A project work

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of bachelor of science in Materials
science and Engineering of the university of Rajshahi, Bangladesh

Submitted by
Muha Nazmul Hosen
Examination roll no : 1710678123
Registration no: 1710678123
Session: 2016- 2017
Examination year: 2022
B.sc (Hon’s) part-IV

Department of Materials Science and Engineering

University of Rajshahi.

December 2022
Student ID : 1710678123

Muha Nazmul Hosen

Examination roll no : 1710678123
Registration no: 1710678123
Session: 2016 - 2017
Examination year: 2020 (held in 2022)

Dissertation title
A review of polyvinyl alcohol/carboxymethyl
cellulose (PVA/CMC) composites for various
applications & Manufacturing of Plastic Sand
Bricks

Recommended to Submit

1. Supervisor

(Dr. G.M. Shafiur Rahman)

Professor
Department of Materials Science and Engineering
University of Rajshahi, Rajshahi- 6205
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

At first I would like to express my gratitude to the almighty Allah, who gave me the opportunity
to finish my Project work successfully, which is an essential part to complete my B.Sc. degree in
Materials Science and Engineering.

I would like to express my gratitude to my honorable supervisor, Dr. G. M. Shafiur

Rahman, Professor; Department of Materials Science and Engineering; University of Rajshahi;
His proper directions and support, excellent guidance, valuable discussions, active help, untold
patience, co-operation, interest and inspiration made this study and made a rewarding
experience.

I am extremely grateful to my respectable teachers Dr. Md. Anwarul Kabir Bhuiya,

Professor and Chairman, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of
Rajshahi and special thanks to all of my respectable teachers of the Department of Materials
Science and Engineering for helpful and supportive contribution.

It is my pleasure to express my special thanks to all of my friends and others whose

assistance and encouragement provides inspiration towards the completion of this work.

Lastly, I would mention a very special gratefulness to my family members and relatives
for their moral support, encouragement and financial support. This dissertation would have
never been possible without their true love and affection.

The Author

Muha. Nazmul Hosen

 ABSTRACT
Polyvinyl alcohol/carboxymethyl cellulose (PVA/CMC) composites have
attracted considerable attention due to the synergic relation between the two
polymers and developing novel blends with improved properties. On one hand,
PVA is a versatile polymer with higher mechanical properties compared to CMC.
On the other hand, CMC has high biodegradability and biocompatibility, while
suffering from poor mechanical properties.

Therefore, the blending of the two polymers can help to benefit from the individual
component properties. This paper has reviewed the properties and potential
applications (e.g. drug delivery, food packaging, and agriculture) of the PVA/
CMC composites.
The plastic waste is the hazardous problem in today’s world. This is most
dangerous problem in front of humanity. The most hazardous type of wastes are
HDPE and PTE and the plastic below 50micron is also causing a serious problem.
These plastic mixed in the soil, it directly effects on fertility of the soil. Nowadays,
the large amount of plastic is deposited into sea.

This plastic wastes gives hazardous effect on the aquatic life and quality of
seawater also polluted by this plastic. So, we try to finding efficient way to solve
this problem of plastic waste. So, we added this plastic wastes into the bricks and
create the bricks by using plastic wastes. It is most economical solution present in
the construction industry and it is also economical and environment friendly
solution of the plastic wastes.
 Table of contents

(PVA/CMC) composites for various applications

1. Introduction……………………………………………………………….. 1
2. Properties of PVA/CMC composites ......................................................... 2
3. Preparation of PVA/CMC composites ......................................................... 4
4. Applications of PVA/CMC composites ....................................................... 7
4.1 Application in food packaging
4.2 Application in agriculture
5. Conclusions and future insights…................................................................. 9
6. References ..................................................................................................... 10

Manufacturing of Plastic Sand Bricks

1. Introduction ……................................................................................................ 16
1.1 Objectives
2 Materials and equipments used for plastic sand bricks........................................................ 17
3 Properties of plastic ..............................................................................................18
4 Disadvantages of Plastic Bottles ............................................................................. 19
5. Methodology……………………………………………………………………………….. 21
5.1 Water absorption test
6. Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………………….. 23
7. References…………………………………………………………………………….............24
1.Introduction
The main structural component of plants is cellulose, which is renewable and biodegradable. It
is the most abundant natural biopolymer in the world. Natural cellulose fibers are synthesized
mainly in plants such as grasses, reeds, stalks, and woody vegetation by photosynthesis. The
natural fibers are attractive to replace man-made fibers such as glass and aramid fibers as
reinforcement and fillers to make environmentally friendly products because they have many
advantages such as renewable, low cost, low density, low energy consumption, high specific
strength and modulus, high sound attenuation, nonabrasive, relatively reactive surface.

