Professional Documents
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Design Standards For Low Volume Roads
Design Standards For Low Volume Roads
Introduction
Design parameters
Pavement design
Drainage and
erosion control
B TABLE OF CONTENTS
B. TABLE OF CONTENTS ..................................................................................................... B.iii
B. LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................... B.V
B. LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................B.Vii
1. INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................B.1
2. POLICY AND LEGISLATIVE CONTROLS ...........................................................................B.2
2.1 Legal Framework ............................................................................................................B.2
2.2 Road Safety .....................................................................................................................B.3
3. DESIGN PARAMETERS......................................................................................................B.4
3.1 Climate ............................................................................................................................B.4
3.2 Terrain ..............................................................................................................................B.5
3.3 Demographics .................................................................................................................B.5
4RAFÞC ...............................................................................................................................B.5
6EHICLECLASSIÞCATION .........................................................................................B.5
4RAFÞCVOLUMES ..................................................................................................B.6
4RAFÞCGROWTH ....................................................................................................B.6
3.4.4 Geometric design .............................................................................................B.6
3.4.5 Structural design ...............................................................................................B.6
3.4.6 Equivalent standard axles per vehicle class ......................................................B.7
4. GEOMETRIC DESIGN STANDARDS ..................................................................................B.9
4RAFÞCCOMPOSITION .......................................................................................................B.10
4.2 Roadside Population and non-motorised vehicles ........................................................B.10
4.3 Geometric Design Standards for LVRs...........................................................................B.11
4.4 Design-by-eye ...............................................................................................................B.17
4.5 Typical Cross Sections ..................................................................................................B.17
5. MATERIALS .....................................................................................................................B.30
5.1 Subgrades ....................................................................................................................B.30
5.1.1 Specifying the design subgrade class ............................................................B.30
5.1.2 Material depth ...............................................................................................B.31
5.1.3 Improved subgrade layers ..............................................................................B.32
5.1.4 Dealing with poor subgrade soils ...................................................................B.32
5.2 Pavement Materials .......................................................................................................B.32
5.2.1 Materials requirements for roadbase ..............................................................B.34
5.2.2 Material requirements for sub-base ................................................................B.37
5.2.3 Material requirements for gravel wearing course ...........................................B.37
5.2.4 Material Improvement ....................................................................................B.40
6. PAVEMENT DESIGN........................................................................................................B.41
$ESIGNTRAFÞCCLASSES ....................................................................................................B.41
6.2 Engineered natural surfaces ..........................................................................................B.41
6.3 Natural gravel roads .....................................................................................................B.42
6.3.1 Major gravel roads .........................................................................................B.42
6.3.2 Minor gravel roads ..........................................................................................B.44
6.4 Surfacing options and design standards for paved roads ............................................B.45
6.4.1 Bituminous surfaced roads ............................................................................B.45
6.4.2 Non bituminous surfaced roads .....................................................................B.46
7. DRAINAGE AND EROSION CONTROL ..........................................................................B.53
7.1 Size of watercourse .......................................................................................................B.52
B LIST OF TABLES
B LIST OF FIGURES
1. INTRODUCTION
,OW6OLUME2OADSAREDEÞNEDASTHOSEROADSCARRYING
Up to about 300 vehicles per day; and
Less than about 1 million equivalent standard axles.
&OR GEOMETRIC DESIGNS ROADS CARRYING AN EXCESS OF VPD SHOULD BE DESIGNED IN ACCORDANCE WITH
THE 'EOMETRIC $ESIGN -ANUAL &OR ROADS CARRYING IN EXCESS OF VPD BUT WITH A TOTAL TRAFÞC
LOADINGOFLESSTHAN-ESA THESTRUCTURALPAVEMENTDESIGNSHOULDBECARRIEDOUTINACCORDANCEWITHTHE
standards in this document.
&ORSTRUCTURALPAVEMENTDESIGN ROADSCARRYINGINEXCESSOF-ESASHOULDBEDESIGNEDINACCORDANCE
WITHTHE0AVEMENT$ESIGN-ANUAL&ORROADSCARRYINGINEXCESSOF-ESA BUTWITHATRAFÞCVOLUME
OFLESSTHANVPD THEGEOMETRICDESIGNSHOULDBECARRIEDOUTINACCORDANCEWITHTHESTANDARDSINTHIS
document.
,OW6OLUME2OADSFALLUNDERTHERESPONSIBILITYOFSEVERALAUTHORITIESINCLUDINGCOMMUNITYCOOPERATIVE
STRUCTURES KEBELE AND WEREDA ADMINISTRATIONS AND THE REGIONAL AND FEDERAL ROAD AUTHORITIES 4HIS
manual provides the requirements for the design of low volume roads under the responsibility of these
authorities. The standards provide an appropriate level of service for each class of road.
4HE CUSTODIAN OF DESIGN STANDARDS FOR ALL ROADS INCLUDING THE ASSOCIATED SPECIÞCATIONS AND STANDARD
DRAWINGS ISTHE%THIOPIAN2OADSØUTHORITY %2Ø
4HEREAREFOURCLASSESOF,62KNOWNAS$#TO$#BASEDONTRAFÞCLEVELS WITHEACHCLASSBEINGDEÞNED
BYAPPROPRIATEGEOMETRICDESIGNSTANDARDS 0ARTØ &IGUREØ /NCETHEGEOMETRICSTANDARDSARE
ÞXED THEDESIGNAPPROACHFOR,62SREQUIRESTHESELECTIONOFASURFACINGTECHNOLOGY PAVEMENTDESIGN
and drainage appropriate to the road environment.
4HE %NVIRONMENTALLY /PTIMISED $ESIGN APPROACH OUTLINED IN 0ART Ø ALLOWS DIFFERENT SOLUTIONS TO BE
adopted along the road. The manual also provides comprehensive guidance on the design of water
crossings and retaining structures that provide a level of service commensurate with the standard of the
road.
%2ØmS 'ENERAL 4ECHNICAL 3PECIÞCATIONS CONTAIN THE DETAILED ENGINEERING REQUIREMENTS SUPPORTING
THE DESIGN 4HESE MAY BE MODIÞED AND ADDED TO IN EXCEPTIONAL CIRCUMSTANCES DEPENDING ON THE
REQUIREMENTSOFTHESPECIÞCPROJECTORROADENVIRONMENT
4HE DESIGN OPTIONS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS DRAINAGE AND RETAINING STRUCTURES ASSUME THAT ADEQUATE
maintenance is carried out on the road.
'OVERNMENT POLICY NATIONAL LEGISLATION AND DEVELOPMENT PLANNING DICTATE THE UNDERLYING PRINCIPLES
OFLOWVOLUMEROADDESIGN4HISINCLUDES FOREXAMPLE ENVIRONMENTALCONTROLS ROADSAFETYLEGISLATION
promotion of the use of labour or application of intermediate equipment based technologies to encourage
LOCALPARTICIPATIONAND3-%DEVELOPMENTØUTHORITIESMAYCHOOSETOPUTEMPHASISON#OMPLEMENTARY
)NTERVENTIONS ASSETOUTIN0ART#
The requirements of existing environmental legislation and related government proclamations are
summarised in Table B.2.1.
3. DESIGN PARAMETERS
3.1 Climate
The climatic descriptor which is used for the pavement design catalogues is the Weinert ‘N’ value
7EINERT 4HISINDEXISCALCULATEDASFOLLOWS
where:
Ej = evaporation for the warmest month
Pa = total annual precipitation
The climatic zones demarcated by the N-values are macro-climates and it should be kept in mind that
different micro-climates may occur within these regions. This is particularly important where such local
MICROCLIMATES CAN PLAY A SIGNIÞCANT ROLE IN DETERMINING THE INSITU MOISTURE CONTENT OF THE VARIOUS
pavement layers; a factor which needs to be considered in the choice of N-Value or the subgrade class
used for design purposes.
3.2 Terrain
Terrain class is determined by the number of 5-metre contours crossed by a straight line connecting the
TWOENDSOFTHEROADSECTIONINQUESTIONACCORDINGTOTHEFOLLOWINGDEÞNITIONS
TOÞVEMETRECONTOURSPERKM4HENATURALGROUNDSLOPESPERPENDICULARTO
Flat
the ground contours are generally below 3%.
TOÞVEMETRECONTOURSPERKM4HENATURALGROUNDSLOPESPERPENDICULARTO
Rolling
the ground contours are generally between 3 and 25%.
TOÞVEMETRECONTOURSPERKM4HENATURALGROUNDSLOPESPERPENDICULARTO
Mountainous
the ground contours are generally above 25%.
Escarpments are geological features that require special geometric standards
Escarpment because of the engineering risks involved. Typical gradients are greater than
those encountered in mountainous terrain.
It should be noted that it is not dependent on the alignment chosen for the road.
3.3 Demographics
ØPPROPRIATEDESIGNAPPROACHESMUSTBEINTRODUCEDINPOPULOUSAREASTOMITIGATETHEEFFECTSOFDUSTAND
IMPROVETHESAFETYOFROADUSERS ADDITIONALROADWIDTHS PARKING BUSLAYBYS ANDAPPROPRIATEDRAINAGE
systems.
