13 Reformation and Religious
Warfare in the Sixteenth
The Development of Vernacular Literature 266 Century 301
A New Art: Giotto 267
Changes in Urban Life 267
Prelude to Reformation 302
Christian or Northern Renaissance Humanism 302
Inventions and New Patterns 268
Church and Religion on the Eve of the
IMAGES OF EVERYDAY LIFE
E NTERTAINMENT IN THE M IDDLE A GES 269 Reformation 303
Chapter Summary, Timeline, and Review 270 Martin Luther and the Reformation in
Germany 304
12 Recovery and Rebirth:

The Age of the
The Early Luther 304
The Rise of Lutheranism 305
Organizing the Church 307
Renaissance 273 Germany and the Reformation: Religion and
Politics 308
Characteristics of the Italian Renaissance 274
The Spread of the Protestant
The Making of Renaissance Society 276 Reformation 310
Economic Recovery 276
The Zwinglian Reformation 310
Social Changes in the Renaissance 277
OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS
The Family in Renaissance Italy 278 A R EFORMATION D EBATE : C ONFLICT AT M ARBURG 311
The Italian States in the Renaissance 279 The Radical Reformation: The Anabaptists 312
The Birth of Modern Diplomacy 280 The Reformation in England 312
Machiavelli and the New Statecraft 280 John Calvin and the Development of
Calvinism 313
The Intellectual Renaissance in Italy 281
Italian Renaissance Humanism 281 The Social Impact of the Protestant
OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS Reformation 314
T HE R ENAISSANCE P RINCE : T HE V IEWS OF M ACHIAVELLI AND The Family 314
E RASMUS 282 Religious Practices and Popular Culture 315
Education in the Renaissance 284
The Impact of Printing 286
The Catholic Reformation 315
Catholic Reformation or Counter-Reformation? 315
The Artistic Renaissance 286 The Society of Jesus 317
Art in the Early Renaissance 287 A Revived Papacy 317
The Artistic High Renaissance 287 The Council of Trent 319
The Artist and Social Status 290
The Northern Artistic Renaissance 290
Politics and the Wars of Religion in the Sixteenth
Century 319
The European State in the Renaissance 292 The French Wars of Religion (1562–1598) 320
The Renaissance State in Western Europe 292 Philip II and Militant Catholicism 320
Central Europe: The Holy Roman Empire 294 Revolt of the Netherlands 320
The Struggle for Strong Monarchy in Eastern The England of Elizabeth 321
Europe 295 FILM & HISTORY
The Ottoman Turks and the End of the Byzantine E LIZABETH (1998) 323
Empire 295 Chapter Summary, Timeline, and Review 324
Detailed Contents xi
14 Europe and the World:
New Encounters,
The Practice of Absolutism: Western
Europe 362
France: Foundations of Absolutism 362
1500–1800 327 The Reign of Louis XIV (1643–1715) 363
The Decline of Spain 366
On the Brink of a New World 328
The Motives for Expansion 328 Absolutism in Central and Eastern
The Means for Expansion 329 Europe 366
The German States 366
New Horizons: The Portuguese and Spanish The Emergence of Austria 367
Empires 329 Russia: From Fledgling Principality to Major
The Development of a Portuguese Maritime Power 368
Empire 329 The Ottoman Empire 370
Voyages to the New World 331 The Limits of Absolutism 370
S PICES AND W ORLD T RADE 332 Limited Monarchy: The Dutch Republic and
The Spanish Empire in the New World 334 England 372
The Golden Age of the Dutch Republic 372
New Rivals on the World Stage 337
England and the Emergence of Constitutional
Africa: The Slave Trade 338
Monarchy 372
The West in Southeast Asia 339
The French and British in India 342 D UTCH D OMESTICITY 373
OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS
OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS
W EST M EETS E AST : A N E XCHANGE OF R OYAL O LIVER C ROMWELL : T HREE P ERSPECTIVES 375
L ETTERS 343
China 344 The Flourishing of European Culture 378
Japan 345 The Changing Faces of Art 378
The Americas 345 A Wondrous Age of Theater 381
Chapter Summary, Timeline, and Review 382
The Impact of European Expansion 347
The Conquered 347
16
FILM & HISTORY
T HE M ISSION (1986) 350 Toward a New Heaven and
The Conquerors 351
a New Earth: The Scientific
Toward a World Economy 352 Revolution and the
Economic Conditions in the Sixteenth Emergence of Modern
Century 352
The Growth of Commercial Capitalism 352
Science 385
Mercantilism 353 Background to the Scientific
Overseas Trade and Colonies: Movement Toward Revolution 386
Globalization 353 Ancient Authors and Renaissance Artists 386
Chapter Summary, Timeline, and Review 354 Technological Innovations and Mathematics 387
Renaissance Magic 387
15 State Building and the

Search for Order in the
Toward a New Heaven: A Revolution in
Astronomy 387
Copernicus 387
Seventeenth Century 357 Kepler 388
Galileo 389
Social Crises, War, and Rebellions 358
Newton 391
The Witchcraft Craze 358
OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS
The Thirty Years’ War 359
A N EW H EAVEN ? F AITH V ERSUS R EASON 392
Rebellions 362
xii Detailed Contents
Advances in Medicine and Chemistry 393 The Spread of Scientific Knowledge 398
Vesalius 394 The Scientific Method 398
Harvey 394 The Scientific Societies 399
Chemistry 394 Science and Society 400
Science and Religion 400
Women in the Origins of Modern Science 395
Chapter Summary, Timeline, and Review 402
Margaret Cavendish 395
Maria Winkelmann 395
Debates on the Nature of Women 396 GLOSSARY 405
INDEX 413
Toward a New Earth: Descartes, Rationalism, and
a New View of Humankind 397
Detailed Contents xiii
Documents
CHAPTER 1 Alexander Meets an Indian King (Arrian, The

The Code of Hammurabi (The Code of Campaigns of Alexander) 78
Hammurabi) 11 Relations Between Greeks and Non-Greeks
OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS: The Great Flood: Two (Letter to Zenon and Letter to Dionysios) 84
Versions (The Epic of Gilgamesh and Genesis 6:11–15, A New Autonomy for Women? (Letter from Isias to
17–19; 7:24; 8:3, 13–21) 15 Hephaistion and Letter from Ktesikles to King
Akhenaten’s Hymn to Aten (Hymn to Aten) 21 Ptolemy) 86
A Father’s Advice (The Instruction of the Vizier
Ptah-hotep) 23 CHAPTER 5
Cincinnatus Saves Rome: A Roman Morality Tale
CHAPTER 2 (Livy, The Early History of Rome) 100
The Covenant and the Law: The Book of Exodus Cato the Elder on Women (Livy, The History of
(Exodus 19:1–8 and 20:1–17) 33 Rome) 108
The Hebrew Prophets: Micah, Isaiah, and Amos The Twelve Tables (Selections from the Twelve
(Micah 6:9–16; Isaiah 10:1–6; and Amos 3:1–2) 35 Tables) 110
OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS: The Governing of OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS: The End of the
Empires: Two Approaches (King Sennacherib Republic: Three Views (Sallust, The War with Catiline;
Describes His Siege of Jerusalem; King Ashurbanipal Caesar, The Civil Wars; and Cicero, Letter to
Describes His Treatment of Conquered Babylon; and Atticus) 114
The Cyrus Cylinder) 39
The Customs of the Persians (Herodotus, The CHAPTER 6
Persian Wars) 41
The Achievements of Augustus (Augustus, Res
CHAPTER 3 Gestae) 123
The Daily Life of an Upper-Class Roman (Pliny,
Homer’s Ideal of Excellence (Homer, Iliad) 53
Letter to Fuscus Salinator) 130
The Lycurgan Reforms (Plutarch, Lycurgus) 57
Ovid and the Art of Love (Ovid, The Art of
Athenian Democracy: The Funeral Oration of Love) 131
Pericles (Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian
OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS: Roman Authorities
War) 61
and a Christian on Christianity (An Exchange
OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS: Women in Athens and Between Pliny and Trajan) 140
Sparta (Xenophon, Oeconomicus; Xenophon,
Constitution of the Spartans; Aristotle, Politics; and
Plutarch, Lycurgus) 69 CHAPTER 7
OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS: Two Views of the
CHAPTER 4 Huns (Ammianus Marcellinus, The Later Roman Empire
OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS: Demosthenes and and Priscus, An Account of the Court of Attila the
Isocrates Address Philip of Macedonia Hun) 151
(Demosthenes, The Third Philippic, and Isocrates, Germanic Customary Law: The Ordeal (Gregory of
Address to Philip) 75 Tours, ‘‘An Ordeal of Hot Water’’) 155
xiv
Irish Monasticism and the Penitential (The Dante’s Vision of Hell (Dante, ‘‘Inferno,’’ Divine
Penitential of Cummean) 159 Comedy) 266
A Byzantine Emperor Gives Military Advice A Liberated Woman in the Fourteenth Century
(Maurice, Strategikon) 166 (The Testimony of Grazida Lizier) 270
CHAPTER 8 CHAPTER 12
The Achievements of Charlemagne (Einhard, Life of A Renaissance Banquet (A Sixteenth-Century
Charlemagne) 175 Banquet menu) 275
OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS: Lords and Vassals in OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS: The Renaissance
Europe and Japan (Bishop Fulbert of Chartres and Prince: The Views of Machiavelli and Erasmus
The Way of the Samurai) 185 (Machiavelli, The Prince and Erasmus, Education of a
A Western View of the Byzantine Empire Christian Prince) 282
(Liudprand of Cremona, Antapodosis) 189 A Woman’s Defense of Learning (Laura Cereta,
A Muslim’s Description of the Rus (Ibn Fadlan, Defense of the Liberal Instruction of Women) 285
Description of the Rus) 192 The Genius of Leonardo da Vinci (Giorgio Vasari,
Lives of the Artists) 291
CHAPTER 9
The Elimination of Medieval Forests (Suger’s CHAPTER 13
Search for Wooden Beams) 200 Luther and the Ninety-Five Theses (Martin
Women in Medieval Thought (Gratian, Decretum and Luther, Selections from the Ninety-Five Theses) 306
A Merchant of Paris on Marriage) 205 OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS: A Reformation
OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS: Two Views of Trade Debate: Conflict at Marburg (The Marburg
and Merchants (Life of Saint Godric and Ibn Khaldun, Colloquy) 311
Prolegomena) 208 Loyola and Obedience to ‘‘Our Holy Mother, the
Goliardic Poetry: The Archpoet (The Archpoet, The Hierarchical Church’’ (Ignatius of Loyola, ‘‘Rules for
Confession of Golias) 215 Thinking with the Church’’) 318
Queen Elizabeth I: ‘‘I Have the Heart of a King’’
CHAPTER 10 (Queen Elizabeth I, Speech at Tilbury) 322
Magna Carta (Magna Carta) 225
CHAPTER 14
A Miracle of Saint Bernard (A Miracle of Saint
Bernard) 235 The Spanish Conquistador: Cortés and the
Conquest of Mexico (Cortés’s Description of
Treatment of the Jews (Canon 68; An Accusation of
Tenochtitlán) 335
the Ritual Murder of a Christian Child by Jews; and
The Regulations of Avignon, 1243) 240 The Atlantic Slave Trade (Diary of a Citizen) 340
OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS: The Siege of OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS: West Meets East: An
Jerusalem: Christian and Muslim Perspectives Exchange of Royal Letters (A Letter to the King of
(Fulcher of Chartres, Chronicle of the First Crusade and Tonkin from Louis XIV and Answer from the King of
Account of Ibn al-Athir) 244 Tonkin to Louis XIV) 343
The Mission (Felix de Azara, Description and History of
CHAPTER 11 Paraguay and Rio de la Plata) 349
OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS: Causes of the Black
Death (Giovanni Boccaccio, Decameron; On CHAPTER 15
Earthquakes as the Cause of Plague; and Herman Gigas A Witchcraft Trial in France (The Trial of Suzanne
on Well Poisoning) 252 Gaudry) 360
Boniface VIII’s Defense of Papal Supremacy The King’s Day Begins (Duc de Saint-Simon,
(Pope Boniface VIII, Unam Sanctam) 264 Memoirs) 364
Documents xv
OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS: Oliver Cromwell: OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS: A New Heaven? Faith
Three Perspectives (Oliver Cromwell on the Victory Versus Reason (Galileo, Letter to the Grand Duchess
at Naseby; Cromwell on the Massacre at Drogheda; Christina and Robert Bellarmine, Letter to Paolo
Edmund Ludlow, Memoirs; and Lord Clarendon, Foscarini) 392
The History of the Rebellion and Civil Wars in Margaret Cavendish: The Education of Women
England) 375 (Margaret Cavendish, ‘‘The Philosophical and Physical
The Bill of Rights (The Bill of Rights) 377 Opinions’’) 396
Pascal: ‘‘What Is a Man in the Infinite?’’
CHAPTER 16 (Blaise Pascal, Pensées) 401
On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres
(Nicolaus Copernicus, On the Revolutions of the
Heavenly Spheres) 390
xvi Documents
Maps
MAP 1.1 The Spread of Homo sapiens sapiens 3 SPOT MAP Division of the Carolingian Empire by the
SPOT MAP Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro 6 Treaty of Verdun, 843 181
SPOT MAP The Yellow River, China 6 MAP 8.2 Invasions of the Ninth and Tenth
SPOT MAP Central Asia Civilization 7 Centuries 182
SPOT MAP Caral, Peru 7 MAP 8.3 A Typical Manor 186
MAP 1.2 The Ancient Near East 8 SPOT MAP The Byzantine Empire in 1025 188
SPOT MAP Hammurabi’s Empire 10 MAP 8.4 The Migrations of the Slavs 190
MAP 1.3 Ancient Egypt 17 SPOT MAP The Abbasid Caliphate at the Height of Its
Power 193
MAP 2.1 The Israelites and Their Neighbors in the First
Millennium B.C.E. 31 MAP 9.1 Medieval Trade Routes 206
SPOT MAP Phoenician Colonies and Trade Routes, SPOT MAP Flanders as a Trade Center 207
ca. 800 B.C.E. 35 MAP 9.2 Main Intellectual Centers of Medieval
MAP 2.2 The Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian Europe 212
Empires 36 MAP 10.1 England and France (1154–1337): (left)
MAP 2.3 The Persian Empire at the Time of Darius 42 England and Its French Holdings; (right)
Growth of the French State 226
MAP 3.1 Ancient Greece (ca. 750–338 B.C.E.) 50
MAP 10.2 Christian Reconquests in the Western
SPOT MAP Minoan Crete and Mycenaean Greece 51
Mediterranean 227
MAP 4.1 The Conquests of Alexander the Great 77
MAP 10.3 The Lands of the Holy Roman Empire in the
MAP 4.2 The Hellenistic Kingdoms 82 Twelfth Century 228
MAP 5.1 Ancient Italy 96 MAP 10.4 Northern and Eastern Europe, ca. 1150 230
SPOT MAP The City of Rome 97 SPOT MAP The Mongol Empire in the Thirteenth
MAP 5.2 Roman Conquests in the Mediterranean, Century 230
264–133 B.C.E. 102 MAP 10.5 The Early Crusades 243
MAP 5.3 Roman Dominions in the Late Republic, MAP 11.1 Spread of the Black Death 253
31 B.C.E. 116
MAP 11.2 The Hundred Years’ War 257
MAP 6.1 The Roman Empire from Augustus Through
SPOT MAP The Holy Roman Empire in the Fourteenth
Trajan (14–117) 126
Century 261
MAP 6.2 Trade Routes and Products in the Roman
SPOT MAP The States of Italy in the Fourteenth
Empire, ca. 200 128
Century 262
SPOT MAP The Silk Road 128
SPOT MAP Avignon 263
MAP 6.3 Imperial Rome 134
MAP 12.1 Renaissance Italy 279
MAP 7.1 Divisions of the Late Roman Empire,
MAP 12.2 Europe in the Second Half of the Fifteenth
ca. 300 148
Century 294
MAP 7.2 The Germanic Kingdoms of the Old Western
MAP 13.1 The Empire of Charles V 309
Empire 153
SPOT MAP The Swiss Cantons 310
MAP 7.3 The Spread of Christianity, 400–800 161
MAP 13.2 Catholics and Protestants in Europe by
MAP 7.4 The Eastern Roman Empire in the Time of
1560 316
Justinian 163
SPOT MAP The Netherlands 321
SPOT MAP The Byzantine Empire, ca. 750 165
MAP 14.1 European Discoveries and Possessions in the
MAP 7.5 The Expansion of Islam 169
Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries 331
MAP 8.1 The Carolingian Empire 177
xvii
SPOT MAP Lands of the Maya 334 SPOT MAP The West Indies 346
SPOT MAP The Aztec Empire 334 MAP 15.1 The Thirty Years’ War 361
SPOT MAP Lands of the Inca 336 MAP 15.2 The Growth of Brandenburg-Prussia 367
MAP 14.2 Triangular Trade in the Atlantic MAP 15.3 The Growth of the Austrian Empire 368
Economy 338 MAP 15.4 Russia: From Principality to Nation-
SPOT MAP Southeast Asia, ca. 1700 341 State 371
SPOT MAP The Mughal Empire 342 SPOT MAP Civil War in England 374
SPOT MAP The Qing Empire 345
xviii Maps
Features
F I L M & H I ST O R Y
Alexander (2004) 79 Elizabeth (1998) 323