Cellulose derivatives such as carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) are biocompatible and have been
applied in drug delivery formulations Despite these successful applications and their very low
cost, cellulose derivatives have been relatively underutilized in the bioengineering field. CMC is
an ionic linear polysaccharide derived from cellulose. It is an important industrial polymer with
a wide range of applications in flocculation, drug reduction, detergents, textiles, papers, foods,
and drugs.
CMC is used primarily because it has high viscosity, is non-toxic, and is non-allergenic. The
numerous hydroxyl and carboxylic groups in CMC enable water binding and moisture sorption
properties. CMC hydro-gel has a high water content, good biodegradability, and a wide range of
applications due to its low cost.

Because of its polymeric structure and high molecular weight, it can be used as filler in bio-
composite films . CMC is able to improve the mechanical and barrier properties of pea starch-
based films. Because of its pronounced visco-elastic and structure-forming properties, the
cellulose ether sodium carboxy methylcellulose (NaCMC) is employed
As a flow enhancer, a stabilizer, and also as an agent for binding, suspending and thickening.
Polymer systems are made up of chemical bonds along the polymer chains and physical bonds
across the polymer chains. The former includes covalent bonds and the latter results from
hydrogen bonding, dipolar bonding, or van der Waals forces.
The type of physical bonding has huge effects on the physical properties of polymers.
Particularly with the systems in which hydrogen bonding has a dominant effect, the physical
properties are strongly dependent not only on the molecular weight and concentration of polymer
but also the kind of solvent systems.
Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) is a semi crystalline polymer whose hydroxyl groups produce inter- and
intra-molecular hydrogen bonding

1
The purpose of this research was to investigate the physical and mechanical properties of
polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and Carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) composite materials, the PVA
polymer reinforced in the CMC polymer as filler. PVA and CMC composites were prepared by
film casting method

Fig. 1: Molecular interaction of PVA and CMC.

2.Properties of PVA/CMC composites

The physical and chemical properties of polymers are influenced by the chemical
structure of polymers. The flow and morphology of polymers depend on their
chemical structures, which leads to different physical properties. Taghizade et al.
Developed PVA/starch (S)/ CMC) composite films using the casting method in the
presence of glycerol-containing plasticizer. According to the results, PVA/S/CMC
blends showed higher thermal stability compared to PVA/S. This was reported to be
due to the addition of CMC resulting in the improvement of the thermal stability of
the PVA/S blend.

2
 Miao et al prepared a negatively charged nanofiltration membrane based on
PVA/CMC-Na composite produced by interfacial polymerization. The resultant
composite membrane exhibited high stability in long-term use. According to this
study, the cross-linked PVA-based composite could provide a good balance between
the salt rejection and the permeate flux under lower operating pressure.

Fig. 2. Crosslinking of PVA and CMC by CA

Tajeddin et al. also reported the water absorption of 22.03 percent for PVA/CMC
blend film prepared by the casting method after 24 h. Zhu et al. stated that the pure
PVA film had low water sorption and it enhanced by adding CMC to the composite
film.

3
 This was reported to be due to the blending of two different molecule types
resulting in the structure deformation and making more hydrophilic networks.
Furthermore, the solubility of the composite was around 70 % after 24 h.
Polymer blend films are widely used for metal ions adsorption .

El-Newehy et al. used the electrospinning technique to prepare CMC/PVA

nanofibers for the controlled release of diclofenac sodium (DS). The study showed
that the CMC/PVA nanofibers blend exhibited good mechanical properties.