3.4 4RAFÞC
4HEUSEOFTRAFÞCDATAVARIESDEPENDINGONWHETHERITISBEINGUSEDFORGEOMETRICDESIGNORPAVEMENT
STRUCTURALDESIGN4RAFÞCGROWTHNEEDSTOBETAKENINTOACCOUNTINTHEDESIGNPROCESS
3.4.1 6EHICLECLASSIÞCATION
4ABLE"SHOWSTHEVEHICLECLASSIÞCATION
4ABLE"6EHICLE#LASSIÞCATION
For geometric design purposes it is also necessary to count non-motorised and intermediate means of
TRANSPORTINCLUDINGPEDESTRIANS BICYCLES ANIMALTRANSPORT MOTORCYCLES TRACTORSANDTRAILERS
3.4.2 4RAFÞCVOLUMES
7HERETHEREISNOEXISTINGROADOFANYSORT THEEXISTINGPEDESTRIANTRAFÞCCANBEUSEDTOESTIMATETHE
LIKELYVEHICULARTRAFÞCAFTERTHEROADISCONSTRUCTEDØLTERNATIVELY TRAFÞCINFORMATIONMIGHTBEAVAILABLE
FROMANECONOMICEVALUATIONCARRIEDOUTTOJUSTIFYTHEROADINTHEÞRSTPLACE)NTHEUNLIKELYEVENTTHAT
THEREISNOINFORMATIONAVAILABLE THELOWESTCLASSOFENGINEEREDROAD $# SHOULDBEPROVIDED
3.4.3 4RAFÞCGROWTH
&UTURETRAFÞCFALLSINTOTHEFOLLOWINGTHREECATEGORIES
.ORMALTRAFÞC4RAFÞCWHICHWOULDPASSALONGTHEEXISTINGROADORTRACKEVENIFNONEWPAVEMENT
were provided.
'ENERATEDTRAFÞCØDDITIONALTRAFÞCWHICHOCCURSINRESPONSETOTHEPROVISIONORIMPROVEMENTOF
the road.
$IVERTEDTRAFÞC4RAFÞCTHATCHANGESFROMANOTHERROUTE ORMODEOFTRANSPORT TOTHEPROJECTROAD
BECAUSEOFTHEIMPROVEDPAVEMENT BUTSTILLTRAVELSBETWEENTHESAMEORIGINANDDESTINATION
4HEØØ$4INBOTHDIRECTIONSINTHEÞRSTYEAROFANALYSISCONSISTSOFTHECURRENTTRAFÞCPLUSANESTIMATEOF
THEDIVERTEDTRAFÞC)FTHETOTALTRAFÞCISDENOTEDBYØØ$4ANDTHEGENERALGROWTHRATEISIPERCENTPER
ANNUM THENTHETRAFÞCINANYSUBSEQUENTYEAR X ISGIVENBYTHEFOLLOWINGEQUATION
&OUR DIFFERENT BASIC GEOMETRIC STANDARDS $#$# ARE DEÞNED FOR ,62S BASED ON THE NUMBER OF
WHEELED AND MORE VEHICLES DEÞNED IN 4ABLE " 4HE TRAFÞC LEVEL IS THE SUM FOR BOTH DIRECTIONS
and is estimated at the middle of the design life periodØDESIGNLIFEOFYEARSISRECOMMENDEDFOR
UNPAVEDROADSANDYEARSFORPAVEDROADSHENCE%QUATION"ISUSEDTOCALCULATETHETRAFÞCAFTER
ORYEARSRESPECTIVELY7HERETHEEXPECTEDTRAFÞCISNEARTOATRAFÞCBOUNDARY THEHIGHERCLASSIÞCATION
should be adopted.
'EOMETRICDESIGNALSOREQUIRESTHETRAFÞCLEVELOFPEDESTRIANS NONMOTORIZEDANDINTERMEDIATEFORMSOF
TRAFÞCANDTHISISCALCULATEDINTHESAMEWAYUSING%QUATION"
&ORSTRUCTURALPAVEMENTDESIGNTHECUMULATIVETRAFÞCLOADINGOFEACHOFTHEMOTORISEDVEHICLECLASSES
OVERTHEDESIGNLIFEOFTHEROADINONEDIRECTIONISREQUIRED&ORAGIVENCLASS M THISISGIVENBYTHE
following equation:
Where
4M THECUMULATIVETRAFÞCOFTRAFÞCCLASSM
ØØ$4 M 0 4HEØØ$4OFTRAFÞCCLASSMINTHEÞRSTYEAR
N = the design period in years
I THEANNUALGROWTHRATEOFTRAFÞCINPERCENT
4HECUMULATIVETRAFÞCFOREACHCLASSOFVEHICLEISMULTIPLIEDBYTHEAVERAGENUMBEROFEQUIVALENTSTANDARD
axles of vehicles in that class to calculate the cumulative total number of equivalent standard axles over
the life of the road.
4HENUMBEROFEQUIVALENTSTANDARDAXLES EF OFANAXLEISRELATEDTOTHEAXLELOADASFOLLOWS
EF 0 n FORLOADSINKG Equation B.3.3
OR EF 0 n FORLOADSINK. Equation B.3.4
Where:
EF NUMBEROFEQUIVALENTSTANDARDAXLES ESAS
0 AXLELOAD INKGORK.
N DAMAGEEXPONENT NFOR,62S
The sum of the individual ef values for each axle of the vehicle gives the equivalence factor for the
VEHICLEASAWHOLE %& M 'UIDANCEONTHELIKELYAVERAGE%& M FORDIFFERENTVEHICLECLASSESDERIVEDFROM
HISTORICALDATAISGIVENIN4ABLE"(OWEVER DATAFROMANYRECENTAXLELOADSURVEYONTHEROADIN
question or a similar road in the vicinity is better than using countrywide averages.
4HECUMULATIVEESASOVERTHEDESIGNPERIODFOREACHVEHICLECLASSISOBTAINEDBYMULTIPLYING%& M BY
THECUMULATIVETRAFÞC 4 M 4HETOTALNUMBEROFCUMULATIVESTANDARDAXLESFORALLVEHICLECLASSESISTHEN
OBTAINEDBYADDINGTOGETHERTHEVALUESOF%& M X4 M FORALLTHECLASSES
In some cases there will be distinct differences in each direction and separate vehicle damage factors for
each direction should be derived. The higher of the two directional values should be used for design.
/NNARROWROADSTHETRAFÞCTENDSTOBEMORECHANNELISEDTHANONWIDERTWOLANEROADS)NSUCHCASES
THEEFFECTIVETRAFÞCLOADINGISGREATERTHANTHATFORAWIDERROADANDTHEDESIGNTRAFÞCLOADING ESAS IS
calculated using the relationships given in Table B.3.3.
4ABLE"&ACTORSFORDESIGNTRAFÞCLOADING
#ONSTRUCTIONTRAFÞCCANALSOBEASIGNIÞCANTPROPORTIONOFTOTALTRAFÞCON,62S SOMETIMESqOF
TOTALTRAFÞC ANDSHOULDBETAKENINTOACCOUNTINTHEDESIGNOFTHEPAVEMENT
&OR VERY LOW VOLUME ROADS TRAFÞC VPD A DETAILED TRAFÞC ANALYSIS IS SELDOM WARRANTED BECAUSE
ENVIRONMENTALRATHERTHANTRAFÞCLOADINGFACTORSGENERALLYDETERMINETHEPERFORMANCEOFROADS
4HEßOWDIAGRAMIN&IGURE"SHOWSTHEPROCESSFORTHEGEOMETRICDESIGNOFLOWVOLUMEROADS4HIS
is followed by Tables of key data. Further details of the geometric design process is provided in Chapter
4 of Part D.
Step 1 Step 1
$ETERMINEØØ$4OFMOTORISED $ETERMINEØØ$4OFHEAVY
TRAFÞC TRUCKS AXLESORMORE
Step 2 Step 4
Step 3
Determine daily PCUs of non Determine nature of roadside
Determine terrain class
MOTORISEDTRAFÞC population
Step 5
Select Road Type or Types
Step 6
Select widths of
carriageway & shoulders
4.1 4RAFÞCCOMPOSITION
4HEPROPORTIONOFHEAVYVEHICLESINTHETRAFÞCSTREAMON,62SISOFTENQUITEHIGH4HE'EOMETRIC$ESIGN
STANDARDSFOR$# $#AND$#INCLUDEAMODIÞCATIONTOCATERFORTHIS
)NORDERTOQUANTIFYTRAFÞCFORNORMALCAPACITYDESIGNTHECONCEPTOFEQUIVALENT0#5SISUSED4HE0#5
values are shown Table B.4.1.
7HEN PASSING THROUGH A +EBELE SEAT A M PAVED SHOULDER IS SPECIÞED BUT NO ADDITIONAL FOOTPATH
though one could be provided if required. The carriageway is also increased to 7.0m and therefore the
standard is very similar to DC4 but with wider shoulders.