Gladiator (2000) 136 The Mission (1986) 350
Vision (2009) 236
Joan of Arc (1948); The Messenger: The Story
of Joan of Arc (1999) 259
OPPOSING VIEWPOINTS
The Great Flood: Two Versions 15 Two Views of Trade and Merchants 208
The Governing of Empires: Two Approaches 39 The Siege of Jerusalem: Christian and Muslim
Women in Athens and Sparta 69 Perspectives 244
Demosthenes and Isocrates Address Philip of Causes of the Black Death: Contemporary Views 252
Macedonia 75 The Renaissance Prince: The Views of Machiavelli and
The End of the Republic: Three Views 114 Erasmus 282
Roman Authorities and a Christian on A Reformation Debate: Conflict at Marburg 311
Christianity 140 West Meets East: An Exchange of Royal Letters 343
Two Views of the Huns 151 Oliver Cromwell: Three Perspectives 375
Lords, Vassals, and Samurai in Europe and Japan 185 A New Heaven? Faith Versus Reason 392
The Egyptian Diet 22 Entertainment in the Middle Ages 269

Children in the Roman World 133 Spices and World Trade 332
Life in a Medieval Town 210 Dutch Domesticity 373
xix
Preface
DURING A VISIT to Great Britain, where he studied Features of the Text

as a young man, Mohandas Gandhi, the leader of the
To enliven the past and let readers see for themselves
effort to liberate India from British colonial rule, was
the materials that historians use to create their pic-
asked what he thought of Western civilization. ‘‘I think
tures of the past, I have included in each chapter pri-
it would be a good idea,’’ he replied. Gandhi’s response
mary sources (boxed documents) that are keyed to
was as correct as it was clever. Western civilization has
the discussion in the text. The documents include
led to great problems as well as great accomplishments,
examples of the religious, artistic, intellectual, social,
but it remains a good idea. And any complete under-
economic, and political aspects of Western life. Such
standing of today’s world must take into account the
varied sources as a description of the life of an upper-
meaning of Western civilization and the role Western
class Roman, marriage negotiations in Renaissance
civilization has played in history. Despite modern pro-
Italy, a debate in the Reformation era, and the diary of
gress, we still greatly reflect our religious traditions, our
a German soldier at Stalingrad all reveal in vivid fash-
political systems and theories, our economic and social
ion what Western civilization meant to the individual
structures, and our cultural heritage. I have written this
men and women who shaped it by their activities.
brief history of Western civilization to assist a new gen-
Questions at the end of each source aid students in
eration of students in learning more about the past that
analyzing the documents.
has shaped them and the world in which they live.
A second primary source feature, Opposing View-
At the same time, for the ninth edition, as in the
points, introduced in the seventh edition, presents
eighth, I have added considerable new material on
comparisons of two or three primary sources along with
world history to show the impact that other parts of
focus questions to facilitate student analysis of histori-
the world have had on the West. Certainly, the ongoing
cal documents. A visual feature, Images of Everyday
struggle with terrorists since 2001 has dramatized the
Life, combines two or more illustrations with a lengthy
intricate relationship between the West and the rest of
caption to provide insight into various aspects of social
the world. It is important then to show not only how
life. Another boxed feature, Film & History, presents
Western civilization has affected the rest of the world
a brief analysis of a film’s plot as well as its historical
but also how it has been influenced and even defined
significance, value, and accuracy. (For more specifics
since its beginnings by contacts with other peoples
about all of these features, see ‘‘New to This Edition.’’)
around the world.
A section entitled ‘‘Studying from Primary Source
Another of my goals was to write a well-balanced
Materials’’ appears in the front of the book to intro-
work in which the political, economic, social, religious,
duce students to the language and tools of analyzing
intellectual, cultural, and military aspects of Western
historical evidence—documents, photos, artwork, and
civilization would be integrated into a chronologically
maps.
ordered synthesis. Moreover, I wanted to avoid the
Each chapter has an introduction and an illus-
approach that is quite common in other brief histories
trated chapter summary to help maintain the conti-
of Western civilization—an approach that makes them
nuity of the narrative and to provide a synthesis of
collections of facts with little continuity from section to
important themes. Anecdotes in the chapter introduc-
section. Instead, I sought to keep the story in history.
tions dramatically convey the major theme or themes
Narrative history effectively transmits the knowledge of
of each chapter. Detailed chronologies reinforce the
the past and is the form that best enables students to
events discussed in the text, and a timeline at the end
remember and understand the past. At the same time, I
of each chapter enables students to review at a glance
have not overlooked the need for the kind of historical
the chief developments of an era. Many of the time-
analysis that makes students aware that historians of-
lines also show parallel developments in different
ten disagree in their interpretations of the past.
xx
cultures or nations. Suggestions for Further Read- subsection, ‘‘The Spread of Humans: Out of Africa or
ing at the end of each chapter reviews the most recent Multiregional?’’
literature on each period and also points readers to Chapter 2 the Persians; new document on ‘‘Cus-
some of the older ‘‘classic’’ works in each field. Also at toms of the Persians’’
the end of each chapter, a chapter review that includes Chapter 3 Minoan Crete; the role of the phalanx
Upon Reflection essay questions and a list of Key and colonies in the rise of democracy; sports and vio-
Terms provides valuable study aids. lence in ancient Greece
Updated maps and extensive illustrations serve Chapter 4 new historiographical subsection, ‘‘The
to deepen readers’ understanding of the text. Detailed Legacy: Was Alexander Great?’’; Demosthenes and Iso-
map captions are designed to enrich students’ aware- crates; Alexander; military institutions; new document
ness of the importance of geography to history, and on ‘‘Relations Between Greeks and Non-Greeks’’
numerous spot maps enable students to see at a glance Chapter 5 the origins of the Etruscans; early
the region or subject being discussed in the text. Map Rome, especially the influence of the Etruscans
captions also include a map question to guide students’ Chapter 6 new critical thinking question on the
reading of the map. To facilitate understanding of cul- Roman military; client kingdoms; the pax Romana; new
tural movements, illustrations of artistic works dis- Images of Everyday Life feature on ‘‘Children in the
cussed in the text are placed near the discussions. Roman World’’
Throughout the text, illustration captions have been re- Chapter 7 the labor of women in Frankish soci-
vised and expanded to further students’ understanding ety; Pope Gregory the Great; the Byzantine military;
of the past. Chapter outlines and focus questions, new document on ‘‘A Byzantine Emperor Gives Military
including critical thinking questions, at the begin- Advice’’
ning of each chapter give students a useful overview Chapter 8 the missi dominici; new historiographi-
and guide them to the main subjects of each chapter. cal subsection, ‘‘What Was the Significance of Charle-
The focus questions are then repeated at the beginning magne?’’; new Opposing Viewpoints feature on ‘‘Lords,
of each major section in the chapter. A glossary of im- Vassals, and Samurai in Europe and Japan’’; new section
portant terms (boldfaced in the text when they are on ‘‘Women in Byzantium’’; new section on ‘‘Women in
introduced and defined) is provided at the back of the the Slavic World’’; women in the world of Islam
book to maximize reader comprehension. A guide to Chapter 9 roles of peasant women; commercial
pronunciation is now provided in the text in paren- capitalism; women in medieval cities; new document
theses following the first mention of a complex name on ‘‘Goliardic Poetry: The Archpoet’’
or term. Chapter Notes are now at the end of each Chapter 10 the Crusades; new historiographical
chapter rather than at the end of the book. section, ‘‘What Were the Effects of the Crusades?’’
Chapter 11 reorganized material on art and the
Black Death: new subsection on ‘‘Art and the Black
New to This Edition Death’’ located in section on ‘‘The Black Death in
As preparation for the revision of Western Civilization: Europe’’ and another new subsection on ‘‘A New Art:
A Brief History, I re-examined the entire book and ana- Giotto’’ located in section on ‘‘Culture and Society in
lyzed the comments and reviews of colleagues who have an Age of Adversity’’; condottieri in Italy; new document
found the book to be a useful instrument for introduc- on ‘‘A Liberated Woman in the Fourteenth Century’’
ing their students to the history of Western civilization. Chapter 12 new section on ‘‘The Birth of Modern
In making revisions for the ninth edition, I sought to Diplomacy’’; shortened section on Machiavelli; the
build on the strengths of the previous editions and impact of printing; new historiographical subsection,
above all to maintain the balance, synthesis, and narra- ‘‘Was There a Renaissance for Women?’’; new subsec-
tive qualities that characterized those editions. To keep tion on ‘‘The Artist and Social Status’’; new document
up with the ever-growing body of historical scholarship, on ‘‘The Genius of Leonardo da Vinci’’; the English civil
new or revised material has been added throughout the wars in the fifteenth century
book on all of the following topics: Chapter 13 Luther’s conservatism; new historio-
Chapter 1 religion and society in the Neolithic graphical subsection, ‘‘Catholic Reformation or Coun-
Age; new Opposing Viewpoints feature on ‘‘The Great ter-Reformation?’’; new document on ‘‘Queen Elizabeth
Flood’’; Akhenaten of Egypt; new historiographical I: ‘I Have the Heart of a King’’’
Preface xxi
Chapter 14 the West Indies; new section on ‘‘Dis- The enthusiastic response to the primary sources
ease in the New World’’ (boxed documents) led me to evaluate the content of
Chapter 15 Bernini; new document on ‘‘The each document carefully and add new documents
King’s Day Begins’’ throughout the text, including new comparative docu-
Chapter 16 Galileo’s telescope; new document on ments in the feature called Opposing Viewpoints.
‘‘Margaret Cavendish: The Education of Women’’ This feature has been expanded and now appears in
Chapter 17 women and salons; new document most chapters, including such new topics as ‘‘Lords,
on ‘‘The Punishment of Crime’’ Vassals, and Samurai in Europe and Japan,’’ ‘‘Causes
Chapter 18 agricultural practices and taxation of the Black Death: Contemporary Views,’’ ‘‘Attitudes
Chapter 19 de-Christianization and the new cal- of the Industrial Middle Class in Britain and Japan,’’
endar; Treaties of Tilsit and ‘‘Czechoslovakia, 1968: Two Faces of Commu-
Chapter 20 the cotton industry; new document nism.’’ Two additional features have also been revised.
on ‘‘The Great Irish Potato Famine’’; new historio- Images of Everyday Life can now be found in twelve
graphical subsection, ‘‘Did Industrialization Bring an chapters, including such new topics as ‘‘Children in
Improved Standard of Living?’’ the Roman World’’ and ‘‘The New Global Economy:
Chapter 21 the revolution of 1848 in Austria; Fast Fashion.’’ Film & History features now
Romanticism appear in twelve chapters, including the addition of
Chapter 22 the Crimean War; Robert Koch and The Iron Lady.
health care; new document on ‘‘Flaubert and an Image A new focus question has also been added at the be-
of Bourgeois Marriage’’ ginning of each chapter. Entitled Connections to
Chapter 23 the Latin American economy; food Today, this question is intended to help students
and population growth; mass consumption; new docu- appreciate the relevance of history by asking them to
ment on ‘‘Bismarck and the Welfare of the Workers’’ draw connections between the past and present.
Chapter 24 Impressionism; imperialism; new Also new to the ninth edition are historiographi-
document on ‘‘Does Germany Need Colonies?’’ cal sections, which examine how and why historians
Chapter 25 new historiographical subsection, differ in their interpretation of specific topics. Exam-
‘‘The Assassination of Franz Ferdinand: A Blank ples include ‘‘Was There a United Kingdom of Israel?’’;
Check?’’; trench warfare; women and work ‘‘Was There a Renaissance for Women?’’; ‘‘The Retreat
Chapter 26 the democratic states; new historio- from Democracy: Did Europe Have Totalitarian
graphical subsection, ‘‘The Retreat from Democracy: Did States?’’; and ‘‘Why Did the Soviet Union Collapse?’’
Europe Have Totalitarian States?’’; Nazi culture Because courses in Western civilization at American
Chapter 27 new focus questions; invasion of and Canadian colleges and universities follow different
Poland; the Einsatzgruppen in the Holocaust; new chronological divisions, the text is available in both
document on ‘‘Heinrich Himmler: ‘We Had the Moral one-volume and two-volume versions to fit the needs
Right’’’ of instructors. Teaching and learning ancillaries include
Chapter 28 new historiographical subsection, the following.
‘‘Confrontation of the Superpowers: Who Started the
Cold War?’’; the Algerian revolution; the denazification
of postwar Germany; the European Common Market; Instructor Resources
new document on ‘‘The Burden of Guilt’’ MindTapTM MindTap for Western Civilization: A Brief
Chapter 29 new document on ‘‘Betty Friedan: History 9e is a personalized, online digital learning plat-
The Problem That Has No Name’’; new Film & History form providing students with an immersive learning
feature on ‘‘The Iron Lady (2011)’’; land art experience that builds critical thinking skills. Through
Chapter 30 the global economy; Great Britain, a carefully designed chapter-based learning path, Mind-
Germany, France, the United States, and Canada; Rus- Tap allows students to easily identify the chapter’s
sia and Ukraine; new historiographical section, ‘‘Why learning objectives, improve their writing skills by com-
Did the Soviet Union Collapse?’’; new section on ‘‘The pleting unit-level essay assessments, read short, man-
West and Islam’’; the war in Afghanistan; the Catholic ageable sections from the e-book, and test their
Church; technology; new Images of Everyday Life fea- content knowledge with a Chapter Test that employs
ture on ‘‘The New Global Economy: Fast Fashion’’ ApliaTM (see Chapter Test description on next page).
xxii Preface
• Setting the Scene: Each chapter of the MindTap • ConnectYard allows instructors to create digital
begins with a brief video that introduces the chap- ‘‘yards’’ through social media–all without ‘‘friend-
ter’s major themes in a compelling, visual way that ing’’ students
encourages students to think critically about the
MindTap for Western Civilization: A Brief History 9e
subject matter.
goes well beyond an eBook and a homework solutions.
• Review Activities: Each chapter includes reading
It is truly a Personal Learning Experience that allows
comprehension assignments designed to cover the
you to synchronize the reading with engaging assign-
content of each major heading within the chapter.
ments. To learn more, ask your Cengage Learning sales
• Chapter Test: Each chapter within MindTap ends
representative to demo it for you—or go to www.
with a summative Chapter Test. It covers each
cengage.com/MindTap.
chapter’s learning objectives and is built using
Aplia critical thinking questions. Aplia provides Instructor Companion Website This website is an
automatically graded critical thinking assignments all-in-one resource for class preparation, presentation,
with detailed, immediate explanations on every and testing for instructors. Accessible through Cen-
question. Students can also choose to see another gage.com/login with your faculty account, you will find
set of related questions if they did not earn all an Instructor’s Manual, Powerpoint presentations
available points in their first attempt and want (descriptions below), and testbank files (please see Cog-
more practice. nero description).
• Reflection Activity: Every chapter ends with an
assignable, gradable reflection activity, intended as • Instructor’s Manual: This manual contains for
a brief writing assignment through which students each chapter: chapter outlines and summaries, lec-
can apply a theme or idea they’ve just studied. ture suggestions, suggested research topics, map
• Unit Activities: Chapters in MindTap are organ- exercises, discussion questions for primary source
ized into multi-chapter units. Each unit includes a documents, and suggested readings and resources.
brief set of higher-stakes activities for instructors • PowerPoint¤ Lecture Tools: These presentations
to assign, designed to assess students on their writ- are ready-to-use, visual outlines of each chapter.
ing and critical thinking skills, and their ability to They are easily customized for your lectures. There
engage larger themes, concepts, and material across are presentations of only lecture or only images, as
multiple chapters. well as combined lecture and image presentations.
• Classroom Activities: MindTap includes a brief Also available is a per chapter JPEG library of
list of in-class activity ideas for instructors. These images and maps.
are designed to increase student collaboration, Cengage Learning Testing, powered by Cognero¤ for
engagement, and understanding of selected topics Western Civilization: A Brief History 9e is accessible
or themes. These activities, including class debate through Cengage.com/login with your faculty account.
scenarios and primary source discussion guides, This test bank contains multiple-choice and essay ques-
can enrich the classroom experience for both tions for each chapter. Cognero¤ is a flexible, online sys-
instructors and students. tem that allows you to author, edit, and manage test
MindTap also includes a variety of other tools that will bank content for Western Civilization: A Brief History 9e.
make history more engaging for students: Create multiple test versions instantly and deliver
through your LMS from your classroom, or wherever you
• ReadSpeaker reads the text out-loud to students in may be, with no special installs or downloads required.
a voice they can customize. The following format types are available for download
• Note-taking and highlighting are organized in a from Instructor Companion Site: Blackboard, Angel,
central location that can be synced with Ever Note Moodle, Canvas, Desire2Learn. You can import these files
on any mobile device a student may have access to. directly into your LMS to edit, manage questions, and
• Questia allows professors to search a database of create tests. The test bank is also available in Word and
thousands of peer reviewed journals, newspapers, PDF format from the Instructor Companion Website.
magazines, and full-length books – all assets can
be added to any relevant chapter in MindTap. MindTap Reader for Western Civilization: A Brief
• Kaltura allows instructors to insert inline video History 9e MindTap Reader is an eBook specifically
and audio into the MindTap platform. designed to address the ways students assimilate
Preface xxiii
content and media assets. MindTap Reader combines (zoomable) maps. Students can use the eBook as their
thoughtful navigation ergonomics, advanced student primary text or as a multimedia companion to their
annotation, note-taking, and search tools, and embed- printed book. The MindTap Reader eBook is available
ded media assets such as video and interactive (zoom- within the MindTap found at www.cengagebrain.com.
able) maps. Students can use the eBook as their
primary text or as a multimedia companion to their Cengagebrain.com Save time and money! Go to
printed book. The MindTap Reader eBook is available www.cengagebrain.com for choice in formats and sav-
within the MindTap found at www.cengagebrain.com. ings and a better chance to succeed in your class. Cen-
Cengagebrain.com Save your students time and gagebrain.com, Cengage Learning’s online store, is a
money. Direct them to www.cengagebrain.com for choice single destination for more than 10,000 new textbooks,
in formats and savings and a better chance to succeed in eTextbooks, eChapters, study tools, and audio supple-
your class. Cengagebrain.com, Cengage Learning’s online ments. Students have the freedom to purchase a-la-
store, is a single destination for more than 10,000 new carte exactly what they need when they need it. Stu-
textbooks, eTextbooks, eChapters, study tools, and audio dents can save 50% on the electronic textbook, and can
supplements. Students have the freedom to purchase pay as little as $1.99 for an individual eChapter.
a-la-carte exactly what they need when they need it.
Writing for College History, 1e [ISBN: 9780618306039]
Students can save 50% on the electronic textbook, and
Prepared by Robert M. Frakes, Clarion University. This
can pay as little as $1.99 for an individual eChapter.
brief handbook for survey courses in American history,
Custom Options Nobody knows your students like Western Civilization/European history, and world civili-
you, so why not give them a text that is tailor-fit to zation guides students through the various types of writ-
their needs? Cengage Learning offers custom solutions ing assignments they encounter in a history class.
for your course—whether it’s making a small modifica- Providing examples of student writing and candid assess-
tion to Western Civilization: A Brief History 9e to match ments of student work, this text focuses on the rules and
your syllabus or combining multiple sources to create conventions of writing for the college history course.
something truly unique. You can pick and choose chap-
The History Handbook, 2e [ISBN: 9780495906766]
ters, include your own material, and add additional
Prepared by Carol Berkin of Baruch College, City Uni-
map exercises along with the Rand McNally Atlas to
versity of New York and Betty Anderson of Boston
create a text that fits the way you teach. Ensure that
University. This book teaches students both basic and
your students get the most out of their textbook dollar
history-specific study skills such as how to read primary
by giving them exactly what they need. Contact your
sources, research historical topics, and correctly cite
Cengage Learning representative to explore custom sol-
sources. Substantially less expensive than comparable
utions for your course.
skill-building texts, The History Handbook also offers
tips for Internet research and evaluating online sources.
Student Resources
MindTapTM The learning path for Western Civiliza- Doing History: Research and Writing in the Digital
tion: A Brief History 9e MindTap incorporates a set of Age, 2e [ISBN: 9781133587880] Prepared by Michael
resources designed to help students develop their J. Galgano, J. Chris Arndt, and Raymond M. Hyser of
own historical skills. These include interactive, auto- James Madison University. Whether you’re starting
gradable tutorials for map skills, essay writing, and down the path as a history major, or simply looking for
critical thinking. They also include a set of resources a straightforward and systematic guide to writing a suc-
developed to aid students with their research skills, pri- cessful paper, you’ll find this text to be an indispensible
mary and secondary source analysis, and knowledge handbook to historical research. This text’s ‘‘soup to
and confidence around proper citations. nuts’’ approach to researching and writing about history
addresses every step of the process, from locating your
MindTap Reader MindTap Reader is an eBook spe- sources and gathering information, to writing clearly
cifically designed to address the ways students assimi- and making proper use of various citation styles to
late content and media assets. MindTap Reader avoid plagiarism. You’ll also learn how to make the
combines thoughtful navigation ergonomics, advanced most of every tool available to you—especially the tech-
student annotation, note-taking, and search tools, and nology that helps you conduct the process efficiently and
embedded media assets such as video and interactive effectively.
xxiv Preface
The Modern Researcher, 6e [ISBN: 9780495318705] research, from the selection of a topic through the gath-
Prepared by Jacques Barzun and Henry F. Graff of Co- ering, analysis, writing, revision, and publication of find-
lumbia University. This classic introduction to the tech- ings, presenting the process not as a set of rules but
niques of research and the art of expression is used through actual cases that put the subtleties of research
widely in history courses, but is also appropriate for writ- in a useful context. Part One covers the principles and
ing and research methods courses in other departments. methods of research; Part Two covers writing, speaking,
Barzun and Graff thoroughly cover every aspect of and getting one’s work published.
Preface xxv
Acknowledgments
I would like to thank the many teachers and students for her detailed suggestions on women’s history. Daniel
who have used previous editions of Western Civilization: Haxall of Kutztown University provided valuable assis-
A Brief History. I am gratified by their enthusiastic tance with materials on postwar art, popular culture,
response to a textbook that was intended to put the postmodern art and thought, and the digital age. I am
story back in history and capture the imagination of the especially grateful to Kathryn Spielvogel for her work
reader. I especially thank the many teachers and stu- as a research associate. Thanks to Cengage’s compre-
dents who made the effort to contact me personally to hensive review process, many historians were asked to
share their enthusiasm. I am deeply grateful to John evaluate my manuscript and review each edition. I am
Soares for his assistance in preparing the map captions grateful to the following for the innumerable sugges-
and to Charmarie Blaisdell of Northeastern University tions that have greatly improved my work:
Patricia Adelle Leonard R. Berlanstein Michael Clinton