Additionally, the in vitro release study showed that the presence of CMC led to the
sustained controlled of the DS release from the nanofibers mats. The CMC/PVA
nanofibers system could be offered as a promising material for drug delivery
applications due to the low cost and biocompatibility of the blend.

3. Preparation of PVA/CMC composites

A CMC hydrogel film was prepared by dissolving 2 g of CMC in 100 ml distilled

water under magnetic stirring at room temperature for 30 minutes. Then 0.2 g PVA
was added to CMC solution under stirring. After the mixture was stirred at 50 0C
for 4 h and complete solubilization was occurred, the crosslinking agent CA was
added under stirring at concentrations of10% (CMC/PVA/CA10) and 15%
(CMC/PVA/CA15) m/m % of CMC+PVA polymer and homogenized for 20
minutes.

4
 Fig 3. Electrical balance to measure CMC

. Fig. 4 Magnetic stirring at room temperature

5
Afterward, 10 ml of the solutions were cast in a petri dish (60 mm diameter) and allowed to dry
at 40 ± 2 0C for 24 h to remove water. In the sequence, the samples were kept at 80 ± 2 0C for 24
h for the crosslinking reaction (slow evaporation method). As a reference, a sample without CA
(CMC/CA0) was also prepared and dried following the same thermal treatment.

Fig 5 : Petri dish

6
 4.Applications of PVA/CMC composites
4.1 Application in food packaging

An innovative food packaging is active packaging in which the advances in

material sciences, packaging, food safety, and food technology are combined for
satisfying consumer demand for safe and fresh-like products. Because of
environmental considerations over the past few years, using synthetic polymers is
restricted. There has been ever-increasing attention in biopolymers including
proteins, lipids, and polysaccharides. Active agents can be incorporated into the
polymer structure in active packaging leading to a low diffusion rate of active
compounds and the maintenance of active agents with high concentrations in the
surface of packaging materials during the shelf life. In the cosmetics and food
industries, CMC has been utilized as a water-retention agent and stabilizer. PVA has
also been incorporated to improve the mechanical properties.
Muppalla et al. fabricated PVA/CMC films with clove oil by the casting method
as active packaging for ground chicken meat. The results demonstrated an increase
in the tensile strength and puncture force of the CMC film and the reduction of water
vapor transmission rate with the increase in the PVA concentration.

Fasihi et al. produced biodegradable active films based on CMC/PVA/oleic acid

(OL) containing rosemary essential oil (REO) via Pickering emulsions. The results
demonstrated that the films containing REO showed considerable antimicrobial and
antioxidant properties. In the films with 3% REO, the fungal inhibition against
Penicillium digitatum was 100%.

In bread slices that were packed with the active films containing 3% REO, no
fungal growth was observed at 25 ⁰C after 60 days of storage. This might be due to
the regular, slow release of REO resulting from Pickering emulsions.

7
Villarruel et al. developed blend films based on CMC and PVA and modified it
with UV radiation in the presence of sodium benzoate (SB). According to the
result, the newly developed materials showed different chemical and thermal
stability compared to single components. Both blend films and UV-induced ones
revealed the very low value of oxygen barrier properties making them suitable
materials for packaging applications with selective oxygen permeability.
Moreover, the UV treatment in the films containing SB inhibited the growth of a
wide spectrum of microorganisms and increased their insolubility in water making
them potential materials to be used as food packaging emulsion.

4.2 Application in agriculture

Blend films have the potential to be utilized as coating materials for controlling
the fertilizer release. CMC/PVA blend films were produced by a cross-linking
reaction between CMC and PVA for the potential application as coating materials.
The results indicated that the prepared CMC/PVA films possessed a smooth surface.

The reduction of water permeability and absorbency of the blend films was
observed by the increment of the PVA content. As a result of the good
biodegradability of the CMC/PVA blend films, they can be considered as potential
coating materials for the control-release fertilizer.
For efficient fertilizer and water management, Ozen et al. coated nonwoven fabrics
with potassium nitrate/CMC. The fabrics were pre-coated with PVA and the cross-
linking with CMC was carried out using citric acid. According to the results, the
PVA pre-coating and the subsequent cross-linking of CMC led to the provision of a
synergistic effect for a considerable enhancement of fertilizer release management
and moisture. Obtaining a controlled release of fertilizer with an improvement in
water absorption/retention behavior is an outstanding step forward in the efficient
sustainable agriculture field.