)FTHEROADISPASSINGTHROUGHA7EREDASEATORALARGERPOPULATEDAREA ANEXTRACARRIAGEWAYOFM
width is provided in each direction for parking and for passenger pick-up and a 2.5m pedestrian footpath
ISALSOSPECIÞED4HELATTERISESSENTIALLYTHEROADSHOULDER 4ABLES"AND" )NADDITION THEMAIN
running surface is paved and is 7.0m wide.
7HEN PASSING THROUGH A +EBELE SEAT A M PAVED SHOULDER IS SPECIÞED BUT NO ADDITIONAL FOOTPATH
though one could be provided if required. The carriageway is also increased to 7.0m and therefore the
standard is very similar to DC4 but with wider shoulders.
ØDDITIONAL SHOULDER WIDTHS ARE ALSO PROVIDED IF THERE IS A HIGH NUMBER OF 0#5S OF NONMOTORISED
VEHICLES DEÞNEDASMORETHAN0#5SPERDAYONAVERAGE 4ABLES"AND"
Table B.4.2: Increased ‘shoulder’ widths (each side) for unpaved LVRs
Sometime there will be cases where it is impossible to meet any of the standards mainly due to severe
terrain conditions. Under such circumstances the standards must be relaxed and suitable permanent
signage used to warn road users.
Table B.4.4: Geometric design standards for paved DC4(1) (AADT 150-300)
Populated
Design Element Unit Flat Rolling Mountain Escarpment
areas
Design speed KMHR 70 60 50 25 50
Width of running
m 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.5
surface
Width of shoulders m 1.25 1.25 0.5 0.5 1.25
Total width m 9.0 9.0 7.5 7.5 9.0
Min stopping sight
m 110 90 70 25 65
distance
Min horizontal
m 195 135 85 15 85
radius for SE=4%
Min horizontal
m 170 120 75 17 .Ø
radius for SE=7%
Min horizontal
m 150 105 70 22 .Ø
radius for SE=10%
Max desirable
% 4 7 10 12 4
gradient
Maximum gradient % 7 10 12 12 6
Min crest vertical
K 21 12 7 4 7
curve
Min sag vertical
K 4.8 3.5 2.2 1.3 2.2
curve
Normal cross-fall % 3 3 3 3 3
Shoulder cross-fall % 6 6 3 3 6
Notes:
1. If there are more than 80 large vehicles then DC5 should be used.
2. If the number of large vehicles is >40 then this should be increased to 7.0m and shoulders reduced to 1.0m.
3. Parking lanes and footpaths may be required.
4. /NHAIRPINSTACKSTHEMINIMUMRADIUSMAYBEREDUCEDTOAMINIMUMOFM
5. ,ENGTHNOTTOEXCEEDMANDRELIEFGRADIENTSREQUIRED FORMINIMUMOFM
Table B.4.5: Geometric design standards for unpaved DC4(1) (AADT 150-300)
Table B.4.6: Geometric design standards for paved DC3(1) (AADT 75-150)
Table B.4.7: Geometric design standards for unpaved DC3(1) (AADT 75-150)
Table B.4.8: Geometric design standards for DC2 paved(1) (AADT 25-75)
Populated
Design Element Unit Flat Rolling Mountain Escarpment
areas
Design speed KMHR 60 50 40 20 50
Width of running surface m 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3
Width of shoulders m 1.5 1.5 1.0 1.0 1.5
Total width m 6.3 6.3 5.3 5.3 6.3
Min stopping sight distance m 85 70 50 17 65
Min horizontal radius for
m 135 85 50 15 85
SE=4%
Min horizontal radius for
m 120 75 45 15 .Ø
SE=7%
Min horizontal radius for
m 105 70 40 15 .Ø
SE=10%
Max desirable gradient % 4 7 10 12 4
Max gradient % 7 10 12
15
6
Max. super-elevation % 6 6 6 6 6
Min crest vertical curve K 12 7 4 2 7
Minimum sag vertical curve K 3.5 2.2 1.3 0.7 2.2
Normal cross-fall % 3 3 3 3 3
Shoulder cross-fall % 6 6 3 3 6
Notes:
1. If the number of large vehicles >20 then DC3 should be used.
2. Parking lanes and footpaths may be required.
3. /NHAIRPINSTACKSTHEMINIMUMRADIUSMAYBEREDUCEDTOAMINIMUMOFM
4. ,ENGTHNOTTOEXCEEDMANDRELIEFGRADIENTSREQUIRED FORMINIMUMOFM
Table B.4.9: Geometric design standards for DC2 (1, 2) unpaved (AADT 25-75)
Populated
Design Element Unit Flat Rolling Mountain Escarpment
areas
Design speed KMHR 60 50 40 20 50
Road width m 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0
Min stopping sight distance m 95 75 55 20 70
Min horizontal radius m 175 110 70 15
110
Max desirable gradient % 4 6 6 6 4
Max gradient % 6 9 9 9 6
Max. super-elevation % 6 6 6 6 6
Min crest vertical curve K 19 11 6 3 11
Minimum sag vertical curve K 3.5 2.2 1.3 0.7 2.2
Normal cross-fall % 6 6 6 6 6
Notes:
1. If the number of large vehicles is >20 then DC3 should be used.
2. If the number of large vehicles is <10 then DC1 may be used
3. Parking lanes and footpaths may be required.
4. /NHAIRPINSTACKSTHEMINIMUMRADIUSMAYBEREDUCEDTOAMINIMUMOFM
5. 2OAD WIDTHS MAY BE REDUCED AT THE DISCRETION OF THE ENGINEER AND APPROVAL OF THE CLIENT TO ADDRESS SPECIÞC LOCAL
CONDITIONS ESPECIALLYINMOUNTAINOUSAREAS
Populated
Design Element Unit Flat Rolling Mountain Escarpment
areas
Desirable speed KMHR 50 40 30 20 40
Road width m 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5
Min stopping sight distance m 70 55 35 18 50
Min horizontal radius m 110 70 35 15
70
Max desirable gradient % 4 6 6 6 4
Max gradient % 12
12
12
12
6
Min crest vertical curve K 11 6 3 2 6
Minimum sag vertical curve K 2.2 1.3 0.7 0.5 1.3
Normal cross-fall % 6 6 6 6 6
Notes:
1. /NHAIRPINSTACKSTHEMINIMUMRADIUSMAYBEREDUCEDTOM
2. ,ENGTHNOTTOEXCEEDMANDRELIEFGRADIENTREQUIRED FORMINIMUMOFM
For the lowest category of road it may sometimes be necessary to adopt a basic access only approach.
For such roads it may be too expensive to provide a design speed but minimum absolute standards must
be applied. These are summarised in Table B.4.10.
&ORCLASSESOFROADWITHTHEHIGHERDESIGNSPEEDS ADVERSECROSSFALLSHOULDBEREMOVEDFORCURVESWITH
low radii as indicated in Table B.4.12.
Table B.4.12: Adverse cross-fall to be removed if radii are less than shown
)NSITUATIONSWHERELOWRADIIOFCURVATUREARENECESSARY THECURVESMUSTBEWIDENEDONTHEINSIDEAS
indicated in Table B.4.14.
4.4 Design-by-eye
The design-by-eye method is best suited to rehabilitation or upgrading projects where a road alignment
already exists and is the preferred method for developing a design for a track or undesignated road under
a community roads programme where a walking track is being improved to enable it to carry occasional
VEHICLES.EVERTHELESS CONSIDERABLEEXPERIENCEANDSKILLISNEEDEDTOCARRYOUTTHEDESIGNBYEYEMETHOD
and the approach should only be used under the guidance and supervision of an experienced engineer.
Slope dimensions for the various conditions are summarised in Table B.4.15.
4HEDETAILEDCROSSSECTIONSTOSCALEAREGIVENINTHE3TANDARD$ETAIL$RAWINGS
1 1-3,1'
2
4. 2ECTANGULARDRAINSNEEDTOBELINEDWITHROCK BRICKSTONEMASONRYORCONCRETETOMAINTAINTHEIRSHAPE
5. -OREDETAILONSIDEDRAINSISPROVIDEDIN0ART$ 3ECTION
0
Figure B.4.4: Typical cross section, DC1 – 4, Rolling Terrain, Unpaved
Design Classes
Label Design Criteria
DC1 DC2 DC3 DC4
Ø #ARRIAGEWIDTH M 3.3 5.0 5.5 6.0
B 3HOULDERWIDTH M 0.6 0.5 0.75 0.75
C -IN#ROSSFALL#AMBER 4 4 4 4
D "ACKSLOPEOFDITCH VHRATIO
See Table B.4.15
E 3IDESLOPEOFDITCH VHRATIO
F $EPTHOF3IDEDITCH M Varies
G 3IDESLOPE VHRATIO See Table B.4.15
0
#
/+3
/+5
0+/
5;
0+/
5;
0
/+3
"#
/+5
$
%$ !
$"%$%"
0+/
"
/+3
"#
/+5
$
%$ !