William Paterson University University of Virginia Gwynedd Mercy College
Paul Allen Douglas T. Bisson Robert Cole
University of Utah Belmont University Utah State University
Gerald Anderson Charmarie Blaisdell William J. Connell
North Dakota State University Northeastern University Rutgers University
Susan L. H. Anderson Stephen H. Blumm Nancy Conradt
Campbell University Montgomery County Community College of DuPage
Letizia Argenteri College Marc Cooper
University of San Diego Hugh S. Bonar Southwest Missouri State
Roy A. Austensen California State University Caitlin Corning
Illinois State University Werner Braatz George Fox University
James A. Baer University of Wisconsin—Oshkosh Richard A. Cosgrove
Northern Virginia Community Alfred S. Bradford University of Arizona
College—Alexandria University of Missouri David A. Crain
James T. Baker Maryann E. Brink South Dakota State University
Western Kentucky University College of William & Mary Michael A. Crane, Jr. (student)
Patrick Bass Blaine T. Browne Everett Community College
Morningside College Broward Community College Steve Culbertson
John F. Battick J. Holden Camp, Jr. Owens Community College
University of Maine Hillyer College, University of Hartford Luanne Dagley
Frederic J. Baumgartner Jack Cargill Pellissippi State Technical Community
Virginia Polytechnic Institute Rutgers University College
Phillip N. Bebb Martha Carlin Marion F. Deshmukh
Ohio University University of Wisconsin—Milwaukee George Mason University
Anthony Bedford Elizabeth Carney Michael F. Doyle
Modesto Junior College Clemson University Ocean County College
F. E. Beemon Kevin K. Carroll Michael Duckett
Middle Tennessee State University Arizona State University Dawson College
Joel Benson Yuan-Ling Chao Laura Dull
Northwest Missouri State University Middle Tennessee State University Delta College
Robert L. Bergman Eric H. Cline Roxanne Easley
Glendale Community College Xavier University Central Washington University
xxvi
James W. Ermatinger Derek Hastings William E. Kinsella, Jr.
University of Nebraska—Kearney Oakland University Northern Virginia Community
Charles T. Evans A. J. Heisserer College—Annandale
Northern Virginia Community College University of Oklahoma James M. Kittelson
Porter Ewing Fred Heppding Ohio State University
Los Angeles City College Maranatha Baptist University Doug Klepper
Carla Falkner Rowena Hernández-Múzquiz Santa Fe Community College
Northeast Mississippi Community Old Dominion University Mark Klobas
College Betsey Hertzler Scottsdale Community College
Steven Fanning Mesa Community College Cynthia Kosso
University of Illinois—Chicago Robert Herzstein Northern Arizona University
Ellsworth Faris University of South Carolina Clayton Miles Lehmann
California State University—Chico Shirley Hickson University of South Dakota
Gary B. Ferngren North Greenville College Diana Chen Lin
Oregon State University Martha L. Hildreth Indiana University, Northwest
Mary Helen Finnerty University of Nevada Ursula W. MacAffer
Westchester Community College Boyd H. Hill, Jr. Hudson Valley Community College
Eve Fisher University of Colorado—Boulder Andrea Maestrejuan
South Dakota State University Sean Hill Metropolitan State University—
Lucien Frary Irvine Valley College Denver
Rider University Michael Hofstetter Anthony Makowski
Erik Freas Bethany College Delaware County Community College
Borough of Manhattan Community Donald C. Holsinger Harold Marcuse
College—CUNY Seattle Pacific University University of California—Santa
A. Z. Freeman Barbara
Frank L. Holt
Robinson College University of Houston Mavis Mate
Marsha Frey University of Oregon
W. Robert Houston
Kansas State University University of South Alabama Tom Maulucci
Frank J. Frost State University of New York—
David R. C. Hudson Fredonia
University of California—Santa Texas A&M University
Barbara Meghean Mayeur
Paul Hughes Southeastern Louisiana University
Frank Garosi Sussex County Community
California State University— College T. Ronald Melton
Sacramento Brewton Parker College
Richard A. Jackson
Lorettann Gascard University of Houston Jack Allen Meyer
Franklin Pierce College University of South Carolina
Fred Jewell
Richard M. Golden Harding University Eugene W. Miller, Jr.
University of North Texas The Pennsylvania State University—
Jenny M. Jochens Hazleton
Manuel G. Gonzales Towson State University
Diablo Valley College David Mock
Carolyn Johnston Tallahassee Community College
Amy G. Gordon Marian College
Denison University John Patrick Montano
William M. Johnston University of Delaware
Richard J. Grace University of Massachusetts
Providence College Rex Morrow
Allen E. Jones Trident Technical College
Hanns Gross Troy State University
Loyola University Thomas M. Mulhern
George Kaloudis University of North Dakota
John F. Guilmartin Rivier College
Ohio State University Pierce Mullen
Jeffrey A. Kaufmann Montana State University
Jeffrey S. Hamilton Muscatine Community College
Gustavus Adolphus College Frederick I. Murphy
David O. Kieft Western Kentucky University
J. Drew Harrington University of Minnesota
Western Kentucky University William M. Murray
Patricia Killen University of South Florida
James Harrison Pacific Lutheran University
Siena College
Acknowledgments xxvii
Otto M. Nelson Constance M. Rousseau Brian E. Strayer
Texas Tech University Providence College Andrews University
Sam Nelson Julius R. Ruff Fred Suppe
Willmar Community College Marquette University Ball State University
John A. Nichols John Saddler Ruth Suyama
Slippery Rock University George Mason University Los Angeles Mission College
Lisa Nofzinger Richard Saller Roger Tate
Albuquerque Technical Vocational University of Chicago Somerset Community College
Institute Magdalena Sanchez Tom Taylor
Heather O’Grady-Evans Texas Christian University Seattle University
Elmira College Bonnie F. Saunders Jack W. Thacker
Chris Oldstone-Moore Glendale Community College Western Kentucky University
Augustana College Jack Schanfield Janet A. Thompson
Donald Ostrowski Suffolk County Community College Tallahassee Community College
Harvard University Richard Schellhammer David S. Trask
James O. Overfield University of West Alabama Guilford Technical Community College
University of Vermont Linda Scherr Thomas Turley
Matthew L. Panczyk Mercer County Community Santa Clara University
Bergen Community College College John G. Tuthill
Kathleen Parrow Roger Schlesinger University of Guam
Black Hills State University Washington State University Maarten Ultee
Michael Pascale Joanne Schneider University of Alabama
SUNY, Suffolk County Community Rhode Island College Donna L. Van Raaphorst
College Alexandra Tolin Schultz Cuyahoga Community College
Jonathan Perry SUNY—Oneonta Nancy G. Vavra
University of Central Florida Thomas C. Schunk University of Colorado—Boulder
Carla Rahn Phillips University of Wisconsin—Oshkosh Janet Walmsley
University of Minnesota Denise Scifres George Mason University
Keith Pickus Hinds Community College Allen M. Ward
Wichita State University Kyle C. Sessions University of Connecticut
Linda J. Piper Illinois State University Richard D. Weigel
University of Georgia Colleen M. Shaughnessy Western Kentucky University
Janet Polasky Zeena Endicott College Michael Weiss
University of New Hampshire Linda Simmons Linn-Benton Community College
Thomas W. Porter Northern Virginia Community Richard S. Williams
Randolph-Macon College College—Manassas Washington State University
Charles A. Povlovich Donald V. Sippel Arthur H. Williamson
California State University—Fullerton Rhode Island College California State University—
Nancy Rachels Douglas R. Skopp Sacramento
Hillsborough Community College State University of New York— Julianna Wilson
Charles Rearick Plattsburgh Pima Community College
University of Massachusetts—Amherst Glen Spann Katherine Workman
Jerome V. Reel, Jr. Asbury College Wright State University
Clemson University John W. Steinberg Judith T. Wozniak
Paul Reuter Georgia Southern University Cleveland State University
Jefferson State Community College Paul W. Strait Walter J. Wussow
Joseph Robertson Florida State University University of Wisconsin—Eau Claire
Gadsden State Community College James E. Straukamp Edwin M. Yamauchi
Jonathan Roth California State University— Miami University
San Jose State University Sacramento
xxviii Acknowledgments
The editors at Cengage Learning have been both Jennifer and Kathryn; my sons, Eric and Christian; my
helpful and congenial at all times. I especially wish to daughters-in-law, Liz and Laurie; and my sons-in-law,
thank Margaret McAndrew Beasley, who thoughtfully, Daniel and Eddie, were enormously appreciated. I also
wisely, efficiently, and pleasantly guided the overall de- wish to acknowledge my grandchildren, Devyn, Bryn,
velopment of the ninth edition. I also thank Cara St. Drew, Elena, Sean, Emma, and Jackson, who bring
Hilaire for her valuable managerial skills. Holly Collins great joy to my life. My wife and best friend, Diane,
of Cenveo was as cooperative and cheerful as she was contributed editorial assistance, wise counsel, good
competent in matters of production management. And humor, and the loving support that made it possible
finally, I wish to thank Clark Baxter, whose faith in my for me to accomplish a project of this magnitude. I
ability to be a single author of a Western civilization could not have written the book without her.
textbook made it all possible.
Above all, I thank my family for their support. The
gifts of love, laughter, and patience from my daughters,
Acknowledgments xxix
Introduction to Students of Western Civilization
CIVILIZATION, AS HISTORIANS define it, first as European ships began to move into other parts of
emerged between five and six thousand years ago when the world, encounters with peoples in Asia, Africa, and
people in different parts of the world began to live in the Americas not only had an impact on the civiliza-
organized communities with distinct political, military, tions found there but also affected how people in the
economic, and social structures. Religious, intellectual, West defined themselves. At the same time, as they set
and artistic activities assumed important roles in these up colonies, Europeans began to transplant a sense of
early societies. The focus of this book is on Western Western identity to other areas of the world, especially
civilization, a civilization that many people identify North America and parts of Latin America, that have
with the continent of Europe. come to be considered part of Western civilization.
As the concept of Western civilization has evolved
over the centuries, so have the values and unique fea-
Defining Western Civilization tures associated with that civilization. Science played a
Western civilization itself has evolved considerably crucial role in the development of modern Western civ-
over the centuries. Although the concept of the West ilization. The societies of the Greeks, the Romans, and
did not yet exist at the time of the Mesopotamians and the medieval Europeans were based largely on a belief
Egyptians, their development of writing, their drafting in the existence of a spiritual order; a dramatic depar-
of law codes, and their practice of different roles based ture to a natural or material view of the universe
on gender all eventually influenced what became West- occurred in the seventeenth-century Scientific Revolu-
ern civilization. Although the Greeks did not conceive tion. Science and technology have been important in
of Western civilization as a cultural entity, their artis- the growth of today’s modern and largely secular West-
tic, intellectual, and political contributions were crucial ern civilization, although antecedents to scientific de-
to the foundations of Western civilization. The Romans velopment also existed in Greek and medieval thought
produced a remarkable series of accomplishments that and practice, and religion remains a component of the
were fundamental to the development of Western civi- Western world today.
lization, which came to consist largely of lands in Many historians have viewed the concept of political
Europe conquered by the Romans, in which Roman cul- liberty, belief in the fundamental value of every indi-
tural and political ideals were gradually spread. Never- vidual, and a rational outlook based on a system of log-
theless, people in these early civilizations viewed ical, analytical thought as unique aspects of Western
themselves as subjects of states or empires, not as civilization. Of course, the West has also witnessed
members of Western civilization. horrendous negations of liberty, individualism, and
With the rise of Christianity during the late Roman reason. Racism, slavery, violence, world wars, totalitar-
Empire, however, peoples in Europe began to identify ian regimes—these, too, form part of the complex
themselves as part of a civilization different from other story of what constitutes Western civilization.
civilizations, such as that of Islam, leading to a concept
of a Western civilization different from other civiliza-
tions. In the fifteenth century, Renaissance intellec- The Dating of Time
tuals began to identify this civilization not only with In our examination of Western civilization, we also
Christianity but also with the intellectual and political need to be aware of the dating of time. In recording the
achievements of the ancient Greeks and Romans. past, historians try to determine the exact time when
Important to the development of the idea of a dis- events occurred. World War II in Europe, for example,
tinct Western civilization were encounters with other began on September 1, 1939, when Hitler sent German
peoples. Between 700 and 1500, encounters with the troops into Poland, and ended on May 7, 1945, when
world of Islam helped define the West. But after 1500, Germany surrendered. By using dates, historians can
xxx
place events in order and try to determine the develop- Historians also make use of other terms to refer to
ment of patterns over periods of time. time. A decade is ten years, a century is one hundred
If someone asked you when you were born, you years, and a millennium is one thousand years. Thus
would reply with a number, such as 1997. In the ‘‘the fourth century B.C.E.’’ refers to the fourth period of
United States, we would all accept that number without one hundred years counting backward from the year 1,
question because it is part of the dating system fol- the beginning of the common era. Since the first cen-
lowed in the Western world (Europe and the Western tury B.C.E. would be the years 100 B.C.E. to 1 B.C.E., the
Hemisphere). In this system, events are dated by fourth century B.C.E. would be the years 400 B.C.E. to
counting backward or forward from the year 1. When 301 B.C.E. We could say, then, that an event in
the system was first devised, the year 1 was assumed 350 B.C.E. took place in the fourth century B.C.E.
to be the year of the birth of Jesus, and the abbrevia- Similarly, the ‘‘fourth century C.E.’’ refers to the
tions B.C. (before Christ) and A.D. (for the Latin words fourth period of one hundred years after the beginning
anno Domini, meaning ‘‘in the year of the Lord’’) were of the common era. Since the first period of one hun-
used to refer to the periods before and after the birth dred years would be the years 1 to 100, the fourth pe-
of Jesus, respectively. Historians now generally refer to riod or fourth century would be the years 301 to 400.
the year 1 in nonreligious terms as the beginning of We could say, then, that an event in 350 took place in
the ‘‘common era.’’ The abbreviations B.C.E. (before the the fourth century. Likewise, the first millennium B.C.E.
common era) and C.E. (common era) are used instead refers to the years 1000 B.C.E. to 1 B.C.E.; the second
of B.C. and A.D., although the years are the same. Thus, millennium C.E. refers to the years 1001 to 2000.
an event that took place four hundred years before the The dating of events can also vary from people to
year 1 would be dated 400 B.C.E. (before the common people. Most people in the Western world use the
era)—or the date could be expressed as 400 B.C. Dates af- Western calendar, also known as the Gregorian calen-
ter the year 1 are labeled C.E. Thus, an event that took dar after Pope Gregory XIII, who refined it in 1582. The
place two hundred years after the year 1 would be dated Hebrew calendar uses a different system in which the
200 C.E. (common era), or the date could be written as year 1 is the equivalent of the Western year 3760 B.C.E.,
A.D. 200. It could also be written simply as 200, just as considered to be the date of the creation of the world
you would not give your birth year as 1997 C.E. but sim- according to the Bible. Thus, the Western year 2015 is
ply as 1997. In keeping with the current usage by most the year 5775 on the Hebrew calendar. The Islamic
historians, this book will use the abbreviations B.C.E. calendar begins year 1 on the day Muhammad fled
and C.E. Mecca, which is the year 622 on the Western calendar.
Studying from Primary Source Materials