8
5.Conclusions and future insights
In this study, the recent findings of the properties and applications of PVA/CMC
composites and blends including food packaging, and agriculture were reviewed.
These novel composites have great potential for the active packaging of food
products. Moreover, they show enhanced water solubility leading to improved
bioavailability and dissolution for wound healing.

These properties make them the promising materials for hydrogel production to
deliver drug and moisture to the wound site. In addition, these composites can be
utilized in agriculture for the controlled release of fertilizer.

PVA/CMC composites are gaining great attention in biomedical applications due

to offering various advantages in different fields. Their properties can be tailored by
controlling their structures to enhance their properties for various applications. The
PVA/CMC hydrogels as wound dressings act as barriers to microorganisms while
retaining their permeability to oxygen.
Thus, these attractive composites can be promising materials for drug delivery and
wound dressing application and the incorporation of other reinforcement or
components might be investigated for the improvement of the properties as well as
new production methods. They can also be useful for producing masks to protect
against coronavirus. Therefore, further well-designed studies will be required for the
development and enhancement of these effective materials.

9
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13
 Manufacturing of Plastic Sand Bricks

Introduction

Plastic is a non-bio-degradable substance which takes thousands of years to

decompose that creates land as well as water pollution to the environment. The
quantity of plastic waste in Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) is expanding rapidly. It
is estimated that the rate of usage is double for every 10 years. The Plastic usage is
large in consumption and one of the largest plastic wastes is polyethylene (PE).
The utilization of earth based clay material resulted in resource depletion and
environmental degradation. As amount of clay required for brick is huge, in this
project these waste plastics are effectively utilized in order to reduce t he land space
required to dump these wastes.

This creates the prevention from various harmful diseases. Polyethylene (PE) bags
are cleaned and added with fine aggregate at various ratios to obtain high strength
bricks that possess thermal and sound insulation properties. This is one of the best
ways to avoid the accumulation of plastic waste. It also helps to conserve energy,
reduce the overall cost of construction and hence in this project, an attempts made
to manufacture the plastic sand bricks by utilizing the waste plastics.
Building materials like bricks, concrete block, tiles, etc. are popularly used in
construction. However, these materials are expensive and hence common people
find it difficult to easily afford them. Moreover, these building materials require
certain specific compositions to obtain desired properties. Plastic is one of the recent
engineering materials which have appeared in the market all over the world. It is a
material consisting of a wide range of synthetic or semi-synthetic organic
compounds that are malleable and can be molded into solid objects.
By definition, plastics can be made to different shapes when they are heated. It exists
in the different forms such as cups, furniture, basins, plastic bags, food and drinking
containers and they become waste material. Accumulation of such wastes can result

14
into hazardous effects to both human and plant life. Therefore, need for proper
disposal, and if possible, use of these wastes in their recycled forms arises.
Nowadays, human apply all of its potentiality to consume more. The result of this
high consumption is nothing unless reducing the initial resources and increasing the
landfill. In recent times, human from the one hand is always seeking broader sources
with lower price and from the other hand is following the way to get rid of the wastes.
The waste today can be produced wherever humans footprints be existed, and remind
him that they have not chosen the appropriate method for exploitation of the nature.
This paper introduces the development and low cost housing in India Plastic have
become an essential part of our day to day life since their introduction over hundred
years ago.

Properties of plastic

Plastic have many good characteristics which include versatility, light-ness,

hardness, and resistant to chemicals, water and impact. It makes up much of the
street side litter in urban and rural areas. It is rapidly filling up landfills as choking
water bodies. Plastic bottles make up approximately 11% of the content landfills,
causing serious environmental consequences. Due to the consequences some of the
plastic facts are as follow:

 More than 20,000 plastic bottles are needed to obtain one ton of plastic.
 It is estimated that 100 million tons of plastic are produced each year.
 The average European throws away 36 kg. of plastics each year.
 Some plastic waste sacks are made from 64% recycled plastic.
 Plastics packaging totals 42% of total consumption and every year little of
this is
 recycled.