$"%$%"
0+/
0
"
$1
0+/ $0
/+14 /+4
0 0
3 3
$0
K'>
Ϯ
ϭ͘Ϭ ϭ
Ϭ͘Ϯϱ Ϭ͘ϱ
ϭ ϭ ϭ
ϰ ϰ
K'> &ŝůů
'
Figure B 4.12: Typical cross section, DC1–4, flat terrain, expansive soils, unpaved
Design Classes
Label Design Criteria
DC1 DC2 DC3 DC4
A Carriage width (m) 3.3 5.0 5.5 6.0
B Shoulder width (m) 0.6 0.5 0.75 0.75
$
#
Figure B.4.13: Typical cross section, DC1 – 4, Flat Terrain, Expansive soils, Paved
Design Classes
Label Design Criteria
DC1 DC2 DC3 DC4
Ø #ARRIAGEWIDTH M MINIMUM 3.3 6.0 6.5
B 3HOULDERWIDTH M 1.5 1.0 1.25
B1 3HOULDER#ROSSFALL 6 6 6
C #ROSSFALL#AMBER 3 3 3
D "ACKSLOPEOFDITCH VHRATIO
See Table B.4.15
E 3IDESLOPEOFDITCH VHRATIO
F $EPTHOFSIDEDITCH M Varies
5. MATERIALS
&ORMATERIALSSPECIÞCATIONSSEE0ART$ 3ECTION
5.1 Subgrades
3UBGRADESARECLASSIÞEDONTHEBASISOFTHELABORATORYSOAKED#"2TESTSONSAMPLESCOMPACTEDTO
ØØ3(4/4COMPACTION3AMPLESARESOAKEDFORFOURDAYSORUNTILZEROSWELLISRECORDED4HESUBGRADE
STRENGTHFORDESIGNISASSIGNEDTOONEOFSIXSTRENGTHCLASSESREßECTINGTHESENSITIVITYOFTHICKNESSDESIGN
TOSUBGRADESTRENGTH4HECLASSESAREDEÞNEDIN4ABLE"
Subgrade Class
Design CBR S2 S3 S4 S5 S6
Range % 3-4 5-8 9 - 14 15 - 29
.O ALLOWANCE FOR #"2S BELOW HAS BEEN MADE BECAUSE FROM BOTH A TECHNICAL AND ECONOMIC
PERSPECTIVE ITWOULDNORMALLYBEINAPPROPRIATETOLAYAPAVEMENTONSOILSOFSUCHPOORBEARINGCAPACITY
&ORSUCHMATERIALS SPECIALTREATMENTISREQUIRED SEE3ECTION$
The use of Class S2 soils as direct support for the pavement should be avoided as much as possible.
7HEREVERPRACTICABLE SUCHRELATIVELYPOORSOILSSHOULDBEEXCAVATEDANDREPLACED ORCOVEREDWITHAN
improved subgrade.
Class S6 covers all subgrade materials having a soaked CBR greater than 30 and which comply with the
PLASTICITYREQUIREMENTSFORNATURALSUBBASE)NSUCHCASES NOSUBBASEISREQUIRED
The CBR results obtained from the subgrade soils testing are used to determine which subgrade class
SHOULDBESPECIÞEDFORDESIGNPURPOSESINACCORDANCEWITH4ABLE"4HEVARIATIONINRESULTSMAYMAKE
SELECTIONUNCLEAR)NSUCHCASESITISRECOMMENDEDTHAT ÞRSTLY THELABORATORYTESTPROCESSISCHECKEDTO
ENSURE UNIFORMITY TO MINIMISE INHERENT VARIATION ARISING FROM FOR EXAMPLE INCONSISTENT DRYING OUT OF
SPECIMENS 3ECONDLY MORESAMPLESSHOULDBETESTEDTOBUILDUPAMORERELIABLEBASISFORSELECTION
0LOTTINGTHESERESULTSASACUMULATIVEDISTRIBUTIONCURVE 3CURVE INWHICHTHEYAXISISTHEPERCENTAGE
OFSAMPLESLESSTHANAGIVEN#"2VALUE XAXIS PROVIDESAMETHODOFDETERMININGADESIGN#"2VALUE
&IGURE"
4HEACTUALSUBGRADE#"2VALUESUSEDFORDESIGNDEPENDSONTHETRAFÞCCLASSASSHOWNIN4ABLE"&OR
EXAMPLE ASINDICATEDINTHE4ABLE FORADESIGNTRAFÞCCLASSOF,6THEDESIGN#"2VALUESHOULDBETHE
LOWERTHPERCENTILE IETHEVALUEEXCEEDEDBYOFTHE#"2MEASUREMENTS
4ABLE"$EPENDENCEOFDESIGNSUBGRADEONDESIGNTRAFÞCCLASS
4HECONCEPTOFnMATERIALDEPTHoISUSEDTODENOTETHEDEPTHBELOWTHEÞNISHEDLEVELOFTHEROADTO
WHICH SOIL CHARACTERISTICS HAVE A SIGNIÞCANT EFFECT ON PAVEMENT BEHAVIOUR AND THROUGHOUT WHICH THE
nominal subgrade strength selected for design should be maintained.
4ABLE"SPECIÞESTYPICALMATERIALDEPTHSUSEDFORDETERMININGTHEDESIGN#"2OFTHESUBGRADE.OTE
THAT THIS DEPTH MAY BE INSUFÞCIENT IN CERTAIN SPECIAL CASES WHERE nPROBLEMo SOILS OCCUR 3EE 0ART $
3ECTION
The minimum depths indicated in the Table are not depths to which re-compaction and reworking is
NECESSARILYREQUIRED2ATHER THEYARETHEDEPTHSTOWHICHTHE%NGINEERSHOULDCONÞRMTHATTHENOMINAL
SUBGRADESTRENGTHISAVAILABLE)NGENERAL UNNECESSARYWORKINGOFTHESUBGRADESHOULDBEAVOIDEDAND
limited to rolling prior to constructing overlying layers
There are many advantages to improving the CBR strength of the in situ subgrade to a minimum of
3UBGRADE #LASS 3 BY CONSTRUCTING ONE OR MORE IMPROVED LAYERS WHERE NECESSARY )N PRINCIPLE
WHEREASUFÞCIENTTHICKNESSOFIMPROVEDSUBGRADEISPLACED THEOVERALLSUBGRADEBEARINGSTRENGTHIS
increased to that of a higher class and the sub-base thickness may be reduced accordingly. This is often
ANECONOMICADVANTAGEASSUBBASEQUALITYMATERIALSAREGENERALLYMOREEXPENSIVETHANÞLLMATERIALS
HENCETHEDECISIONWHETHERORNOTTOCONSIDERTHEUSEOFANIMPROVEDSUBGRADELAYER S WILLGENERALLY
depend on the respective costs of sub-base and improved subgrade materials.
Methods of design and treatment for problem soils are described in Part D Section 6.19.
4ABLE"0AVEMENTMATERIALTYPESANDABBREVIATEDNOMINALSPECIÞCATIONS
used in the paved and unpaved catalogue of designs
-IN#"2!ØØ3(4/4ANDDAYSSOAKING
Max. Swell: 0.2%
G80 Natural gravel
-AX3IZEANDGRADING-AXSIZEMM GRADINGASSPECIÞED
0)ORASOTHERWISESPECIÞED MATERIALSPECIÞC
-IN#"2!ØØ3(4/4ANDDAYSSOAKING
Max. Swell: 0.2%
G65 Natural gravel
-AX3IZEANDGRADING-AXSIZEMM GRADINGASSPECIÞED
0)ORASOTHERWISESPECIÞED MATERIALSPECIÞC
-IN#"2!ØØ3(4/4ANDDAYSSOAKING
Max. Swell: 0.2%
G55 Natural gravel
-AX3IZEANDGRADING-AXSIZEMM GRADINGASSPECIÞED
0)ORASOTHERWISESPECIÞED MATERIALSPECIÞC
-IN#"2!ØØ3(4/4ANDDAYSSOAKING
Max. Swell: 0.2%
G45 Natural gravel
-AX3IZEANDGRADING-AXSIZEMM GRADINGASSPECIÞED
0)ORASOTHERWISESPECIÞED MATERIALSPECIÞC
-IN#"2!ØØ3(4/4HIGHESTANTICIPATEDMOISTURE
content
G30 Natural gravel -AX3WELL!ØØ3(4/4
-AX3IZEANDGRADING-AXSIZEMMORLAYERTHICKNESS
0)ORASOTHERWISESPECIÞED MATERIALSPECIÞC
-IN#"2!ØØ3(4/4HIGHESTANTICIPATEDMOISTURE
content
G25 Natural gravel -AX3WELL!ØØ3(4/4
-AX3IZEANDGRADING-AXSIXEMMORLAYERTHICKNESS
0)ORASOTHERWISESPECIÞED MATERIALSPECIÞC
-IN#"2!ØØ3(4/4HIGHESTANTICIPATEDMOISTURE
content
G15 'RAVELSOIL -AX3WELL!ØØ3(4/4
-AX3IZEOFLAYERTHICKNESS
0)OR'- ORASOTHERWISESPECIÞED MATERIALSPECIÞC
-IN#"2!ØØ3(4/4HIGHESTANTICIPATEDMOISTURE
content
G7 'RAVELSOIL -AX3WELL!ØØ3(4/4
-AX3IZELAYERTHICKNESS
0)OR'- ORASOTHERWISESPECIÞED MATERIALSPECIÞC
-IN#"2!ØØ3(4/4HIGHESTANTICIPATEDMOISTURE
content
G3 'RAVELSOIL
-AX3WELL.Ø
-AX3IZELAYERTHICKNESS
Note:
4WO ALTERNATIVE MINIMUM LEVELS OF COMPACTION ARE SPECIÞED 7HERE THE HIGHER DENSITIES CAN BE REALISTICALLY ATTAINED IN
THEÞELD FROMÞELDMEASUREMENTSONSIMILARMATERIALSOROTHERESTABLISHEDINFORMATION THEYSHOULDBESPECIÞEDBYTHE
Engineer.