Astronomers investigate the universe through tele- As you read each chapter, the more you examine all
scopes. Biologists study the natural world by collecting this ‘‘evidence,’’ the more you will understand the main
plants and animals in the field and then examining ideas of the course. This introduction to studying his-
them with microscopes. Sociologists and psychologists torical evidence, along with the visual summaries at
study human behavior through observation and con- the end of each chapter, will help you learn how to look
trolled laboratory experiments. at evidence the way historians do. The better you
Historians study the past by examining historical ‘‘evi- become at reading evidence, the better the grade you
dence’’ or ‘‘source’’ materials—church or town records, will earn in your course.
letters, treaties, advertisements, paintings, menus, litera-
ture, buildings, clothing—anything and everything writ- Source Material Comes in
ten or created by our ancestors that give clues about Two Main Types: Primary and
their lives and the times in which they lived.
Historians refer to written material as ‘‘documents.’’ Secondary
Excerpts of more than 150 documents—some in Primary evidence is material that comes to us exactly as
shaded boxes and others in the text narrative itself— it left the pen of the person who wrote it. Letters
appear in every chapter of this textbook. Each chapter between King Louis XIV of France and the king of
also includes several photographs of buildings, paint- Tonkin (now Vietnam) are primary evidence (p. 343).
ings, and other kinds of historical evidence. So is the court transcript of a witchcraft trial in France
Studying from Primary Source Materials xxxi
(p. 360), or a diagram of the solar system drawn by but your job as a historian is to decide whether
Copernicus (p. 389). this written evidence gives a reliable account of
Secondary evidence is an account by someone about what happened. You cannot always believe every-
the life or activity of someone else. A story about Abra- thing you read, but the more you read, the more
ham Lincoln written by his secretary of war would give you can decide what is, in fact, accurate.
us primary source information about Lincoln by some-
one who knew him. Reflections about Lincoln’s presi- ‘‘Reading’’ and Studying Photographs
dency written by a historian might give us insights into
how, for example, Lincoln governed during wartime. and Artwork
But because the historian did not know Lincoln in per- This book pays close attention to primary source and
son, we would consider this a secondary source of written documents, but contemporary illustrations can
information about Lincoln. Secondary sources such as also be analyzed to provide an understanding of a his-
historical essays (and textbooks such as this one) can torical period.
therefore by very helpful in understanding the past. A historian might ask questions about a painting like
But it is important to remember that a secondary the one at the right to learn more about life in a medie-
source can reveal as much about its author as it does val town. The more you study and learn about medieval
about its subject. social history, the more information this painting will
reveal. To help you look at and interpret art like a his-
Reading Documents torian, ask yourself the following questions:
We will turn to a specific document in a moment and 1. By looking closely at just the buildings, what do
analyze it in some detail. For now, however, the follow- you learn about the nature of the medieval town
ing are a few basic things to be aware of—and to ask dwellings and the allotment of space within the
yourself—as you read any written document. town? Why were medieval towns arranged in this
fashion? Why would this differ from modern urban
1. Who wrote it? The author of the textbook answers
planning?
this question for you at the beginning of each docu-
2. Based on the various activities shown, what kinds of
ment in the book. But your instructors may give you
groups would you expect to find in a medieval town?
other documents to read, and the authorship of each
What do you learn about medieval methods of pro-
document is the first question you need to answer.
duction? How do they differ from modern methods
2. What do we know about the author of the docu-
of production? What difference would this make in
ment? The more you know about the author, the
the nature of community organization and life?
more meaningful and reliable the information you
3. Based on what the people in the street are wearing,
can extract from the document.
what do you think their economic status was? Would
3. Is it a primary or secondary document?
that be typical of a medieval town? Why or why not?
4. When was the document written?
4. What do you think the artist who created this
5. What is the purpose of the document? Closely tied
piece was trying to communicate about life in a
to the question of document type is the docu-
medieval town? Based on your knowledge of medi-
ment’s purpose. A work of fiction might have been
eval towns, would you agree with the artist’s
written to entertain, whereas an official document
assessment? Why or why not?
was written to convey a particular law or decree to
5. What do you think was the social class of the
subjects, citizens, or believers.
artist? Why?
6. Who was the intended audience? A play is meant
to be performed by actors on a stage before a
group of onlookers, whereas Martin Luther’s Reading and Studying Maps
Ninety-Five Theses were posted publicly and Historical events do not just ‘‘happen’’; they happen in
intended to be seen by ordinary citizens. a specific place. It is important to learn all you can
7. Can you detect a bias in this document? As the about that place, and a good map can help you do this.
two documents on the siege of Jerusalem (p. 244) Your textbook includes several kinds of maps. The
suggest, firsthand accounts of the Crusades written map of Europe printed on the inside front cover of the
by Christians and Muslims tend to differ. Each textbook is a good place to start. Map basics include tak-
may be ‘‘accurate’’ as far as the writer is concerned, ing care to read and understand every label on whatever
xxxii Studying from Primary Source Materials
3. Latitude, longitude, a mileage scale, and other in-
formation. These elements help the reader place
the information in some kind of context. Some
maps include an ‘‘N’’ with an arrow that points
north. Most maps show northern areas (Alaska,
Norway, etc.) at the top. A map that does not do
this is not misleading or wrong. But if an ‘‘N’’
Bibliothèque de l’Arsenal, Paris//Snark/Art Resource, NY
arrow does not appear on the map, be sure you

know where north is.
‘‘Political’’ information tends to change a great deal:
maps may change after a major war if the winners take
more territory, for example. ‘‘Physical’’ information
changes slowly: latitude, rivers, distances, and the like
do not change or generally change very slowly.
In addition, many maps include information about
the spread of disease, the location of cathedrals and
universities, trade routes, and any number of other
Medieval Town things. There is no real limit to the kinds of informa-
tion a map can show, and the more information a
map you study. The map of Europe has labels for six
map can display clearly, the more useful it is. Any good
kinds of information. Each of the following is important:
map will include a ‘‘legend’’ stating the information
1. Names of countries. that makes the map useful. The more detailed the map,
2. Names of major cities. the more information the mapmaker should provide in
3. Names of oceans and large bodies of water. the legend.
4. Names of rivers. Again, note that only the oceans, large bodies of
5. Longitude and latitude. Lines of longitude extend water, and rivers—the ‘‘physical’’ features in a map—
from the North Pole to the South Pole; one such really exist in nature. They are relatively changeless. All
line intersects Iceland in the top left (or northwest) other features on a map are made up and change fairly
corner of the map. Lines of latitude circle the globe often. The maps you see here and on the next page all
east to west and intersect lines of longitude. These show the same familiar ‘‘boot’’ we call Italy. But all or
imaginary lines place countries and oceans in their part of this landmass has also been called Latium, Cam-
approximate setting on the face of the earth. Not pania, the duchy of Benevento, the Papal States, the
every map includes latitude and longitude. kingdom of the Two Sicilies, Tuscany, Lombardy, Pied-
6. Mileage scale. A mileage scale shows how far apart, mont, and Savoy. Populations and place names change;
in miles and kilometers, each location is from mountains and oceans do not, at least not much. When-
other locations. ever you have trouble finding a region or a place on a
map, look for a permanent feature to get your bearings.
Most Maps Include Three Basic Types In addition to kingdoms, cities, and mountains,
of Information maps can show the physical proximity of any two or
more ideas, movements, or developments. Map 10.5
1. The boundaries of countries, cities, empires, and
(p. 243) shows the routes of several crusades of the elev-
other kinds of ‘‘political’’ information. A good map
enth and twelfth centuries. Note that the legend associ-
shows each political division in a different color to
ates the color of a crusade’s route (shown as a line) with
make them all easy to find. The color of each
its duration in years. This map makes it possible to see
region or country is the decision of the mapmaker
a number of useful things at a glance that could take
(also known as a cartographer).
several maps to describe, including the following:
2. Mountains, oceans, rivers, and other ‘‘physical’’ or
‘‘topographic’’ information. The mountains on this 1. Where each crusade began. (Note the places that
kind of map have been rendered by the cartogra- send the most crusades and those that send none.)
pher: Switzerland and Norway are mountainous; 2. How far each crusade traveled. (Note the mileage
Germany and Belarus are relatively flat. key.)
Studying from Primary Source Materials xxxiii
3. Which route each crusade took. (Why did no Cru-
saders make the trip only on land?) SWITZERLAND
D
4. How much time passed between the end of one FRANCE LOMB
L
LOOMBA ARDY
ARD
ARRD
RD VENETIA
AUSTRIAN EMPIRE
MP
crusade and the beginning of another. (Did the SAVO OY Magentntta
nta
ta
Solferino
uur n Po
Turi
Tur
T
Tu
rate of Crusades accelerate or slow down over PIE
IIED
IE
E M
EDMONT PA
M n
Mila
R.
Veeni
enice
cee
Genoa P
PARM
A MA A
time? What does this suggest?) MODE
M DEN
DE
ROMAGN
RO
NA
MAGNGNA
G NA
Nice
Flor
F
Fl
lorennce
TUSCANY Y OTTOMAN
KING
KINGD
GDOM
GDO OF PAPAL Ad
STATES EMPIRE
GAU L 0 100 200 300 Kilometers PIEDMONT NTT ri
s at
l p Corrssi
sic
ica ic
A 0 100 200 Miles Roome
Ro Se
a
Po
R.
Naples
Rubicon
Ru Sardin
diniaa
R.
R.
IL
ETRURIA
A LY Mediterranean Seaa
Ap
RI KIIN
ING
NG
GDOM
M
A
en
Tibe
berr A dr iatic Kingdom of Piedmont, before 1859
ni
R
R. OF T
OF TH
THE
HE
E
n e BIN
SA
To kingdom of Piedmont, 1859 Mes

Mess
M ess
sssiina
na
na
Cor
orsica Se a TWO
O SI
SICCIIL
ILIE
ES
M E
V
Veii To kingdom of Piedmont, 1860
ts.
Rome S Sicily
llyy
0 100 200 300 Kilometteers
rs
SA To kingdom of Italy, 1866, 1870
LATIUM
L M
Cap
Cap
Capu
apua CA MNI 0 100 200 Miles
M TES
Sardinia Cumaae PA The Unification of Italy
Naples
ess NI Tarentum Bri
Br
Brindisi
A
MAGNA
Ty rrh enian
Thu
hur
h u ii
5. Which Crusaders actually made it to the eastern
Sea
GRAECIAA
Mediterranean and which did not. (Consider any
(GRE
GREATER
GREATE
GRE ATE
ATE
TE
GREE
G
GRE
RE
EECE)
CE) correlation between route and timing.)
Messsan
ana
na
Mediterranean
6. The names of the crusader states themselves.
Ion ian
Sicily
Carthage
Sea Se a Another kind of invasion appears in Map 11.1
Syr
Sy
Syra
yracuse
yra
(p. 253). This map shows the steady progress of the
Black Death from the Black Sea and the Mediterranean
Ancient Italy north and west through Europe. Using the legend, find
the shade of color that corresponds to the first out-
0 2000 400 600
000 K
Kiilo
Kilo
Kil
il met
meeters
break of plague, in December 1347, and follow the
NOR
ORTHUMBRIA
ORT
OR 0 20
00 400
440
00 M
Mil
Mile
illes spread of disease, shown here in six-month intervals,
ea
IIRE
IR
R LA
AND
AND
AN York
Y
Yo
oorrkk North DANI
D
DA
ANI
ANI
NS
NISH
NIS
SHH S as you follow the colors northward.
Sea MAR
MARC
M AR
RCH
RC
R CH tic
MERCIA
M ER A E Bal The documents on p. 252 give a sense of how
WA
WALE
WAL
AL S EAST
EAS
EAAST
ANNG
N GLIA
A E lb
WES
WESS
WESSEX
ESSEX
ESS
E ESS
E SSE
SS
SE
S EX FRISIA
FRI
FRIS
RISIA
RIS A e contemporaries tried to explain the plague, and the
WE
WES
WEST KENT
K
KEENT
E
ES SUSS
WALE
WALE
ALES SU
SUS
US EX
US EX Rhin
e
SAXONY
Aachen
Y
O image on p. 254 vividly illustrates how some people
R.
de
r
responded to the horrors of the plague. Map 11.1 brings
R.
Verdun R.
M
Mainz
Atlantic BRI
BR
BRIT
RIT
RIT
RI
I TANY
NY
Y Paris Sein TRIBUTARY
BUTA
Ocean oire R.
AUSTRASIA
R
Da to mind another aspect of this horror by tracking the
e
L nu
R.
be SLAVIC
NEUSTRIA
A ALEMANN
LEMANN
NI
BAVA
ARIA
A
R.
plague’s ruthless and irresistible advance, month by
BURGUNDY
Alps PEOPLES
LES
S
month, year by year. The more information you can
Bordeaux Lyons
AQUITAINE Milan
VENETIA
A gather from the map, the more the document and illus-
Pyr
ene
UMAYYAD es PAPA
AL trations can tell you about the horrors of the plague.
Ad
SPANISH
H STATES
ES
ES
KINGDOM MARCH
M A happier kind of movement, the advance of learn-
ri
OF SPAIN tic
a
Toledo Barc
Ba
B arce
rcelona Coors
orssica
ica
a
Rome
Rom
Ro
R oom
m
Se ing, appears in Map 9.2 (p. 212). For this map, it is im-
Córdoba D HY a
DUCHY
Sard
Sard
rdinia
rd a OF
FBBEN
ENEVENTO
EN ENT
NTO
N
NT T portant to identify the symbols for universities and
Mediterranean schools and to see where they appear on the map.
BY
BYZ
BY
YZ
Z
ZANT
ANT
AN TIN
INE
N
Sea EMPIR
E MPIR
IRE
RE
E
Frankish kingdom, 768
Sicilyy
Because education does not tend to move as a wave, as
Territories gained
by Charlemagne the plague did, each symbol represents a place where
learning flourished more than it did in places without a
The Carolingian Empire symbol of some kind.
xxxiv Studying from Primary Source Materials
Map 11.1 makes it clear that the plague began in Your textbook does not show a corresponding por-
one part of Europe and touched nearly every region as trait of the king of Tonkin, but you might try to create
it passed through it. Map 9.2 shows that education a picture of him in your mind as you read this response
works differently; some people have better access to it to the letter he receives from his fellow ruler.
than others. Your job as a historian is to recognize this The following questions about this document are
and then to figure out why. the kinds of questions your instructor would ask about
the document.
Putting It Together: Reading and 1. Why does Louis refer to the king of Tonkin, whom
Studying Documents, Supported by he never met, as his ‘‘very dear and good friend’’ (line
Images 2)? Do you think that this French king would begin a
conversation with, say, a French shopkeeper in quite
Learning to read a document is no different from learn- the same way? If not, why does he identify more
ing to read a restaurant menu. The more you practice, with a fellow king than with a fellow Frenchman?
the quicker your eyes will find the lobster and pastries. 2. How often do you imagine that the king of France
had to persuade people to do what he wanted
Let Us Explore a Pair of Primary rather than order them to do so? Who might the
Sources people that he had to persuade have been?
3. Note that Louis uses what is referred to as the
As the introduction to the reading on the next page
‘‘royal we,’’ referring to himself in the plural. When
makes clear, King Louis XIV of France is writing the
does the king of Tonkin refer to himself in the sin-
king of Tonkin to ask permission to send Christian
gular (‘‘he,’’ ‘‘my’’), and when does he refer to him-
missionaries to Southeast Asia. But this exchange of
self in the plural (‘‘we’’)?
letters tells a great deal more than that.
4. Why does Louis say that he is writing at that par-
Before you read this document, take a careful look
ticular time rather than earlier (lines 13–18)?
at this portrait of Louis XIV. As this image makes clear,
5. Why does Louis say that Christian missionaries will
Louis lived during an age of flourishes and excess.
be good for Tonkin and its people (lines 28–33)?
Among many other questions, including some that
What reason in Louis’s own letter makes you wonder
appear later, you may ask yourself how Louis’s manner
if converting the people of Tonkin to Christianity is
of speaking reflects the public presentation you see in
‘‘the one thing in the world which we desire most’’?
his portrait.
6. Does the king of Tonkin seem pleased to hear from
Louis and to receive his request (lines 43–53)?
How does he refer to the gift Louis offers him?
7. Louis mentions his gratitude for the good treat-
ment of some French subjects when they were ‘‘in
your realm.’’ What do you think these Frenchmen
were doing there? Do you think they were invited,
or did they arrive on their own? How does the
king of Tonkin respond when Louis mentions his
appreciation for the ‘‘protection’’ they were
Chateaux de Versailles et de Trianon (Gérard Blot),
accorded (lines 53–58)? Protection from what, do