15
According to ENSO Bottles, in the 1960’s plastic bottle production has been
negligible but over the years there was an alarming increase in bottles produced
and sold but the rate of recycling is still very low.

Disadvantages of Plastic Bottles

Decomposition: The main disadvantages of plastic bottles is the shear amount of

time they take to decompose he averages plastic bottle takes 500 years plastics
decomposition can be agented by various factors, such as the types of plastic, the
climate and acids in the landfill; plastic still lasts a long time, filling landfills for an
indefinite period.

Non-renewable: Plastic is manufactured using oil by products and natural gas

material that could be used in numerous other applications or conserved were plastic
usage lower. Natural gas for example, can be used to heat houses and cook food.
using plastic in the volume we currently do reduces the availability of these
resources, which are gone forever when used up.

Hard to use: The standard disposable plastic bottle is meant for one use, not many.
recycled plastic bottles are not refilled in mass they glass beer bottles are , and flimsy
plastic bottles do not lead themselves well to at home re-usage.

Difficult to recycle: Glass bottles can be meted and easily reused as can tin cans.
Recycling plastic is not so simple. Instead recycled plastic bottles are used to make
non-recyclable products, such as t-shirts, lactic lumber or parking lot bueners. This
means more raw materials need to be used to create new plastic bottles than is the
case with easily recycled material, such as glass or tin.

16
Objectives of this work

1. To develop an efficient way and effectively utilize the waste plastics

2. To minimize and reuse generation of waste plastic on the land and water to
avoid land and water degradation and consequent pollustion hazard.
3. To produces cost effective bricks

Materials and equipments used for plastic sand bricks

Sand

Natural river sand was used as a fine aggregate. The properties of sand were
determined by conducting tests as per IS: 2386 (Part-1). The results are shown in test
data of materials. The results obtained from sieve analysis are furnished. The results
indicate that the sand conforms to zone 11 of IS: 383-1970.

17
 Waste Plastic
Plastics are commonly used substances which play an important role in almost every
aspect of our lives. The widespread generation of plastics waste needs proper end-
of-life management. The highest amount of plastics is found in containers and
packaging’s (i.e. bottles, packaging, cups etc.), but they also are found in durables
(e.g. tires, building materials, furniture, etc.) and disposable goods (e.g. medical
devices). Diversity of plastics applications is related with their specific properties,
low density, easy processing, good mechanical properties, good chemical resistance,
excellent thermal and electrical insulating properties and low cost ( in comparison
to other materials). Post-production and post-consumer plastics are utilized in a wide
range of applications.

Equipments

Fig. Bricks mould Fig. Furnace

18
5. Methodology

First, we need to collect the plastic waste and separate it from other wastes.
Second, we should dry the plastic waste if it is wet and has a content of moisture.
We have to use dry plastic waste. Then, we crush the plastic waste in small
particles. The small particles crush into fine size particles.

Fine particles of plastics waste also heated on a furnace till it is in a liquid form.
We add the sand into the melt plastic. We can mix it properly and make a mix. We
poured the mix into mold. Keep it the mold for dry.

Fig. Collection of plastic waste Fig: Methodolog

19
Fig. Melting plastic in furnace

20
 Fig. Final bricks
Water absorption test of plastic sand bricks

Fig.2 water absorption test Fig. table of absorption

21
Conclusion
1.Waste plastic, which is available everywhere, may be put to an effective use in
bricks making
2. Plastic sand bricks can help reduce the environmental pollution, thereby making
the environment clean and healthy.
3. Plastic sand bricks reduce the usage of clay in making of bricks.
4. Plastic sand bricks give an alternative option of bricks to the customers on
affordable rates.
5. Water absorption of plastic sand brick is zero percent.
6. We conclude that the plastic sand bricks are useful for the construction industry
when we compare with Fly Ash bricks and 3rd class clay bricks

Refrences:-
1. Aguado et al., 2007 J. Aguado, D.P. Serrano, G.S. Miguel, J.M. Escola, J.M.
Rodriguez Catalytic activity of zeolitic and meso structured catalysts in the
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