Particle size distribution: The grading envelopes to be used for road base are shown in Table B.5.6.
%NVELOPEØVARIESDEPENDINGWHETHERTHENOMINALMAXIMUMPARTICLESIZEISMM MMORMMØ
REQUIREMENTOFÞVETOTENPERCENTRETAINEDONSUCCESSIVESIEVESMAYBESPECIÞEDATHIGHERTRAFÞC
MESA TOPREVENTEXCESSIVELOSSINSTABILITY%NVELOPE#EXTENDSTHEUPPERLIMITOFENVELOPE"TOALLOW
THEUSEOFSANDYMATERIALS BUTITSUSEISNOTPERMITTEDINWETCLIMATES%NVELOPE$ISSIMILARTOAGRAVEL
WEARINGCOURSESPECIÞCATION ANDISUSEDFORVERYLOWTRAFÞCVOLUMES4HEGRADINGISSPECIÞEDONLYIN
TERMSOFTHEGRADINGMODULUS '- ANDCANBEUSEDINBOTHWETANDDRYCLIMATES
Strength and plasticity: 4HE STRENGTH REQUIREMENT VARIES DEPENDING ON THE TRAFÞC LEVEL AND CLIMATE
AS OUTLINED IN THE #ATALOGUE OF 3TRUCTURES #HAPTER " 4HE SOAKED #"2 TEST IS USED TO SPECIFY THE
minimum road base material strength.
4HEPLASTICITYREQUIREMENTALSOVARIESDEPENDINGONTHETRAFÞCLEVELANDCLIMATEASSHOWNIN4ABLES"
AND"ØMAXIMUMPLASTICITYINDEXOFHASBEENRETAINEDFORHIGHERTRAFÞCLEVELSANDALSOONWEAKER
SUBGRADES&ORDESIGNSINDRYENVIRONMENTSTHEPLASTICITYMODULUSFOREACHTRAFÞCANDSUBGRADECLASS
can be increased depending on the crown height and whether unsealed or sealed shoulders are used as
DESCRIBEDIN0ART$ 3ECTIONAND&IGURE$
Table B.5.6: Plasticity requirements for natural gravel road base materials
4RAFÞCCLASS -ESAS
LV1 LV2 LV3 LV4 LV5
Subgrade
Property
class4
<0.01 0.01-0.1 0.1-0.3 0.3-0.5 0.5-1.0
Lateritic road base gravels: The requirements for selection and use of lateritic gravels for bases are
SLIGHTLYDIFFERENTTOTHOSEGIVENFOROTHERNATURALGRAVELS4HESEAREPRESENTEDIN4ABLE"ØMAXIMUM
PLASTICITYINDEXOFHASBEENSPECIÞEDFORHIGHERTRAFÞCLEVELSANDWEAKSUBGRADES&ORDESIGNTRAFÞC
LEVELSGREATERTHANMESA AREQUIREMENTISSETTHATTHELIQUIDLIMITSHOULDBELESSTHAN"ELOWTHIS
TRAFÞCLEVEL THISREQUIREMENTISRELAXEDTOALIQUIDLIMITOFLESSTHAN7HERESEALEDSHOULDERSOVERONE
METREWIDEARESPECIÞEDINTHEDESIGN THEMAXIMUMPLASTICITYMODULUSMAYBEINCREASEDBYPERCENT
ØMINIMUMÞELDCOMPACTEDDRYDENSITYOF-GMISREQUIREDFORTHESEMATERIALS
Table B.5.7: Guidelines for the selection of lateritic gravel road base materials
4RAFÞCCLASS -ESAS
LV1 LV2 LV3 LV4 LV5
Subgrade
Property
class <0.01 0.01-0.1 0.1-0.3 0.3-0.5 0.5-1.0
Notes:
1. Maximum Ip = 8 x GM
2. 5NSEALEDSHOULDERSAREASSUMED&URTHERMODIÞCATIONTOTHELIMITSCANBEMADEIFTHESHOULDERSARESEALED
3. 4HECOMPACTIONREQUIREMENTFORTHESOAKED#"2TESTTODEÞNETHESUBGRADECLASSESIS-ODØØ3(4/WITHA
minimum soaking time of 4 days or until zero swell is recorded. This is a relaxation of the soaked CBR requirement for
natural gravel base materials given in the catalogues.
Basic igneous rock (including basaltic and doleritic gravels): These materials occur extensively in
%THIOPIAANDTHEIRMOREWIDESPREADUSECOULDRESULTINSIGNIÞCANTSAVINGSPROVIDEDTHECHARACTERISTICS
of the material are good enough to serve as a road base material.. The following indicative limits can
contribute to successful use of the material in road bases:
-AXIMUMSECONDARYMINERALCONTENTOFPERCENT DETERMINEDFROMPETROGRAPHICANALYSIS
Maximum loss of 12 or 20 per cent after 5 cycles in the sodium or magnesium sulphate soundness
TESTS RESPECTIVELY
Clay index of less than 3 in the dye absorption test;
)NCREASEINMODIÞEDGLYCOLSOAKEDØ)6FROMTHEWETMODIÞEDØ)6SHOULDBEUNITS
Durability mill index of less than 125.
)N DRIER CLIMATIC AREAS . THE MATERIALS CAN BE USED UNMODIÞED UP TO A MAXIMUM PLASTICITY INDEX
OF (OWEVER IT IS SUGGESTED THAT THE MATERIALS SHOULD NOT BE USED IN WET AREAS UNLESS CHEMICALLY
MODIÞED4HERISKOFUSINGTHEMATERIALCANBEMINIMISEDIFCONSIDERATIONISGIVENTO
4HEVARIABILITYOFTHEMATERIALDEPOSIT WITHGOODSELECTIONANDCONTROLPROCEDURESINPLACEFORTHE
operation of the pit and on site;
4HEPROVISIONOFGOODDRAINAGECONDITIONS THESEMATERIALSAREPARTICULARLYSENSITIVETOMOISTURE
4HEADEQUACYOFTHEPAVEMENTDESIGN THEUSEOF0AVEMENT#ATALOGUEWITHSEALEDSHOULDERSIS
SUGGESTED
The use of double surface treatments or similar.
%NGINEERSNEEDTOUSECONSIDERABLEJUDGEMENT EXPERIENCEANDINFORMATIONFROMOTHERROADSINTHEAREA
TOUTILISETHESEMATERIALSSUCCESSFULLY2ISKSMUSTBEIDENTIÞEDANDCONTROLLED
Cinder gravels: Cinder gravels have been used successfully as road base on experimental sections
CONSTRUCTEDINTHELATES 42, &ROMTHESETRIALSITWASCONCLUDEDTHATWITHCAREFULSELECTION
CINDERGRAVELSCANBEUSEDFORLIGHTLYTRAFÞCKEDPAVEDROADSINACCORDANCEWITHTHEREQUIREMENTSOFTHE
PAVEMENTDESIGNCHART 4ABLE"
Strength requirements:ØMINIMUM#"2OFISREQUIREDATTHEHIGHESTANTICIPATEDMOISTURECONTENT
WHEN COMPACTED TO THE SPECIÞED ÞELD DENSITY USUALLY A MINIMUM OF PREFERABLY WHERE
PRACTICABLE ØØ3(4/4COMPACTION
5NDERCONDITIONSOFGOODDRAINAGEANDWHENTHEWATERTABLEISNOTNEARTHEGROUNDSURFACE THEÞELD
moisture content under a sealed pavement will be equal to or less than the optimum moisture content
INTHEØØ3(4/4COMPACTIONTEST)NSUCHCONDITIONS THESUBBASEMATERIALSHOULDBETESTEDINTHE
laboratory in an unsaturated state.