Versailles//ª RMN-Grand Palais/Art Resource, NY
you suppose?
8. What reason does the king of Tonkin give for
refusing Louis’s offer of Christian missionaries
(lines 59–64)? He takes care to explain to Louis
that ‘‘without fidelity [to edicts] nothing is stable.’’
What does this suggest about the king of Tonkin’s
attitude toward Louis and the ‘‘incomparable bless-
ing’’ of faith in the Christian god? How many
French people (or Europeans, for that matter) is
the king of Tonkin likely to have met? What
King Louis XIV
Studying from Primary Source Materials xxxv
A Letter to the King of Tonkin from Louis XIV 36 subjects the glorious example of embracing it. We wish you this in-
Most high, most excellent, most mighty and most magnanimous 37 comparable blessing together with a long and happy reign, and we
1
Prince, our very dear and good friend, may it please God to increase 38 pray God that it may please Him to augment your greatness with
2
your greatness with a happy end! 39 the happiest of endings.
3
We hear from our subjects who were in your Realm what pro- 40 Written at Saint-Germain-en-Laye, the 10th day of January, 1681,
4
tection you accorded them. We appreciate this all the more since we 41 Your very dear and good friend,
5
have for you all the esteem that one can have for a prince as illustri- 42 Louis
6
7 ous through his military valor as he is commendable for the justice
8 which he exercises in his Realm. We have even been informed that Answer from the King of Tonkin to Louis XIV
9 you have not been satisfied to extend this general protection to our 43 The King of Tonkin sends to the King of France a letter to express
10 subjects but, in particular, that you gave effective proofs of it to 44 to him his best sentiments, saying that he was happy to learn that
11 Messrs. Deydier and de Bourges. We would have wished that they 45 fidelity is a durable good of man and that justice is the most impor-
12 might have been able to recognize all the favors they received from 46 tant of things. Consequently practicing of fidelity and justice cannot
13 you by having presents worthy of you offered you; but since the war 47 but yield good results. Indeed, though France and our Kingdom dif-
14 which we have had for several years, in which all of Europe had 48 fer as to mountains, rivers, and boundaries, if fidelity and justice
15 banded together against us, prevented our vessels from going to the 49 reign among our villages, our conduct will express all of our good
16 Indies, at the present time, when we are at peace after having gained 50 feelings and contain precious gifts. Your communication, which
17 many victories and expanded our Realm through the conquest of 51 comes from a country which is a thousand leagues away, and which
18 several important places, we have immediately given orders to the 52 proceeds from the heart as a testimony of your sincerity, merits re-
19 Royal Company to establish itself in your kingdom as soon as possi- 53 peated consideration and infinite praise. Politeness toward strangers
20 ble, and have commanded Messrs. Deydier and de Bourges to re- 54 is nothing unusual in our country. There is not a stranger who is
21 main with you in order to maintain a good relationship between 55 not well received by us. How then could we refuse a man from
22 our subjects and yours, also to warn us on occasions that might 56 France, which is the most celebrated among the kingdoms of the
23 present themselves when we might be able to give you proofs of our 57 world and which for love of us wishes to frequent us and bring us
24 esteem and of our wish to concur with your satisfaction as well as 58 merchandise? These feelings of fidelity and justice are truly worthy
25 with your best interests. 59 to be applauded. As regards your wish that we should cooperate in
26 By way of initial proof, we have given orders to have brought 60 propagating your religion, we do not dare to permit it, for there is
27 to you some presents which we believe might be agreeable to you. 61 an ancient custom, introduced by edicts, which formally forbids it.
28 But the one thing in the world which we desire most, both for you 62 Now, edicts are promulgated only to be carried out faithfully;
29 and for your Realm, would be to obtain for your subjects who have 63 without fidelity nothing is stable. How could we disdain a well-
30 already embraced the law of the only true God of heaven and earth, 64 established custom to satisfy a private friendship? . . .
31 the freedom to profess it, since this law is the highest, the noblest, 65 We beg you to understand well that this is our communication
32 the most sacred and especially the most suitable to have kings reign 66 concerning our mutual acquaintance. This then is my letter. We send
33 absolutely over the people. 67 you herewith a modest gift, which we offer you with a glad heart.
34 We are even quite convinced that, if you knew the truths and 68 This letter was written at the beginning of winter and on a
35 the maxims which it teaches, you would give first of all to your 69 beautiful day.
French person or persons might have already interest? What is the significance of the king of
expressed to the king the ideas that Louis offers? Tonkin’s closing line?
9. Compare the final lines of each letter. What signifi-
cance do you draw from the fact that Louis names If you can propose thoughtful answers to these
the day, month, year, and location in which he questions, you will have come to know the material
writes? Apart from later historians, to whom in very well and should be ready for whatever examina-
particular would this information be of greatest tions and papers await you in your course.
xxxvi Studying from Primary Source Materials
A P T
H E
R
1
Essam Al-Sudani/AFP/Getty Images

The Ancient Near
East: The First
Civilizations
Excavation of Warka showing the ruins of Uruk
CHAPTER OUTLINE
CRITICAL THINKING
AND FOCUS QUESTIONS
Q In what ways were the civilizations of
The First Humans Mesopotamia and Egypt alike? In what ways
Q How did the Paleolithic and Neolithic Ages differ, were they different?
and how did the Neolithic Revolution affect the
lives of men and women? CONNECTIONS TO TODAY
The Emergence of Civilization Q What lessons can you learn from the decline
and fall of early civilizations, and how do those
Q What are the characteristics of civilization, and
lessons apply to today’s civilization?
what are some explanations for why early
civilizations emerged?
Civilization in Mesopotamia
Q How are the chief characteristics of civilization IN 1849, A DARING YOUNG Englishman made a
evident in ancient Mesopotamia? hazardous journey into the deserts and swamps of
southern Iraq. Moving south down the banks of
Egyptian Civilization: “The Gift of the Nile” the Euphrates River while braving high winds and
Q What are the basic features of the three major temperatures that reached 120 degrees
periods of Egyptian history? What elements of Fahrenheit, William Loftus led a small expedition
continuity are there in the three periods? in search of the roots of civilization. As he said,
What are their major differences? “From our childhood we have been led to regard
this place as the cradle of the human race.”
Guided by native Arabs into the southernmost
reaches of Iraq, Loftus and his small group of
explorers were soon overwhelmed by what they
saw. He wrote, “I know of nothing more exciting
or impressive than the first sight of one of these The Emergence of Homo sapiens
great piles, looming in solitary grandeur from the
Around 250,000 years ago, a crucial stage in human de-
surrounding plains and marshes.” One of these piles,
velopment began with the emergence of Homo sapiens
known to the natives as the mound of Warka,
(HOH-moh SAY-pee-unz) (“wise human being”). The
contained the ruins of Uruk, one of the first cities in
first anatomically modern humans, known as Homo
the world and part of the world’s first civilization.
sapiens sapiens (“wise, wise human being”), appeared in
Southwest Asia was one area in the world where
Africa between 200,000 and 150,000 years ago. Recent
civilization began. Although Western civilization did
evidence indicates that they began to spread outside
not yet exist, its origins can be traced back to the
Africa around 70,000 years ago. Map 1.1 shows proba-
ancient Near East, where people in Southwest Asia
ble dates for different movements, although many of
and in Egypt in northeastern Africa developed
these are still controversial.
organized societies, invented writing, and created the
These modern humans, who were our direct ances-
ideas and institutions that we associate with
tors, soon encountered other hominids, such as the
civilization. The later Greeks and Romans, who
Neanderthals, whose remains were first found in the
played such a crucial role in the development of
Neander Valley in Germany. Neanderthal remains have
Western civilization, were nourished and influenced
since been found in both Europe and the western part
by these older Near Eastern societies. It is
of Asia and have been dated to between 200,000 and
appropriate, therefore, to begin our story of Western
30,000 B.C.E. Neanderthals relied on a variety of stone
civilization with the early civilizations of Southwest
tools and were the first early people to bury their dead.
Asia and Egypt. Before considering them, however,
By 30,000 B.C.E., Homo sapiens sapiens had replaced the
we must briefly examine prehistory and observe how
Neanderthals, who had largely become extinct.
human beings made the shift from hunting and
gathering to agricultural communities and ultimately THE SPREAD OF HUMANS : OUT OF AFRICA OR MULTIRE-
to cities and civilization. GIONAL ? The movements of the first modern humans
were rarely sudden or rapid. Groups of people
advanced beyond their old hunting grounds at a rate of
only two or three miles per generation, but this was
The First Humans enough to populate the world in some tens of thou-
sands of years. Some scholars, who advocate a multire-
Q FOCUS QUESTION: How did the Paleolithic and gional theory, have suggested that advanced human
Neolithic Ages differ, and how did the Neolithic creatures may have emerged independently in different
Revolution affect the lives of men and women? parts of the world, rather than in Africa alone. But the
latest genetic, archaeological, and climatic evidence
Historians rely primarily on documents to create their strongly supports the out-of-Africa theory as the most
pictures of the past, but no written records exist for likely explanation of human origins. In any case, by
the prehistory of humankind. In their absence, the 10,000 B.C.E., members of the Homo sapiens sapiens spe-
story of early humanity depends on archaeological and, cies could be found throughout the world. By that time,
more recently, biological information, which anthropol- it was the only human species left. All humans today,
ogists and archaeologists use to formulate theories whether they are Europeans, Australian Aborigines, or
about our early past. Africans, belong to the same subspecies of human
The earliest humanlike creatures—known as homi- being.
nids—existed in Africa as long as 3 to 4 million years
ago. Known as Australopithecines (aw-stray-loh-PITH- CHRONOLOGY The First Humans
uh-synz), they flourished in East and South Africa and
were the first hominids to make simple stone tools. Australopithecines Flourished ca. 3–4 million years ago
Another stage in early human development occurred Homo erectus Flourished ca. 100,000–1.5 million
around 1.5 million years ago when Homo erectus years ago
(“upright human being”) emerged. Homo erectus made Neanderthals Flourished ca. 200,000–30,000 B.C.E.
use of larger and more varied tools and was the first Homo sapiens Emerged ca. 200,000 B.C.E.
hominid to leave Africa and move into both Europe sapiens
and Asia.
2 Chapter 1 The Ancient Near East: The First Civilizations
60˚ 20,000–15,000 6 ˚
60
25,000 years ago years ago
40,000 EUROPE
years ago NORTH Atlantic
At
70,000 years ago A SI A AMERICA Ocean
30˚ 30˚
15,000–12,000
years ago
AFRICA
Pacific Ocean
0˚ 200,000 0˚
0˚ 60˚
years ago 90˚ 180˚ 150˚ 120˚ 90˚
Indian SOUTH
50,000 AMERICA
Ocean years ago
30˚
AUSTRALIA 30˚
The spread of Homo sapiens sapiens
60˚ 60˚
ANTARCTICA
MAP 1.1 The Spread of Homo sapiens sapiens. Homo sapiens sapiens spread from Africa
beginning about 70,000 years ago. Living and traveling in small groups, these anatomically
modern humans were hunter-gatherers.
Q Given that some diffusion of humans occurred during ice ages, how would such
climate change affect humans and their movements, especially from Asia to
Australia and Asia to North America?
The Hunter-Gatherers of the Old The gathering of wild plants and the hunting of
animals no doubt led to certain patterns of living.
Stone Age Archaeologists and anthropologists have speculated that
One of the basic distinguishing features of the human Paleolithic people lived in small bands of twenty to
species is the ability to make tools. The earliest tools thirty. They were nomadic, moving from place to place
were made of stone, and so scholars refer to this early to follow animal migrations and vegetation cycles. Hunt-
period of human history (ca. 2,500,000–10,000 B.C.E.) ing depended on careful observation of animal behavior
as the Paleolithic Age (Paleolithic is Greek for “old patterns and required a group effort for success. Over
stone”). the years, tools became more refined and more useful.
For hundreds of thousands of years, humans relied The invention of the spear, and later the bow and arrow,
on gathering and hunting for their daily food. Paleo- made hunting considerably easier. Harpoons and fish-
lithic peoples had a close relationship with the world hooks made of bone increased the catch of fish.
around them, and over a period of time, they came to Both men and women were responsible for finding
know which plants to eat and which animals to hunt. food—the chief work of Paleolithic people. Since
They did not know how to grow crops or raise animals, women bore and raised the children, they generally
however. They gathered wild nuts, berries, fruits, and a stayed close to the camps, but they played an impor-
variety of wild grains and green plants. Around the tant role in acquiring food by gathering berries, nuts,
world, they hunted and consumed different animals, and grains. Men hunted wild animals, an activity that
including buffalo, horses, bison, wild goats, and rein- often took them far from camp. Because both men and
deer. In coastal areas, fish were a rich source of nour- women played important roles in providing for the
ishment. band’s survival, scientists believe that a rough equality
The First Humans 3
existed between men and women. Indeed, some specu- sheep, goats, cattle, and pigs, provided a steady source
late that both men and women made the decisions that of meat, milk, and fibers such as wool for clothing. The
affected the activities of the Paleolithic band. growing of crops and the taming of food-producing
Some groups of Paleolithic peoples found shelter in animals created a new relationship between humans
caves, but over time they also created new types of and nature. Historians speak of this as an agricultural
shelter. Perhaps the most common was a simple struc- revolution. Revolutionary change is dramatic and
ture of wood poles or sticks covered with animal hides. requires great effort, but the ability to acquire food
The systematic use of fire, which archaeologists believe on a regular basis gave humans greater control over
began around 500,000 years ago, made it possible for their environment. It also allowed them to give up
the caves and human-made structures to have a source their nomadic ways of life and begin to live in settled
of light and heat. Fire also enabled early humans to communities.
cook their food, making it taste better, last longer, and Systematic agriculture probably developed inde-
in the case of some plants, such as wild grain, easier to pendently between 8000 and 7000 B.C.E. in various
chew and digest. parts of the world. Different plants were cultivated in
The making of tools and the use of fire—two impor- each area: wheat, barley, and lentils in the Near East;
tant technological innovations of Paleolithic peoples— rice and millet in southern Asia; millet and yams in
remind us how crucial the ability to adapt was to western Africa; and beans, potatoes, and corn in the
human survival. But Paleolithic peoples did more than Americas. The Neolithic agricultural revolution needed
just survive. The cave paintings of large animals found a favorable environment. In the Near East, the upland
in southwestern France and northern Spain bear wit- areas above the Fertile Crescent (present-day north-
ness to the cultural activity of Paleolithic peoples. A ern Iraq and southern Turkey) were more conducive
cave discovered in southern France in 1994—known as to systematic farming than the river valleys. This
the Chauvet (SHOH-vay) Cave, after the leader of the region received the necessary rainfall and was the
expedition that found it—contains more than three home of two wild plant species (barley and wheat)
hundred paintings of lions, oxen, owls, bears, and other and four wild animal species (pigs, cows, goats, and
animals. Most of these are animals that Paleolithic peo- sheep) that humans eventually domesticated for
ple did not hunt, which suggests to some scholars that their use.
the paintings were made for religious or even decora-
tive purposes. The discoverers were overwhelmed by CONSEQUENCES OF THE NEOLITHIC REVOLUTION The growing
what they saw: “There was a moment of ecstasy. . . . of crops on a regular basis gave rise to more permanent
They overflowed with joy and emotion. . . . These were settlements, which historians refer to as Neolithic
moments of indescribable madness.”1 farming villages or towns. One of the oldest and larg-
est agricultural villages was Çatal H€uy€
uk (CHAHT-ahl
hoo-YOOK), located in modern-day Turkey. Its walls
The Neolithic Revolution enclosed thirty-two acres, and its population probably
(ca. 10,000–4000 B.C.E.) reached six thousand inhabitants during its high point
The end of the last ice age around 10,000 B.C.E. was fol- from 6700 to 5700 B.C.E. People lived in simple mud-
lowed by what scholars call the Neolithic Revolution, brick houses that were built so close to one another
a significant change in living patterns that occurred in that there were few streets. To get to their homes, peo-
the New Stone Age (neolithic is Greek for “new stone”). ple had to walk along the rooftops and then enter the
The name New Stone Age is misleading, however. house through a hole in the roof.
Although Neolithic peoples made a new type of pol- Archaeologists have discovered twelve cultivated
ished stone ax, this was not the major change that products in Çatal H€ uy€
uk, including fruits, nuts, and
occurred after 10,000 B.C.E. three kinds of wheat. Artisans made weapons and jew-
elry that were traded with neighboring people. Reli-
AN AGRICULTURAL REVOLUTION The biggest change was gious shrines housing figures of gods and goddesses
the shift from gathering plants and hunting animals have been found at Çatal H€ uy€
uk, as have a number of
for sustenance (food gathering) to producing food by female statuettes. Molded with noticeably large breasts
systematic agriculture (food production). The planting and buttocks, these “earth mothers” perhaps symboli-
of grains and vegetables provided a regular supply of cally represented the fertility of both “mother earth”
food, while the domestication of animals, such as and human mothers. The shrines and the statues point
to the important role of religious practices in the lives specialize in certain crafts, and a division of labor
of these Neolithic peoples. developed. Pottery was made from clay and baked in a
The Neolithic Revolution had far-reaching conse- fire to make it hard. The pots were used for cooking
quences. Once people settled in villages or towns, they and to store grains. Woven baskets were also used for
built permanent houses for protection and other struc- storage. Stone tools became refined as flint blades were
tures for the storage of goods. As organized commun- employed to make sickles and hoes for use in the fields.
ities stockpiled food and accumulated material goods, Obsidian—a volcanic glass that was easily flaked—was
they began to engage in trade. People also began to also used to create very sharp tools. In the course of
the Neolithic Age, many of the food plants still in use
today began to be cultivated. Moreover, fibers from
plants such as flax were used to make thread that was
woven into cloth.
The change to systematic agriculture in the Neolithic
Age also had consequences for the relationship between
men and women. Men assumed the primary responsibil-
ity for working in the fields and herding animals, jobs
that kept them away from the home. Although women
also worked in the fields, many remained behind to care
for the children, weave clothes, and perform other tasks
that required labor close to home. In time, as work out-
side the home was increasingly perceived as more im-
portant than work done at home, the practice of
patriarchy (PAY-tree-ark-ee), or a society dominated by
men, became a basic pattern, one that would persist
until our own times.
Other patterns set in the Neolithic Age also proved
to be enduring elements of human history. Fixed
dwellings, domesticated animals, regular farming, a
Archaeological Museum, Amman, Jordan//Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY
division of labor, men holding power—all of these are