)FTHEROADBASEALLOWSWATERTODRAININTOTHELOWERLAYERS ASMAYOCCURWITHUNSEALEDSHOULDERSAND
UNDERCONDITIONSOFPOORSURFACEMAINTENANCEWHERETHEROADBASEISPERVIOUS SATURATIONOFTHESUB
base is likely. In these circumstances the bearing capacity should be determined on samples soaked in
water for a period of four days. The test should be conducted on samples prepared at the density and
MOISTURECONTENTLIKELYTOBEACHIEVEDINTHEÞELD
4HESPECIÞCATIONSIDENTIFYTHEMOSTSUITABLEMATERIALSINTERMSOFTWOBASICSOILPARAMETERSq3HRINKAGE
0RODUCT AND 'RADING #OEFÞCIENT q WHICH ARE DETERMINED FROM PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION AND LINEAR
shrinkage as shown in Figure B.5.2.
ØNALTERNATIVETOUSINGLINEARSHRINKAGEANDTHESHRINKAGEPRODUCTISTOUSETHEPLASTICITYINDEXANDTHE
ASSOCIATEDPLASTICITYPRODUCT&ORTHERANGEOFMATERIALSLIKELYTOBEUSEDFORGRAVELWEARINGCOURSE THE
PLASTICITYINDEXCANBEASSUMEDTOBEXLINEARSHRINKAGE4HELINEARSHRINKAGE SHRINKAGEPRODUCT IS
recommended as it is based on one relatively simple test which has good precision limits in the shrinkage
ranges of acceptable gravel wearing course material.
Gravel loss: Gravel loss is the single most important reason why gravel roads are expensive in whole
LIFECOSTTERMSANDOFTENUNSUSTAINABLE ESPECIALLYWHENTRAFÞCLEVELSINCREASE2EDUCINGGRAVELLOSSBY
selecting better quality gravels or modifying the properties of poorer quality materials is one way of
REDUCINGLONGTERMCOSTS'RAVELLOSSES GRAVELLOSSINMMYEARVPD AREDETERMINEDINRELATIONTO
THEQUALITYOFTHEGRAVELWEARINGCOURSE 4ABLE"
4HEGRAVELLOSSESSHOWNIN4ABLE"PROBABLYHOLDONLYFORTHEÞRSTPHASEOFTHEDETERIORATIONCYCLE
LASTINGPOSSIBLYTWOORTHREEYEARS"EYONDTHATPERIOD ASTHEWEARINGCOURSEISREDUCEDINTHICKNESS
OTHERDEVELOPMENTS SUCHASTHEFORMATIONOFRUTS WILLALSOAFFECTTHELOSSOFGRAVELMATERIAL(OWEVER
the rates of gravel loss given in the Table can be used as an aid to the planning for regravelling in the
FUTUREØMOREACCURATEINDICATIONOFGRAVELLOSSFORAPARTICULARSECTIONOFROADCANBEOBTAINEDFROM
periodic measurement of the gravel layer thickness.
-ATERIALREQUIREMENTSFORGRAVELROADSINRURALAREAS4ABLE"SHOWSTHERECOMMENDEDSPECIÞCATIONS
for materials for unsealed rural roads
-AXIMUMSIZE MM 37.5
/VERSIZEINDEX )o a d5%
3HRINKAGEPRODUCT 3p B MAXOFPREFERABLE
'RADINGCOEFÞCIENT 'c C 16 - 34
3OAKED#"2 ATPERCENT-ODØØ3(4/ t 15 %
4RETONIMPACTVALUE q
a Io /VERSIZEINDEX PERCENTRETAINEDONMMSIEVE
b Sp = Linear shrinkage x percent passing 0.425 mm sieve
c Gc 0ERCENTAGEPASSINGMMPERCENTAGEPASSINGMM XPERCENTAGEPASSING
MM
Notes:
1. 3PECIÞCATIONSSHOULDBEAPPLICABLEafter placement and compaction
2. 4HE'RADING#OEFÞCIENTAND3HRINKAGE0RODUCTMUSTBEBASEDONACONVENTIONALPARTICLESIZEDISTRIBUTIONDETERMINATION
which must be normalised for 100% passing the 37.5 mm screen.
3. /NLYREPRESENTATIVEMATERIALSAMPLESARETOBETESTED
4. 4HE4RETON)MPACT6ALUE 4)6 LIMITSEXCLUDETHOSEMATERIALSTHATARETOOHARDTOBEBROKENWITHAGRIDROLLER 4)6
ORTOOSOFTTORESISTEXCESSIVECRUSHINGUNDERTRAFÞC 4)6
Material requirements for gravel roads in ‘urban’ areas: 4HE SPECIÞCATIONS IN 4ABLE " ARE
RECOMMENDED FOR UNSEALED ROADS IN AREAS WHERE THERE IS A SIGNIÞCANT NUMBER OF DWELLINGS AND LOCAL
BUSINESSES)NCOMPARISONWITHTHELIMITSFORRURALROADS THELIMITSFORTHEOVERSIZEINDEXHAVEBEENREDUCED
to eliminate stones whilst the shrinkage product has been reduced to a maximum of 240 to reduce the
dust as far as practically possible. This lower limit reduces the probability of having unacceptable dust
from about 70% to 40%.
4ABLE"2ECOMMENDEDMATERIALSPECIÞCATIONSFORUNSEALEDlURBANmROADS
-AXIMUMSIZE MM 37.5
/VERSIZEINDEX )o 0
3HRINKAGEPRODUCT 3p 100 - 240
'RADINGCOEFÞCIENT 'c 16 - 34
3OAKED#"2 ATPERCENT-ODØØ3(4/ t 15 %
4RETONIMPACTVALUE q
/BTAINING MATERIALS THAT COMPLY WITH THE NECESSARY GRADING AND PLASTICITY SPECIÞCATIONS FOR A GRAVEL
WEARINGCOURSECANBEDIFÞCULT-ANYOFTHENATURALGRAVELSTENDTOBECOARSELYGRADEDANDRELATIVELYNON
plastic and the use of such materials results in very high roughness levels and high rates of gravel loss in
SERVICEAND INTHEÞNALANALYSIS VERYHIGHLIFECYCLECOSTS
6. PAVEMENT DESIGN
6.1 $ESIGNTRAFÞCCLASSES
&ORSTRUCTURALPAVEMENTDESIGN ÞVETRAFÞCCLASSESHAVEBEENDEÞNEDASSHOWNIN4ABLE")FTHE
ESTIMATEOFCUMULATIVETRAFÞCISCLOSETOTHEBOUNDARIESOFATRAFÞCCLASS THENTHEBASICTRAFÞCDATAAND
FORECASTSSHOULDBEREEVALUATEDANDSENSITIVITYANALYSESCARRIEDOUTTOENSURETHATTHECHOICEOFTRAFÞC
CLASSISAPPROPRIATE)FTHEREISANYDOUBTABOUTTHEACCURACYOFTHETRAFÞCESTIMATESTHENEXTHIGHERTRAFÞC
class should be selected for the design.
4ABLE"4RAFÞCCLASSESFORßEXIBLEPAVEMENTDESIGN
,64ISTHETRANSITIONTRAFÞCZONEBETWEENLOWVOLUMEANDHIGHVOLUMEROADSWITHTHEFORMERTRAFÞC
CLASS ,6 APPLYINGTOTHELOWERBOUNDARYOFTHETRAFÞCRANGEANDTHELATTERTRAFÞCCLASS 4 APPLYINGTO
the upper boundary.
The crown height of the earth road should be at least 35 cm above the bed of the drain.
7HERETHETOPOGRAPHYALLOWS WIDE SHALLOWLONGITUDINALDRAINAGEFOREARTHROADSAREPREFERRED
4HEYMINIMISEEROSION ANDWILLNOTBLOCKASEASILYASNARROWDITCHES4HEDITCHESGRASSOVERIN
TIME BINDINGTHESOILSURFACEANDFURTHERSLOWINGDOWNTHESPEEDOFWATER BOTHOFWHICHACTTO
prevent or reduce erosion.
The surface of earth roads should be graded and compacted to provide a durable and level
RUNNINGSURFACEFORTRAFÞCANDTHEROADSURFACESHOULDHAVEAMINIMUMCAMBEROFTOENSURE
water runs off the surface and into the side drains.
ØREAS WHERE THERE ARE SPECIÞC PROBLEMS USUALLY DUE TO WATER OR TO THE POOR CONDITION OF THE
SUBGRADE MAYBETREATEDINISOLATIONBYLOCALISEDREPLACEMENTOFSUBGRADE GRAVELLING INSTALLATION
OFCULVERTS RAISINGTHEROADWAYORBYINSTALLINGOTHERDRAINAGEMEASURES4HISISTHEBASISOFAnSPOT
improvement” approach.
7ATERSHOULDBEDRAINEDAWAYFROMTHECARRIAGEWAYSIDEDRAINSBYINSTALLINGLEADOFF MITRE DRAINS
TODIVERTTHEßOWINTOOPENSPACE
4OACHIEVEADEQUATEEXTERNALDRAINAGE THEROADMUSTALSOBERAISEDABOVETHELEVELOFEXISTINGGROUND
SUCHTHATTHECROWNOFTHEROADISMAINTAINEDATAMINIMUMHEIGHT HMIN ABOVETHETABLEDRAININVERTS
#ROSSSECTIONSARESHOWNINDETAILIN#HAPTER"ANDSHOWNHERESCHEMATICALLYFORCONVENIENCE &IGURE
"
&IGURE"q4YPICALGRAVELROADCROSSSECTIONINßATTERRAIN
The minimum height is dependent on the climate and road design class as shown in Table B.6.2.
Climate
Road Class Wet (N < 4) Dry (N > 4)
hmin (mm) hmin (mm)
DC-1 350 250
DC-2 400 450
DC-3 500 300
DC-4 350 400
Gravel roads are divided into two broad categories for design purposes namely ‘major’ and ‘minor’ gravel
ROADS'RAVELROADSINCLASSES$#AND$#AREDEÞNEDASMAJORGRAVELROADS MINORGRAVELROADSARE
CLASSES $# AND $# EXCEPT WHERE THE NUMBER OF HEAVY VEHICLES EXCEEDS ABOUT PER DAY -AJOR
GRAVELROADSAREENGINEEREDTOAHIGHERSPECIÞCATION
Major gravel roads are likely to incur high maintenance costs in some circumstances namely;
When the quality of the gravel is poor.
Where no sources of gravel are available within a reasonable haul distance.
/NROADGRADIENTSGREATERTHANABOUT
In areas of high and intense rainfall.
Table B.6.3 (a): Gravel base thickness for major gravel roads – strong gravel (G45)
Table B.6.3 (b): Gravel base thickness for major gravel roads – medium gravel (G30)
Table B.6.3 (c): Gravel base thickness for major gravel roads – weak gravel (G15)
&OREFFECTIVECOMPACTIONOFTHEGRAVELLAYER ITISNECESSARYTORESTRICTTHELOOSETHICKNESSOFGRAVELTOA
MAXIMUMLIFTOFABOUTMM4HUS ANYOFTHEGRAVELLAYERSTHATREQUIREACOMPACTEDTHICKNESSOFMORE
than 150 mm must be compacted in more than one 200 mm lift.
Determination of wearing course thickness: The wearing course thickness depends on the annual gravel
loss and the number of years between re-gravelling operations. The predicted annual gravel loss is given
in Table B.6.4.
4HERATESOFGRAVELLOSSINCREASESIGNIÞCANTLYONGRADIENTSGREATERTHANABOUTANDINAREASOFHIGHAND
INTENSERAINFALL/NSOMEGRADIENTS THEINCREASECOULDBEGREATERTHANDEPENDINGONTHESTEEPNESS
of the gradient and material quality. Spot improvements should be considered on these sections.
2EGRAVELLINGSHOULDTAKEPLACEBEFORETHESUBBASEISEXPOSED4HEREGRAVELLINGFREQUENCY 2 ISTYPICALLY
INTHERANGEYEARS4HISDECREASESCONSIDERABLYIFPOORQUALITYGRAVELSHAVETOBEUSED&OREXAMPLE
IFTHEGRAVELQUALITYISINZONES"OR# THELOSSRATEWILLBEMMPERYEARPERVPD4HEREFOREACLASS
DC4 gravel road carrying 200vpd will lose 90mm per year and require re-gravelling every two years
$RAINAGE BUT NOT NECESSARILY GEOMETRY IS UPGRADED TO ACCEPTABLE MINIMUM LEVELS DURING
CONSTRUCTIONØSFOR#LASS$#AND$#ROADS THISCANBEACHIEVEDBYBUILDINGUPTHEFORMATION
to an appropriate height to achieve the hmin requirements given in Table B.6.2.
The recommended sub-base thicknesses and wearing course material strengths for different sub-
GRADEANDTRAFÞCCONDITIONSARESHOWNIN4ABLE"
4RAFÞC#LASSES ØØ$4
Subgrade Strength
Class CBR (%) DC1/DC2(1)
(< 75)
150 WC
3
'
33 150 WC
3 Earth Road
Notes:
1. )FMORETHANHEAVYVEHICLESPERDAY DESIGNASAMAJORGRAVELROAD
2. If a G30 material is available the thickness can be reduced to 150 mm
4HE DESIGN STANDARDS FOR PAVED ROADS WITH A BITUMINOUS SURFACE ASSUME A ßEXIBLE PAVEMENT WITH A
GRANULARBASESUBBASE4ABLE"SHOWSTHEMATERIALTYPESFORTHEVARIOUSSTRUCTURALLAYERSUSEDINTHE
CATALOGUES&ORSUBBASES 'AND'MATERIALSAREBOTHSUITABLEBUT'ISPREFERRED
The design charts for roads with bituminous road surfaces are shown in Tables B.6.6 and B.6.7. The use
of the charts is described as follows.
/NCETHEQUALITYOFTHEAVAILABLEMATERIALSANDHAULDISTANCESAREKNOWN THEßOWCHARTSHOWNIN&IGURE
D.6.22 of Part D and the design charts can be used to review the most economical cross-section and
PAVEMENT THIS INVOLVES ASSESSMENT OF DESIGN TRAFÞC CLASS DESIGN PERIOD CROSSSECTION AND OTHER
environmental and design considerations.
7HENTHEPROJECTISLOCATEDCLOSETOTHEBORDERBETWEENTHETWOCLIMATICZONES THELOWER.VALUESHOULD
be used to reduce risks.
7HENTHEDESIGNISCLOSETOTHEBORDERLINEBETWEENTWOTRAFÞCDESIGNCLASSES ANDINTHEABSENCEOFMORE
RELIABLEDATA THENEXTHIGHESTDESIGNCLASSSHOULDBEUSED
It may be more economical to use a wider cross-section in the seasonal tropical and wet climate zone and
then use Pavement Design Chart 2 rather than to design a narrow cross-section and a pavement using
Pavement Design Chart 1.
WBM is suitable for labour based construction and should provide a relatively high quality surface layer
SIMILARTOAGOODQUALITYNATURALGRAVELSURFACE(OWEVER LIKEGRAVEL ITISWORNAWAYBYTRAFÞCANDRAINFALL
and therefore requires similar maintenance.
The structural designs for WBM are similar to those required for a gravel road as shown in Table B.6.10
WITH THE 7"- ITSELF ACTING AS THE WEARING COURSE Ø CAPPING LAYERS AND A SUBBASE ARE REQUIRED AS
indicated but thicknesses can be reduced if stronger material is available.
4HE (03 IS NORMALLY BEDDED ON A THIN LAYER OF SAND 3", ØN EDGE RESTRAINT OR KERB CONSTRUCTED FOR
EXAMPLE OFLARGEORMORTAREDSTONESIMPROVESDURABILITYANDLATERALSTABILITY
Table B.6.11: Thicknesses designs for Hand Packed Stone (HPS) pavement (mm)
Table B.6.12: Thicknesses designs for various discrete element surfacings (mm)
The thickness designs are given in Table B.6.12 except that the thickness of the cobblestone is generally
150mm instead of 100mm shown in the Table.
Mortared options
)NSOMECIRCUMSTANCES EGONSLOPESINHIGHRAINFALLAREASANDVOLUMESUSCEPTIBLESUBGRADE ITMAYBE
ADVANTAGEOUSTOUSEMORTAREDOPTIONS4HISCANBEDONEWITH(ANDPACKED3TONE 3TONE3ETTS OR0AVÁ
#OBBLESTONE OR$RESSED3TONE AND&IRED#LAY"RICKPAVEMENTS4HECONSTRUCTIONPROCEDUREISLARGELY
the same as for the un-mortared options except that cement mortar is used instead of sand for bedding
ANDJOINTÞLLING4HEBEHAVIOUROFMORTAREDPAVEMENTSISDIFFERENTTOTHATOFSANDBEDDEDPAVEMENTS
ANDISMOREANALOGOUSTOARIGIDPAVEMENTTHANAßEXIBLEONE4HEREIS HOWEVER LITTLEFORMALGUIDANCE
ONMORTAREDOPTION ALTHOUGHEMPIRICALEVIDENCEINDICATESTHATINTERBLOCKCRACKINGMAYOCCUR&ORTHIS
REASONTHEOPTIONISCURRENTLYONLYRECOMMENDEDFORTHELIGHTESTTRAFÞCDIVISIONSUPTO,6 4ABLES"
until further locally relevant evidence is available.
It should be emphasised that the formal design approach for this option is still under development and
that its use within an Ethiopian LVR road environment should be undertaken with caution.
ØREASWHERETHEUSEOF542#0CANBECONSIDEREDINCLUDE
3URFACINGOFANEWROADORTHEREHABILITATIONUPGRADINGOFANEXISTINGROAD
ØLLTRAFÞCANDROADCLASSESFROMLOWVOLUMEURBANSTREETSTOINLAYS TOnPROVINCIALoROADSWHERE
TYPICALTRAFÞCVOLUMESAREBELOWVEHICLESPERDAYWITHLESSTHANHEAVYVEHICLES ATTHIS
STAGE
ØREASOFSTEEPGRADESANDSTOPSTARTHEAVYTRAFÞC
ØREASWHEREREGULARMAINTENANCEISUNLIKELY
The concrete is only 50mm thick and therefore tolerances are critical. The success of the UTRCP process is
THEREFOREDEPENDENTONATTENTIONTODETAIL4HISAPPLIESNOTONLYTOTHECONCRETELAYER CONCRETESTRENGTH
THICKNESS PLACING CURING BUTALSOTOTHEPLACING SUPPORTINGANDJOININGOFTHESTEELMESHPANELS AS
well as the tolerances of the layer supporting the UTRCP. The need for meticulous monitoring and control
during construction cannot be over-emphasised. Competent site staff must be intensively involved in all
the processes associated with and control of all the construction activities.