part of the human story. Despite all our modern sci-
entific and technological progress, human survival still
depends on the growing and storing of food, an
accomplishment of people in the Neolithic Age. The
Neolithic Revolution was truly a turning point in
human history.
NEW DEVELOPMENTS Between 4000 and 3000 B.C.E., sig-

nificant technical developments began to transform the
Neolithic towns. The invention of writing enabled
records to be kept, and the use of metals marked a new
level of human control over the environment and its
resources. Already before 4000 B.C.E., craftspeople had
discovered that certain rocks could be heated to liquefy
Statue from Ain Ghazal. This life-size statue made of plaster, metals embedded in them. The metals could then be
sand, and crushed chalk was discovered in 1984 in Ain Ghazal cast in molds to produce tools and weapons that were
(AYN gah-ZAL), an archaeological site near Amman, Jordan. more refined than stone instruments. Although copper
Dating from 6500 B.C.E., it is among the oldest known statues of
was the first metal to be made into tools, after 4000
the human figure. Although it appears lifelike, its features are
B.C.E., craftspeople in western Asia discovered that
considered generic rather than a portrait of an individual face.
The purpose and meaning of this sculpture may never be combining copper and tin created bronze, a much
known. harder and more durable metal than copper. Its wide-
spread use has led historians to call the period from
The First Humans 5
around 3000 to 1200 B.C.E. the Bronze Age; there- socially, a class of slaves; (5) the development of writing:
after, bronze was increasingly replaced by iron. kings, priests, merchants, and artisans used writing to
At first, Neolithic settlements were mere villages. keep records; and (6) new forms of significant artistic
But as their inhabitants mastered the art of farming, and intellectual activity: for example, monumental
more complex human societies began to emerge. As architectural structures, usually religious, occupied a
wealth increased, these societies began to develop prominent place in urban environments.
armies and to build walled towns and cities. By the be- The civilizations that developed in Southwest Asia
ginning of the Bronze Age, the concentration of larger and Egypt, the forerunners of Western civilization, will
numbers of people in the river valleys of Southwest be examined in detail in this chapter. But civilization
Asia and Egypt was leading to a whole new pattern for also developed independently in other parts of the
human life. world. Between 3000 and 1500 B.C.E., the valley of the
Indus River in India supported a flourishing civilization
that extended hundreds of miles from the Himalayas
The Emergence of Civilization to the coast of the Arabian Sea. Two major cities,
Harappa (huh-RAP-uh) and Mohenjo-Daro (moh-HEN-
Q FOCUS QUESTION: What are the characteristics of joh-DAHR-oh), were at the heart of this South Asian
civilization, and what are some explanations for civilization.This Indus River Valley civilization carried
why early civilizations emerged? on extensive trade with cities in Southwest Asia.
Another river valley civilization emerged along the
As we have seen, early human beings formed small Yellow River in northern China about 4,000 years ago.
groups that developed a simple culture that enabled Under the Shang (SHAHNG) Dynasty of kings, which
them to survive. As human societies grew and ruled from 1570 to 1045 B.C.E., this civilization con-
developed greater complexity, a new tained impressive cities with huge
form of human existence—called city walls, royal palaces, and large
civilization—came into being. A royal tombs. A system of irrigation
civilization is a complex culture in s Harappa enabled this early Chinese civilization
du
which large numbers of human In iver to maintain a prosperous farming so-
R
beings share a number of common Mohenjo-Daro ciety ruled by an aristocratic class
elements. Historians have identified whose major concern was war.
a number of basic characteristics of INDIA Scholars long believed that civili-
civilization. These include (1) an zation emerged in only four areas,
Arabian
urban focus: cities became the cen- the fertile river valleys of the Tigris
Sea
ters of political, economic, social, and Euphrates, the Nile, the Indus,
cultural, and religious development; 0 200 400 600 Kilometers and the Yellow River—that is, in
(2) a distinct religious structure: the Southwest Asia, Egypt, India, and
0 200 400 Miles
gods were deemed crucial to the China. Recently, however, archaeolo-
community’s success, and professio- Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro gists have discovered two other early
nal priestly classes regulated relations civilizations. One of these flourished
with the gods; (3) new political and 0 200 400 600 Kilometers in Central Asia (in what are now
military structures: an organized gov- 0 200 400 Miles the republics of Turkmenistan and
ernment bureaucracy arose to meet Uzbekistan) around 4,000 years ago.
the administrative demands of the People in this civilization built mud-
R.
w
growing population, and armies were Anyang brick buildings, raised sheep and
llo
Yellow
Ye
organized to gain land and power Sea goats, had bronze tools, used a sys-
Luoyang
and for defense; (4) a new social struc- tem of irrigation to grow wheat and
R.
ture based on economic power: while H ua i R . barley, and had a writing system.
tze
kings and an upper class of priests, Another early civilization emerged

ng
Ya
political leaders, and warriors domi- in the Supe River Valley of Peru. At
Major regions of the
nated, there also existed a large group late Shang state the center of this civilization was the
of free people (farmers, artisans, city of Caral, which flourished around
craftspeople) and at the very bottom, The Yellow River, China 2600 B.C.E. It contained buildings for
officials, apartment buildings, and complex system of irrigation and
Oxu
grand residences, all built of stone. drainage ditches to control the flow
sR
(Uzbekistan) .
The inhabitants of Caral also devel- of the rivers. Large-scale irrigation
oped a system of irrigation by divert- Caspian made possible the expansion of
ing a river more than a mile upstream Sea agriculture in this region, and the
into their fields. (Turkmenistan) abundant food provided the mate-
Why early civilizations developed rial base for the emergence of civi-
remains difficult to explain. One lization in Mesopotamia.
theory maintains that challenges
(Modern state names are in parentheses)
forced human beings to make efforts
that resulted in the rise of civiliza- 0 300 600 Kilometers The City-States of
tion. Some scholars have argued that 0 300 Miles Ancient Mesopotamia
material forces, such as the growth Central Asia Civilization The creators of Mesopotamian civi-
of food surpluses, made possible the lization were the Sumerians (soo-
specialization of labor and the devel- MER-ee-unz or soo-MEER-ee-unz),
opment of large communities with A m a n R.
zo a people whose origins remain
bureaucratic organization. But the Moche unclear. By 3000 B.C.E., they had
area of the Fertile Crescent, in which Chavin de established a number of independ-
Huantar
civilization emerged in Southwest ent cities in southern Mesopotamia,
Asia (see Map 1.2), was not natu- PERU
including Eridu, Ur, Uruk, Umma,
rally conducive to agriculture. Abun- Caral and Lagash. As the Sumerian cities
Pacific Machu Picchu
dant food could be produced only grew larger, they came to exercise
A
Ocean d
e s Cuzco
n
with a massive human effort to political and economic control over
manage the water, an undertaking M
ts the surrounding countryside, form-
0 250 500 750 Kilometers .
that required organization and led ing city-states. These city-states
to civilized societies. Other histori- 0 250 500 Miles
were the basic units of Sumerian
ans have argued that nonmaterial Caral, Peru civilization.
forces, primarily religious, provided
the sense of unity and purpose that made such organ- SUMERIAN CITIES Sumerian cities were surrounded by
ized living possible. And some scholars doubt that we walls. Uruk, for example, occupied an area of approxi-
will ever discover the actual causes of early civilization. mately one thousand acres encircled by a wall six
miles long with defense towers located every thirty to
thirty-five feet along the wall. City dwellings, built of
Civilization in Mesopotamia sun-dried bricks, included both the small flats of peas-
ants and the larger dwellings of the civic and priestly
Q FOCUS QUESTION: How are the chief characteristics officials. Although Mesopotamia had little stone or
of civilization evident in ancient Mesopotamia? wood to use for building, it did have plenty of mud.
Mud bricks, easily shaped by hand, were left to bake
The Greeks spoke of the valley between the Tigris in the hot sun until they were hard enough to use for
and Euphrates Rivers in Southwest Asia as Mesopota- building. People in Mesopotamia were remarkably
mia (mess-uh-puh-TAY-mee-uh), the “land between inventive with mud bricks, inventing the arch and
the rivers.” The region receives little rain, but the soil constructing some of the largest brick buildings in the
of the plain of southern Mesopotamia was enlarged world.
and enriched over the years by layers of silt deposited The most prominent building in a Sumerian city was
by the rivers. In late spring, the Tigris and Euphrates the temple, which was dedicated to the chief god or god-
overflow their banks and deposit their fertile silt, but dess of the city and often built atop a massive stepped
since this flooding depends on the melting of snows tower called a ziggurat (ZIG-uh-rat). The Sumerians
in the upland mountains where the rivers begin, it is believed that gods and goddesses owned the cities, and
irregular and sometimes catastrophic. In such circum- much wealth was used to build temples as well as elabo-
stances, people could raise crops only by building a rate houses for the priests and priestesses who served
Civilization in Mesopotamia 7
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
Appearance and Reality, chap. 7, or the introduction of a peculiar
“consciousness of activity” as an unanalysable datum into
Psychology. The antithesis between the actualities of life and the
data of Psychology maintained by Prof. Münsterberg in his
Psychology and Life, and Grundzüge der Psychologie, if untenable
in the extreme form in which he states it, is important as a corrective
of the opposite tendency to treat as ultimate for psychological
analysis whatever is of supreme importance for life.
43. Thing-in-itself, i.e. not affected by the—according to this
doctrine—extraneous conditions imposed upon it by relation to an
experiencing mind.
44. The inconsistencies of both Kant and Spencer will illustrate the
reluctance of the human mind to acquiesce in a genuine
Agnosticism. In the Critique of Pure Reason itself Kant so far
contradicts himself as to treat the Thing-in-itself as the cause of
sensation, though it is a fundamental doctrine of his system that the
concept of causal relation can only be legitimately applied to connect
facts inside experience; and in a later work, the Critique of
Judgment, he tentatively suggests its identity with Will. Of Mr.
Spencer it has been truly said (I believe by Mr. F. C. S. Schiller in
Riddles of the Sphinx) that in the course of his ten volumes of
Synthetic Philosophy he speaks much more positively about the
nature of the Unknowable than dogmatic theology ventures to speak
about the nature of God.
45. The sceptics of antiquity, who were more alive to this
contradiction than most of our modern Agnostics, tried to evade the
difficulty by saying that they maintained the unknowability of things
not as a demonstrated certainty, but as a “probable opinion.” But this
distinction is itself illogical, for unless some propositions are certain
there is no ground for considering any one proposition more
probable than another. E.g. if I know that a die with six faces has four
pips on each of two faces, and five pips on only one, I can logically
say “it is probable that with this die four will be thrown oftener than
five.” If I am totally uncertain what number of pips is marked on the
various faces, I cannot regard one throw as more probable than
another.
46. E.g., peculiarities of the individual’s colour-spectrum, total and
partial colour-blindness, variations in sensibility to musical pitch, etc.,
etc.
47. The best known and most popular version of the theory is that
of Locke and of a great deal of our popular science, according to
which the “primary” qualities of matter, i.e. those which have to be
treated as fundamental in the physical sciences, are independently
real, while the rest are mere effects produced by their action on our
sense-organs. The more thorough-going metaphysical doctrines of
realists like Leibnitz and Herbart, being much further removed from
the “naïve realism” of unreflective common sense, have never
enjoyed the same currency.
48. Compare Ward, Naturalism and Agnosticism, vol. ii. p. 178 ff.,
and Royce, World and Individual, First Series, Lect. 3. Prof. Royce’s
treatment of Realism, though interesting and suggestive, is perhaps
a little too much of a “short and easy way” with the antagonist to be
quite convincing. Mr. Hobhouse’s anti-idealistic argument (Theory of
Knowledge, 517-539) seems to me only to hold good against the
“Subjectivism” discussed in our next section, but the reader will do
well to examine it thoroughly for himself.
49. We might also suitably call it Presentationism, if the name
were not already appropriated in a different sense as distinctive of
certain psychological theories. The English reader will find a
confused but typical exposition of Subjectivism in the opening
chapters of Prof. Karl Pearson’s Grammar of Science. Subjectivist
writers usually call themselves “idealists,” and regard themselves as
disciples of Berkeley and Hume. Berkeley was, however, a
subjectivist, if at all, only in respect to the physical world, while
Hume’s conclusions are purely sceptical. The reader of Prof.
Pearson must carefully observe that the “descriptive” theory of
physical science has no special connection with Subjectivism, and is,
in fact, held by philosophers like Profs. Ward and Royce, who are not
subjectivists.
50. On the existence of my fellow-men as the one real proof of the
objective existence of the physical world, see Royce, Studies in
Good and Evil, essay on “Nature, Consciousness, and Self-
Consciousness,” and “Mind and Nature,” by the present writer, in
International Journal of Ethics for October 1902. In the latter essay I
have, I think, sufficiently exposed the flimsy reasoning by which
subjectivists attempt to justify belief in the existence of other human
beings from the subjectivist point of view.
51. The self-knowledge which is a fact in real life, as distinguished
from the fictitious self-consciousness of some psychologists, is quite
a different thing and involves two distinct acts of cognition: (1) the
awareness of certain objects of cognition, and (2) the recognition of
those objects as in some way qualifying my “self.” And the “self”
which I recognise as thus qualified is again no immediate datum of
experience, but a largely hypothetical intellectual construction, as we
shall have opportunity to see later on.
This is perhaps the place to add the further remark, that if we
would be rigidly accurate in psychological terminology, we ought to
banish the very expression “consciousness” or “state of
consciousness” from our language. What are really given in
experience are attentive processes with a certain common character.
We abstract this character and give it the name of “consciousness,”
and then fall into the blunder of calling the concrete processes
“states” or “modifications” of this abstraction, just as in dealing with
physical things we first make abstraction of their common properties,
under the name of “matter,” and then talk as if the things themselves
were “forms” of “matter”. Properly speaking, there are physical things
and there are minds, but there are no such things in the actual world
as “matter” and “consciousness,” and we do well to avoid using the
words where we can help it.
52. See Der Menschliche Weltbegriff, pp. 21-62; and, for the
merely English reader, Ward, Naturalism and Agnosticism, vol. ii p.
168 ff.
53. This is true even in what seems at first the the exceptional
case of advance in mere theoretical insight. The more clearly you
realise the character of the problems which your own intellectual
pursuits lead up to and the nature of their solution, the clearer
becomes your insight into the problems and purposes of other
workers in the same field.
CHAPTER II
THE SYSTEMATIC UNITY OF REALITY

§ 1. The problem whether Reality is ultimately One or Many is inevitably
suggested to us by the diverse aspects of our own direct experience of the
world. The different theories may be classed, according to their solution of this
problem, as Monistic, Pluralistic, and Monadistic. § 2. Pluralism starts from the
presumed fact of the mutual independence of human selves, and teaches that
this independence of each other belongs to all real beings. But (a) the
independence with which experience presents us is never complete, nor the
unity of the “selves” perfect. (b) The theory is inconsistent with the systematic
character of all reality as presupposed in both knowledge and action. § 3.
Monadism again makes the systematic unity of the real either an illusion or an
inexplicable accident. § 4. Reality, because systematic, must be the
expression of a single principle in and through a multiplicity. The unity and
multiplicity must both be real, and each must necessarily involve the other. §
5. If both are to be equally real, the whole system must be a single
experience, and its constituents must also be experiences. A perfect
systematic whole can be neither an aggregate, nor a mechanical whole of
parts, nor an organism. The whole must exist for the parts, and they for it. § 6.
This may also be expressed by saying that Reality is a subject which is the
unity of subordinate subjects, or an individual of which the constituents are
lesser individuals. § 7. The nearest familiar analogue to such a systematic
whole would be the relation between our whole “self” and the partial mental
systems or lesser “selves.” § 8. The nearest historic parallel to this view is to
be found in Spinoza’s theory of the relation of the human mind to the “infinite
intellect of God.”
§ 1. The problem of the One and the Many is as old as Philosophy

itself, and inevitably arises from the earliest and simplest attempts to
think in a consistent way about the nature of the world in which we
play our part. On the one hand, our experience, in the piecemeal
shape in which it first appears as we begin to reflect on it, seems to
exhibit an indefinite plurality of more or less independent things,
each pursuing its own course and behaving in its own way, and
connected at best with only a few of the other members of our
environment. There is, for instance, no obvious connection between
one man’s career and those of most of his contemporaries, to say
nothing of the innumerable host of his predecessors and successors
in the race of life. And, similarly, the behaviour of one inanimate thing
seems at first sight to be unaffected by that of most of the other
things around it. The world seems to us at times to be made up of an
indefinite multiplicity of beings who merely happen to be actors on
the same stage, but have, in the majority of cases, no influence upon
each other’s parts.
Yet, on the other hand, there are equally strong primâ facie
reasons for regarding the world as a single unity. Every addition to
our theoretical insight into the structure of things adds to our
recognition of the intimate connection between things and processes
which previously seemed merely disconnected. Physical science, as
it grows, learns more and more to look upon nature as a realm of
interconnected events where no one fact is ultimately entirely
independent of any other fact; political experience and social science
alike reveal the intimate interdependence of human lives and
purposes. And, over and above the ascertained empirical facts which
point to the ultimate unity of the world, there is another potent
influence which we might call the “instinctive” basis for the belief in
unity. However discontinuous my environment may appear, it is
never a mere disconnected multiplicity. The very circumstance that it
is throughout my environment, and thus relative to the ends by which
my attention is determined, gives it to a certain degree the character
of a coherent system. At the lowest level of philosophic reflection, we
cannot permanently fail to apprehend our world as in principle one,
precisely because it is our world, and we ourselves are all in some
degree beings of steady systematic purpose, not mere bundles of
disconnected and conflicting impulses. While yet again, it is the very
limitation of our own interests and our lack of clear insight into their
full import which leads us at other times to find apparent
disconnected multiplicity and lack of cohesion in our world.
The problem of Philosophy in dealing with these rival aspects of
the world of experience then becomes that of deciding whether
either of them can be adopted as the truth in isolation from the other.
Or if neither is the whole truth, we must ask ourselves in what way
the world can be at once One and Many, how the characters of
systematic unity and of indefinite variety can be consistently thought
of as belonging to the same Reality. Is Reality, we have to ask, One
or is it Many, and if it is both, how are the unity and multiplicity
connected?
The answers which different philosophical systems have given to
this question may conveniently be classified under three general
denominations. There are (1) the Monistic views, which lay the
principal stress upon the unity of the real, and tend to treat the
aspect of plurality and variety as illusory, or at least as of secondary
importance; (2) the various forms of Pluralism, according to which
the variety and multiplicity of real beings is the primary fact, and their
systematic unity either an illusion, or at any rate a subordinate
aspect of their nature; (3) Monadism, which aims at harmonising the
positions of the monist and pluralist, by treating the world as a
multiplicity of really independent things or “monads,” which are
somehow combined from without into a system. From this last point
of view the plurality and the systematic unity are alike real and alike
important for the understanding of the world, but are of different
origin, the plurality being inherent in the things themselves, the unity
external to them and coming from a foreign source. Within each of
the three main types of theory there is, of course, room for the
greatest divergence of view as to the special nature of the real. A
monistic system may be purely materialistic, like that of Parmenides,
who taught that the world is a single homogeneous solid sphere, or
idealistic like that, e.g., of Schopenhauer; or again, it may treat mind
and “matter” as “aspects” of a common reality. A pluralist or
monadist, again, may conceive of each of his independent real
things as a physical atom, as a soul of any degree of organisation, or
even, in the fashion of some contemporary thought, as a person.
With regard to the relation between this classification of
philosophical theories and that of the last chapter, I may just observe
that, while a monist is not necessarily an idealist, a consistent
pluralist or monadist ought logically to be a realist. For the mutual
independence of the various real things cannot exist without
involving in itself their independence of experience. If A and B are
two completely independent things, then the existence and character
of A must be independent of presence to the experience of B, and
similarly A must be equally independent of presence to the
experience of C, or of anything in the world but itself. And we have
already seen that there is always more in the nature of any finite
percipient than can be present to his own experience. Thus
ultimately the existence and qualities of A must be independent of all
experience, including A’s own.[54] For this reason I cannot but think
that the various attempts to combine Pluralism with Idealism by
maintaining that the universe consists of a number of independent
“souls” or “persons,” rest on confusion of thought. These doctrines
appear to be essentially realist in their spirit.
§ 2. We may conveniently attempt to construct our own theory of
the One and the Many by first excluding views which appear
mistaken in principle, and thus gradually narrowing the issues.
Among these mistaken views I am forced to reckon all forms of
consistent and thorough-going Pluralism. Pluralism, so far at least as
I am able to see, begins by misapprehending the facts upon which it
professes to base itself, and ends by giving an interpretation of them
which is essentially irrational. The fundamental fact from which
Pluralism starts as an ultimate datum of all experiences is the
familiar one that there are other men in the world besides myself. My
world is not simply a theatre for the execution of my own aims and
the satisfaction of my own wants. There are interests in it which are
not mine, and to which I must adapt myself if I mean to achieve my
own purposes. The world thus contains minds other than my own,
and what makes them other is that the interests and purposes by
which their lives are determined are, like my own, unique and
incommunicable. Now, Pluralism bids us take the facts, as thus
stated, as the model for our conception of the universe. The pattern
upon which the pluralist views of Reality are constructed is that of a
community consisting of a great number of selves or persons, each
with its own unique interests, and each therefore at once internally
simple and indivisible and exclusive of all the rest. In whatever
special form the pluralist thinks of his ultimate realities, whether as
physically indivisible particles, as mathematical points, or as sentient
beings, it is always from the facts of human social life conceived in
this ultra-individualist way that he in the last resort derives his
concept of their simplicity and mutual repulsion.
But (a) the facts themselves are not correctly stated. The human
experiences upon which the pluralist relies for his conclusion present
at once too much and too little unity for the purposes of his theory.
On the one hand, the selves or persons composing society are not
themselves simple, undifferentiated unities. Just as your interests
and mine may often collide, so within what the pluralist assumes as
the indivisible unit of my own personality there may be a similar
collision. What I call my “own interests” or my own “apperceptive
systems” or “trains of thought” may exhibit the same kind of
incompatibility and the same sort of conflict for superiority as is found
where your ideas and mine clash. Thus Ethics and Psychology are
led to distinguish between my “true” self and the false selves by
which it may on occasion be dominated, between my “higher” self
and the “lower” selves which, in morality, have to be repressed by
the higher, my “permanent” self, and the temporary interests by
which it is often overpowered, to say nothing of “subliminal”
consciousness and “dual” or “alternating personality.” The “self” is so
far from being a mere unit, that the variety and, what is more, the
incompatibility of its contents is a matter of everyday experience.[55]
Pluralism may, of course, and often does, verbally admit this. The
units of the pluralist, we are often told, are not mere units devoid of
variety, but wholes which are the union of differences. But to
concede this is to cut away the ground from under the pluralist’s feet.
If the variety and the mutual struggle between the elements of the
self are not enough to destroy its unity, by parity of reasoning the
multiplicity of selves in the world and their mutual repulsions are not
enough to prove that the whole of Reality is not, in spite of its
multiplicity of detail, a unity more complete than any of the partial
unities to be met with in our experience. In fact, the pluralist has to
meet the following dilemma. Either his units are mere units without
internal variety, and then it is easy to show that they are the merest
nothings, or they have internal variety of their own, and therefore
simply repeat within themselves the problem they are supposed to
solve.
On the other hand, just as the facts of experience show us internal
struggle and repulsion within the supposed units, so they also exhibit
other relations than that of mutual exclusion between the different
units. Human personal interests, for instance, are never merely
mutually exclusive. No society consists of individuals whose
purposes and interests are simply reciprocally repellent. My aims
and purposes may never completely coincide with those of other
members of the same community, yet they have no meaning and
could get no realisation but for the fact that they are, partially at any
rate, comprised in the wider whole of social interests and purposes
which makes up the life of the social organisations to which I belong.
As the very etymology of such words as “society” and “community”
shows—to say nothing of the results of psychological inquiry into the
process of learning by imitation—the conception of human selves as
independent units which somehow happen to stand in merely
accidental or external relations is in flagrant conflict with the most
fundamental facts of our social experience. It is only by the
systematic suppression of fact that personal and social life can be
made to support the hypothesis of Pluralism.
(b) Again, even if we could accept the pluralist account of the
facts, the theory which Pluralism puts forward to account for them is
in the end unintelligible. What Pluralism does, consciously or
unconsciously, is to separate the unity of the world from its
multiplicity. The multiplicity is supposed to be grounded in the
ultimate nature of the real things themselves, their unity as a system,
if they really are a system, to be imposed upon them from without.
We are, in fact, left to choose between two alternatives. Either the
world is not a systematic whole at all, but a mere chaos of purely
independent atoms, in which case the whole of our thought, with its
indispensable presupposition of the systematic unity of the object of
knowledge, is an illusion, or else the world really is a system, but a
system, so to say, by accident. The things of which the system is
composed are real as detached separate units, but by a fortunate
chance they happen all to possess some common relation to an
external tertium quid (for instance, to God), by which they are
combined into a system and thus become knowable as a connected
whole.
Now we cannot, if we are intellectually conscientious, rest finally
content with a statement of this kind, which leaves the plurality and
the systematic unity of the real world side by side as two
independent unconnected facts. If the contents of the world really
form a system at all, in any way whatever, that is itself one fact
among others which a sound metaphysical theory must recognise,
and of which it must offer some intelligible account. E.g., suppose
you say, with some recent pluralists, that the world consists of a
number of independent persons or spirits, who nevertheless form a
connected system or “moral kingdom,” in virtue of the fact that they
all find their moral ideal in God, the most perfect among them. You
have now not one ultimate fact before you, the multiplicity of
independent selves, but two, this multiplicity and the relation of each
element in it to God. Unless you are going to treat this second fact
as an “ultimate inexplicability,” i.e. a fortunate accident, you are now
bound to treat the systematic relation of the selves to God and
through God to each other as no less a part of their ultimate nature
than their distinction from each other. Their separateness and
independence is thus no longer for you the ultimate truth; they are
just as truly one by your account as they are many. Their union in a
system is no longer an external relation foreign to their own nature,
but the deepest truth about that nature itself.
I will repeat the essence of this argument in another form. Any
genuine Pluralism must be resolute enough to dismiss the idea of a
systematic interconnection between its independent realities as an
illusion of the human mind. But in doing so it must, to be consistent,
deny the possibility of their mutual knowledge of each other’s states.
Each real thing must be a little world to itself, shut up within the
closed circle of its own internal content. And thus, supposing
Pluralism to be true, and supposing myself to be one of the real
things of the pluralist scheme, I should have no means of knowing it
to be true. Pluralism is unable to stand the question propounded by
Mr. Bradley as the test of a philosophical doctrine, “Is the truth of this
theory consistent with the fact that I know it to be true?”
The persistent popularity of Pluralism in many quarters is in fact
due to the intrusion into Metaphysics of other than genuinely
philosophical interests. It is maintained, not on its philosophical
merits as a consistent theory, but because it is believed by its
adherents to safeguard certain interests of morality and religion. It
gives us, we are told, a “real God” and “real moral freedom.” But,
apart from the question whether these claims are justified by candid
examination of the doctrine,[56] we must protest against their being
allowed any place at all in a metaphysical discussion. Metaphysics
is, from first to last, a purely speculative activity; its one concern is to
think logically about the constitution of Reality, and the only interests
it has a right to consider are those of consistent logical thought. If
consistent logical thought about ethical and religious problems
involves the recognition of a “real God” and “real freedom,” and if
these again are only possible on the pluralistic theory, then the mere
process of consistent thought is bound in the end to lead us to a
pluralistic result, and it is superfluous to appeal to extra-logical
interests in the matter. But if those who defend Pluralism on the
ground that it gives us a “real God” and “real freedom” mean that,
apart from the question of their intellectual justification, these beliefs
ought to be maintained in Metaphysics because certain persons will
be less moral or less happy without them, we must answer that
Metaphysics has nothing to do with making us moral or happy. It is
no proof of the truth of a belief that it increases my personal virtue or
happiness, nor of its falsity that it diminishes them. And if the study
of Metaphysics could be shown to make certain persons less
virtuous or less happy, Metaphysics would still be in no worse case
than Ethics or Medicine. There may be persons for whom it is
undesirable, on grounds of happiness or morality, to devote
themselves to the pursuit of speculative truth, but it is none the less
a lapse from intellectual single-mindedness for the man who has
elected to play the game of speculation to violate its rules by
indulging in constant appeals to speculatively irrelevant issues.[57]
§ 3. The Monadism of Leibnitz was an attempt to effect a
compromise between Pluralism and Monism. According to this view,
the universe consists of an infinite plurality of fundamentally separate
beings. These beings are at once simple and indivisible, and at the
same time each of them contains an infinite variety of internal states.
Being mutually independent, the monads have no genuine relations
with each other; each is conscious only of the succession of its own
states. As Leibnitz expressed it in a metaphor which has become
classic, the monad has no windows. So far the system is pure
Pluralism. But at the same time the unity of the whole system of
monads, though “ideal” and not “real,” is to be genuine. They form a
system “ideally,”—i.e. for the understanding of an omniscient
spectator,—inasmuch as the internal states of each monad are
adjusted to those of all the rest, or, as Leibnitz also puts it, inasmuch
as each monad “represents” the same systematic structure from its
own special point of view. Hence, though no monad really perceives
or acts upon any other, every monad behaves as it would if there
were mutual perception and interaction between all. When we ask
after the source of this “pre-established harmony,” we meet with a
double answer. On the one hand, its actual existence as a fact is due
to the creative will of God. On the other, it was precisely the
complete adjustment of the internal states of its various monads
which determined God to will the existence of the actual world-order
in preference to that of any other of the indefinitely numerous
logically possible arrangements which He foresaw and might have
chosen. This relation between God and the world-order is further
complicated by the fact that on occasion Leibnitz treats God as
simply one, though the supreme one, among the monads.
Now a system of this kind seems to exhibit all the defects of
Pluralism with certain superadded difficulties of its own. We might
reasonably object that experience presents us with no example of a
genuine system in which all the elements are actually independent.
The nearest approach to such a case seems to be found in the
classes of an “artificial classification,” in which things standing in no
relation of interaction among themselves are put together by us
because it is convenient for some extraneous purpose of our own to
comprehend them under a single point of view. But, apart from the
impossibility of constructing a classification which shall be more than
relatively artificial, such a mere aggregate or collection is not a real
system. In a true system, as distinct from a mere collection, the
principle of unity has always some sort of significance for the
members of the system themselves. It represents, at the least, the
way in which the members interact with each other. (Thus, to take an
extreme case, the serial arrangement of cutting implements in a
museum, from the flaked stone of the Palæolithic age to the latest
specimen of Sheffield cutlery, is more than a merely “artificial”
classification, precisely because it is more than a mere grouping of
separate objects according to their likeness and unlikeness; it
represents the stages of a continuous historical evolution.) Now, it is
essential to Monadism that the monads, because ultimately
independent, shall only seem to interact. They appear to form a
single world with a history in which each distinct state of each monad
is a stage. But really, while the successive states of the individual
monad are, what they seem to be, a connected process of
development, the various processes do not make up a single-world
history at all. They only seem to do so by an inevitable illusion.
Hence the unity of the whole system must after all be not only ideal,
but, strictly speaking, imaginary.
Similar difficulties arise from the ambiguous position accorded to
God in the scheme. If the “pre-established harmony” between the
states of the individual monads were simply due to a creative fiat of
God, we should be thrown back upon mere arbitrary chance as the
reason, if it can be called a reason, why existence is not a chaos.
But if God’s choice to create this scheme of things rather than
another was due to the superior attraction which a world with at least
the appearance of connected system had for the divine intellect, then
it is ultimately in the constitution of the divine mind that we have to
find the reason why the alternative possibilities before creation were
what they were;[58] and again, why just this one was preferred to all
the rest. And thus the monads cease to be any longer ultimate and
independent, and the nature of God becomes the single determinate
ground of all reality.
It is scarcely necessary to add that Monadism suffers besides from
all the defects which we found in Pluralism. If the monad be made
into a mere unit without internal variety, it ceases to be a thing with a
definite nature at all; and if its unity is compatible with the variety of
its states, there seems to be no special reason why the wealth of
varied existence in the world should lead us to assume a plurality of
independent principles as its ground. It has been pointed out that
Leibnitz was apparently determined in favour of Monadism against
Monism by the assumption that individual human selves are
internally simple units and externally entirely exclusive of each other,
an assumption we have already seen reason to reject.
§ 4. We seem driven, then, to reject the view that the ordered
world of experience can be the expression of a plurality of ultimately
distinct and heterogeneous principles. Because the world as known,
or again as providing for the coherent realisation of practical
purposes, is an orderly system, and on any other supposition
coherent knowledge and consistent action are alike impossible, the
world must for Metaphysics be regarded as the complete
embodiment and expression of a single ultimate principle. We are
thus committed to some form of theory of the type generally known
as Monism. The name Monism we may perhaps be allowed to avoid,
as it has gathered about it associations which are apt to mislead.
Among the doctrines most frequently spoken of as monistic are
some which treat the apparent variety and multiplicity of existence as
purely illusory. Again, the name has of late been widely used as the
self-chosen designation of the doctrine according to which “mind”
and “matter” are alike “aspects” or “manifestations” of a third
principle which is neither material nor mental. It should already be
clear that the doctrine indicated by our previous discussions differs
widely from both these types of Monism. We have insisted that the
source of fallacy in Pluralism and Monadism was one-sided
emphasis upon one term in the antithesis of the Many and the One
to neglect of the other, and we have no intention of repeating the
mistake for ourselves. Also, we have already come to the conclusion
that Reality, whatever its detailed structure, is mental in its general
character; we can have nothing therefore to do with a “neutral” or
“agnostic” Monism. Our detailed theory of the relation between the
unity of the world and its multiplicity must do equal justice to both,
and it must be consistent with our previous recognition of the
experiential nature of the real.
We may perhaps work out our theory in detail as follows. The
world for knowledge must, we have seen, be an orderly whole or
system. To be a system at all, it must be the development or
expression in detail of a single principle. Therefore it must most
certainly be one; it cannot be a medley of independent elements
which somehow luckily happen to form a coherent collection. But
again, because it is a system, it cannot be a mere unit; it must be the
expression of a single principle in and through a multiplicity of terms
or constituents. Not only must it be both one and many, but it must
be many precisely because it is truly one, and one because it is truly
many.[59] Further, we must add that because the world-system is a
perfectly systematic whole, not only is multiplicity in general
necessary to its unity, but each particular element in the multiplicity is
necessitated or logically implied by the character of the unity. In a
complete system no single member can be missing or be other than
it is without the fundamental law of construction of the whole being
changed. Also, we may incidentally observe that in a complete
system the number of distinct terms may be actually endless, while
the law of construction is perfectly determinate. To think of the world
as a single systematic unity, then, means to think of it as the
manifestation in a possibly infinite multiplicity of detail of one
perfectly determinate principle. And, of course, what we have called
the individual elements of the multiplicity may on inspection
themselves turn out to be systems of infinite complexity determined
by a law of construction derived in a determinate way from that of the
complete system, and so on literally ad infinitum. Thus the unity of
ultimate principle we demand for Reality in no way excludes its
possession of a wealth of detail infinitely infinite.
§ 5. We may take a further most important step forward. In the all-
embracing systematic whole the unity and the multiplicity must be
equally real and each must be real through the other. How is this
possible? Only on condition that the whole system forms a single
experience, and that the constituent factors again are single
experiences. This will perhaps be best brought out by examining
some typical case of the kind of unity in multiplicity which is
insufficient for our purpose. (a) The unity of the world cannot be that
of a mere collection or aggregate. In a mere aggregate the elements
are real independently of their relation to one another as elements in
this aggregate. So long as we keep strictly to the case of what is no
more than an aggregate, the quality of the elements is entirely
unaffected by their inclusion in the aggregate. The aggregate has no
unitary character of its own which reveals itself in and through the
behaviour of its elements. Its unity consists in nothing more than the
fact that we have found it convenient to think of its elements
together. An aggregate of ten bricks, for instance, has no character
as a whole beyond the mere fact of being thought of in one mental
act. It has not even a collective weight until you put your ten bricks
into the same cart, or on the same scale-pan, and then they have
ceased to be a mere aggregate in the very moment of exerting
pressure upon the same surface, and have become a true material
system.
(b) Nor can the world of Reality be satisfactorily thought of as a
mere whole of parts. A whole of parts approaches indeed more
nearly to the ideal of a true systematic unity than a mere aggregate,
inasmuch as it has a determinate single character as a whole, which
manifests itself in the structure of the various parts. For this reason a
geometrical figure or a machine is much more than a mere
aggregate; it has a character as a whole, and this character is
differently expressed by the construction of the different parts. The
figure or machine is thus a true unity of differences. Yet in this case
we cannot really say that the unity and the variety are equally real.
For the whole cannot exist without the parts, whereas the parts may
continue to exist, though not, of course, as parts of this whole,
without the whole. The whole is constituted by the successive
generation or construction of the parts, and thus may be said to be
formed out of pre-existing parts, and the parts again may survive the
destruction of the whole. There is not that equal reality and complete
mutual implication of the two sides which we have deemed
necessary to a genuine systematic unity.
(c) An organism is in some respects a truer systematic unity than a
mere whole of parts. It has a systematic character of its own which
manifests itself in and through the difference of its various members.
And here, the whole is not historically subsequent to and generated
by the members. It is not their resultant but their living unity. The
members only come into being along with the whole, and in the
course of its growth as a whole; and though they may, in a sense,
continue to exist after severance from the whole, it is not with the
same kind of existence which belonged to them as members.[60] But
an organism, like a machine, fails to exhibit the perfect systematic
unity of the One and the Many of which we are in quest. In the
machine the aspect of multiplicity was relatively more real than that
of unity; in the fully evolved organism the unity seems more
completely real than the multiplicity. For the unity is a conscious one;
in some degree at least it exists for itself, and its members again for
it. Whereas it must be very doubtful whether the member exists for
itself, and still more doubtful whether the whole exists in any sense
for the members. And though the member cannot retain its peculiar
form of existence except as a member in the whole, yet in even the
highest organism the unity is so far relatively independent that it is
unaffected by the removal of some of the members.
Not every member is of vital significance for the life of the whole.
But in a complete systematic unity, as we saw, the unity and the
multiplicity of the system must be equally real and equally
interdependent. This can only be the case if the whole is for its
members as well as the members for the whole. And that this may
be so, just as the all-embracing whole of reality must, as we have
learned, be an experience, so each of its members must be itself an
experience. And because the members form a single system, just as
there can be nothing in the experience of any member which is not
contained in the experience which is the whole, so, on the other side,
there can be nothing in the whole which does not in some way affect
the experience of every member. Only in this way can we conceive
of a systematic Reality in which the unity and the multiplicity of the
system are alike real and equally real. Such a view is, strictly
speaking, hardly to be called either Pluralism or Monism. It is not
Pluralism, for it does not make the unity of the system an illusion or
an inexplicable accident; it is not Monism, in the current sense of the
word, because it does not make the multiplicity deceptive. If a name
is wanted, we might perhaps agree to call it Systematic Idealism.
§ 6. We may say, then, that Reality is a systematic Experience of
which the components are likewise experiences. It would be much
the same thing if we called it a subject which is the unity of
subordinate subjects. It is tempting again, at first sight, to say it is a
self of selves. But the extreme ambiguity of the term “self” as used in
contemporary Psychology makes it desirable to avoid an expression
which is capable of the gravest misuse.[61] It is scarcely possible to
say with any precision what we mean by one “self,” whereas it is
possible in a general way to say what we mean by one experience.
An experience may be called one and the same in so far as it is the
systematised expression of a single coherent purpose or interest, in
so far, in fact, as it has a teleological unity. In practice it may be
impossible to say precisely when this condition is fulfilled, but the
slightest acquaintance with the psychological facts of the struggle
between competing systems of ideas in normal, and of “dual” and
“multiple” personality in abnormal, mental life is sufficient to show
that the limits thus set by our definition to the single experience do
not coincide with those ascribed to my “self” or “personality” in any of
the shifting senses of the terms. The limits within which experience
remains one experience according to our definition are, as the facts
just alluded to show, often narrower, but again, the definition
suggests that they may also be wider, than any which would
currently be given to the “self.”
Moreover, what we have already said as to the possibility of each
“member” of our system being itself a system of lesser systems,
forbids us to identify our view with any doctrine which asserts merely
atomic and simple “selves” as the elements of Reality.
Another way of expressing the same thought would be to say that
Reality is an Individual of which the elements are lesser individuals.
The advantage of this form of expression is that it emphasises the
fundamentally teleological character of the unity of the real, and also
of each and all of its constituents. A thing, as we have already seen,
is individual just so far as it is unique, and only that which is the
embodiment of a single purpose or interest can be unique. A single
whole of experience, owing its unity as a whole precisely to the
completeness and harmony with which it expresses a single purpose
or interest, is necessarily an individual. The all-embracing
experience which constitutes Reality is thus in its inmost nature a
complete individual. And the lesser experiences which form the
elements or material content of Reality are each, just so far as each
is truly one experience, individual in the same sense as the whole.
We may thus call Reality a complete or perfect individual of minor or
incomplete individuals.
What the fundamental distinction between the supreme individual
whole and the lesser individuals must be taken to consist in we shall
discuss in our next chapter. Meanwhile we may note two points:—(1)
The important thing about an individual is not its mere numerical
unity, but its qualitative uniqueness. Any experience which we can
pronounce to be individual must be called so, not merely because it
is numerically one and not many, but because it is the consistent and
harmonious embodiment of a coherent purpose. Numerically
considered, every such individual is necessarily many as well as
one, precisely because it is a system. This applies especially to the
supreme or absolute individual, the complete system of experience.
It is individual primarily not because it is numerically one, but
because it is the complete expression of a coherent idea or purpose.
It has been the defect of too many monistic theories to overlook this,
and to lay the main stress on the numerical oneness of the real.
(2) An experience individual in the sense already explained is what
we mean by a “spirit.” Spirit cannot be properly defined by
contradistinction from a supposed non-spiritual reality, such as
“matter,” for such a definition would only amount to the assertion that
spirit is what is not other than spirit; and would tell us nothing of the
term to be defined. Nor, again, is spirit properly defined as a series of
states or modifications of the abstraction “consciousness.” The
positive characteristic by which spiritual existence may be
recognised is that in it the what and the that are combined in the
unity of immediate feeling. And immediate feeling, as we have seen,
is essentially teleological. Where you have a connected system of
factors which can only be understood as a whole by reference to an
explicit or implicit end, which constitutes their unity, you have spirit,
and where you have spirit you have such a system. So that to call
reality an individual of individuals is the same thing as to say that it is
a spiritual system of which the elements, constituents, or terms, are
in their turn spiritual systems.[62] Our doctrine may thus be seen to be
fairly entitled to the name Idealism, which current usage has
appropriated to the view that all existence is ultimately mental.
§ 7. Such a relation as we have asserted between the individual
whole of Reality and the elements or terms within the whole is
necessarily unique, and cannot be adequately illustrated from any
less perfect type of systematic unity recognised by everyday or by
scientific thought. In particular, we must carefully avoid the mistake
of conceiving the relation of the elements to the totality in a
mechanical way as that of “parts” to a “whole of parts”; or, again, in a
merely biological way, as that of “members” to an organism. All such
analogies lose sight of the intimate character of a union in which the
elements and the totality exist not merely in and through, but also for
each other.
The individual experiences which compose the supreme
experience have a genuine, if an imperfect and partial, individuality
of their own. They are not in it merely “ideally” or implicitly, as the
points on a curve may be said to be in the periphery. And the whole,
again, is a real individual, not a mere aggregate in which the parts
are real but their unity merely imaginary. We may, if we like, say that
it is made up of experiences or minds, but we must not say that it is
a collection of minds. For a mere collection, as we have seen, in so
far as it is a collection and nothing more, cannot be said to have any
genuine individuality, precisely because it has no teleological unity of
structure beyond that which we arbitrarily, and with reference to ends
lying outside its own nature, impose upon it in the very act of
counting its members, i.e. arranging them in serial order. Whether
we could properly speak of the absolute whole as a society of minds
is a further and a more difficult question. A society is much more
than a mere collection: it has a purposive unity of structure which
exists not merely for the sociological observer from without, but for
its own members as active in assigning to each of them his own
special place in relation to all the rest. How far society can be said to
have such a unity for itself is a question which we cannot answer
until we have dealt more fully with the problem of the relation
between selfhood and individuality. And until we have answered it,
we must defer the decision as to whether the systematic individuality
of the Absolute would be adequately recognised if we thought of it as
a society. (See infra, Bk. IV. chap. 3.)
If we are to look at this stage for some analogue within our partial
experience for the kind of unity of individuals in a single supreme
individual which we have demanded for the system of Reality, we
shall probably do best to turn to what is after all the most familiar
thing in the world,—our own personal experience. If we consider the
nature of any coherent purpose or “mental system,” we shall find
that, as the coherent embodiment of a purpose, it possesses a
degree of individuality of its own. In proportion to the

Ebook Western Civilization A Brief History PDF Full Chapter PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Ebook Western Civilization A Brief History PDF Full Chapter PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Western Civilization: A Brief History -

Australia • Brazil • Mexico • Singapore • United Kingdom • United States

IP Analyst: Alexandra Ricciardi

Cengage Learning is a leading provider of customized learning solutions with

Cengage Learning products are represented in Canada by Nelson

To learn more about Cengage Learning Solutions, visit www.cengage.com.

DOCUMENTS XIV 9 THE RECOVERY AND GROWTH OF EUROPEAN

1 THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST: THE FIRST

3 THE CIVILIZATION OF THE GREEKS 48

7 LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE EMERGENCE OF THE GLOSSARY 405

1 The Ancient Near East: The First

Assyrian Society and Culture 38

Egyptian Civilization: ‘‘The Gift of the Nile’’ 14

The Decline of the Greek States The Greeks in Italy 95

4 The Hellenistic World

viii Detailed Contents

The New Order 121

Transformation of the Roman World: Crises in

7 Late Antiquity and the

World 146 The Manorial System 186

9 The Recovery and Growth of

The Intellectual and Artistic World of the High

12 Recovery and Rebirth:

15 State Building and the

xii Detailed Contents

Detailed Contents xiii

CHAPTER 1 Alexander Meets an Indian King (Arrian, The

Alexander (2004) 79 Elizabeth (1998) 323

IMAGES OF EVERYDAY LIFE

The Egyptian Diet 22 Entertainment in the Middle Ages 269

DURING A VISIT to Great Britain, where he studied Features of the Text

Patricia Adelle Leonard R. Berlanstein Michael Clinton

Studying from Primary Source Materials

Studying from Primary Source Materials xxxi

xxxii Studying from Primary Source Materials

arrow does not appear on the map, be sure you

Studying from Primary Source Materials xxxiii

To kingdom of Piedmont, 1859 Mes

xxxiv Studying from Primary Source Materials

accorded (lines 53–58)? Protection from what, do

Studying from Primary Source Materials xxxv

xxxvi Studying from Primary Source Materials

Essam Al-Sudani/AFP/Getty Images

2 Chapter 1 The Ancient Near East: The First Civilizations

The spread of Homo sapiens sapiens

The First Humans 3

4 Chapter 1 The Ancient Near East: The First Civilizations

division of labor, men holding power—all of these are

NEW DEVELOPMENTS Between 4000 and 3000 B.C.E., sig-

The First Humans 5

kings and an upper class of priests, Another early civilization emerged

6 Chapter 1 The Ancient Near East: The First Civilizations

THE SYSTEMATIC UNITY OF REALITY

§ 1. The problem of the One and the Many is as old as Philosophy

You might also like