4RAFÞC(2)
SG CBR%
Low Medium High
50 RC 50 RC 50 RC
3 150 G80 150 G80 150 G80
200 G30 250 G30 350 G30
50 RC 50 RC 50 RC
3 150 G80 150 G80 150 G80
125 G30 150 G30 200 G30
50 RC 50 RC
50 RC
3 150 G80 150 G80
150 G80
100G30 150 G30
50 RC 50 RC 50 RC
3
100 G80 125 G80 150 G80
50 RC 50 RC 50 RC
3
75 G80 100 G80 100 G80
Notes:
1. Concrete must have a 28-day cube strength of 30MPa
2. 4HECURRENTLYSUGGESTEDTRAFÞCDIVISIONSARE
, ØK.WHEELLOADDIVISIONSUGGESTEDFORURBANSTREETS
- ØK.WHEELLOADDIVISIONFORBUSROUTES AND
( ØK.WHEELLOADDIVISIONFORPROVINCIALROADSCARRYINGUPTOVPD HEAVY
4HEMAXIMUMWATERßOWINAWATERCOURSECANBEESTIMATEDUSINGTHEFOLLOWINGMETHODS
$IRECTOBSERVATIONOFTHESIZEOFWATERCOURSE EROSIONANDDEBRISONTHEBANKS HISTORYANDLOCAL
knowledge;
The Rational Method.
4HE3#3METHOD 53Ø3OILS#ONSERVATION3ERVICES 42
ØCOMBINATIONOFTHESEMETHODSSHOULDBEUSEDTOPROVIDETHEMAXIMUMLEVELOFRELIABILITY
Where:
# THECATCHMENTRUNOFFCOEFÞCIENT
) THEINTENSITYOFTHERAINFALL MMHOUR
Ø THEAREAOFTHECATCHMENT KM2
7.2.1 #ATCHMENTRUNOFFCOEFÞCIENT #
4ABLE"2UNOFFCOEFÞCIENT(UMIDCATCHMENT
Soil Permeability
Average
Ground Slope Very low Low Medium High
(rock & hard clay) (clay loam) (sandy loam) (sand & gravel)
Flat 0-1% 0.55 0.40 0.20 0.05
Gentle 1-4% 0.75 0.55 0.35 0.20
Rolling 4-10% 0.85 0.65 0.45 0.30
Steep >10% 0.95 0.75 0.55 0.40
4ABLE"2UNOFFCOEFÞCIENT3EMIARIDCATCHMENT
Soil Permeability
Average
Ground Slope Very low Low Medium High
(rock & hard clay) (clay loam) (sandy loam) (sand & gravel)
Flat 0-1% 0.75 0.40 0.05 0.05
Gentle 1-4% 0.85 0.55 0.20 0.05
Rolling 4-10% 0.95 0.70 0.30 0.05
Steep >10% 1.00 0.80 0.50 0.10
4HEINTENSITYOFRAINFALL ) ISOBTAINEDFROMTHE)NTENSITY$URATION&REQUENCYCHARTSINØNNEXØ4HESTORM
DURATIONISEQUALTOTHE4IMEOF#ONCENTRATION 4C 4CISTHETIMETAKENFORWATERTOßOWFROMTHEFARTHEST
extremity of the catchment to the crossing site.
4HE VELOCITY OF ßOW DEPENDS ON THE CATCHMENT CHARACTERISTICS AND SLOPE OF THE WATERCOURSE )T IS
estimated from Figure B.7.1.
4HESTORMDESIGNRETURNPERIODISTAKENFROM4ABLE")FTHEROUTEISOFSTRATEGICIMPORTANCE ORIF
the alternative route in the event of a drainage failure is more than an additional 75km or if there is no
ALTERNATIVEROUTE 4ABLE"SHOULDBEUSED
&IGURE"6ELOCITYOFßOW
Table B.7.4: Storm design return period (years) for severe risk situations
The area of the drainage catchment should be estimated from a map or an aerial photograph.
In the Rational Method it is assumed that the intensity of the rainfall is the same over the entire catchment
AREA4HECONSEQUENCEOFAPPLYINGTHEMETHODTOLARGECATCHMENTSISANOVERESTIMATEOFTHEßOWAND
therefore a conservative design.
ØSIMPLEMODIÞCATIONCANBEMADETOTAKEINTOACCOUNTTHESPATIALVARIATIONOFRAINFALLINTENSITYACROSSA
larger catchment. The effective area of the catchment is reduced by multiplying by the areal reduction
FACTOR Ø2, GIVENBYTHEFOLLOWINGEQUATION
7HERE
t = storm duration in hours
Ø CATCHMENTAREAINKM
4HECATCHMENTAREAISDETERMINEDFROMTOPOGRAPHICMAPSANDÞELDSURVEYS&ORLARGECATCHMENTAREAS
it might be necessary to divide the area into sub-catchment areas to account for major land use changes.
7.3.2 Rainfall
4HE3#3METHODISBASEDONAHOURSTORMEVENT4HECHARACTERISTICSOFSTORMSAREDEÞNEDINTERMS
of the relationship between the percentage of the total storm rainfall that has fallen as a function of
TIME4HREEBASICTYPESOFSTORMAREDEÞNEDFORTHREELEVELSOFMAXIMUMINTENSITY 4YPE)BEINGTHELEAST
INTENSEAND4YPE)))BEINGTHEMOSTINTENSE)N%THIOPIAA4YPE))DISTRIBUTIONISUSED SEE%2ØmS$RAINAGE
$ESIGN-ANUALqORTHEREVISEDVERSIONWHENAVAILABLE
ØRELATIONSHIPBETWEENACCUMULATEDRAINFALLANDACCUMULATEDRUNOFFWASDERIVEDBY3#3FORNUMEROUS
hydrologic and vegetative cover conditions. The storm data included total amount of rainfall in a calendar
day but not its distribution with respect to time. The SCS runoff equation is therefore a method of
estimating direct runoff from 24-hour or 1-day storm rainfall.
3 IS RELATED TO THE SOIL AND COVER CONDITIONS OF THE CATCHMENT AREA THROUGH THE #URVE .UMBERS #.
described below.
3 #.q Equation B.7.6
The relationship between Ia and S was found to be;
Ia 3 #. Equation B.7.7
3UBSTITUTINGINTO%QUATION"
1 ;0q #. =;0 #. = Equation B.7.8
4HEPHYSICALCATCHMENTAREACHARACTERISTICSAFFECTINGTHERELATIONSHIPBETWEENRAINFALLANDRUNOFF IETHE
#.VALUES ARELANDUSE LANDTREATMENT SOILTYPES ANDLANDSLOPE
,AND USE IS THE CATCHMENT AREA COVER AND IT INCLUDES AGRICULTURAL CHARACTERISTICS TYPE OF VEGETATION
WATERSURFACES ROADSANDROOFS,ANDTREATMENTAPPLIESMAINLYTOAGRICULTURALLANDUSE ANDITINCLUDES
mechanical practices such as contouring or terracing and management practices such as rotation of
crops. The SCS method uses a combination of soil conditions and land-use to assign a runoff factor to
ANAREA4HESERUNOFFFACTORSORCURVENUMBERS #. INDICATETHERUNOFFPOTENTIALOFANAREA4HEHIGHER
THE#. THEHIGHERISTHERUNOFFPOTENTIAL
3OILS ARE DIVIDED SOILS INTO FOUR HYDROLOGIC GROUPS 'ROUPS Ø " # AND $ BASED ON INÞLTRATION RATES
4ABLE" 4HESEGROUPSAREDESCRIBEDINDETAILINTHE%2Ø$RAINAGE$ESIGN-ANUAL
2UNOFFCURVENUMBERSALSOVARYWITHTHEANTECEDENTSOILMOISTURECONDITIONS DEÞNEDASTHEAMOUNTOF
RAINFALLOCCURRINGINASELECTEDPERIODPRECEDINGAGIVENSTORM)NGENERAL THEGREATERTHEANTECEDENT
RAINFALL THEMOREDIRECTRUNOFFTHEREISFROMAGIVENSTORMØÞVEDAYPERIODISUSEDASTHEMINIMUMFOR
estimating antecedent moisture conditions.
4ABLE"GIVESRUNOFFCURVENUMBERSFORVARIOUSLANDUSES ."-ORECOMPREHENSIVETABLESAREGIVEN
INTHE%2Ø$RAINAGE$ESIGN-ANUAL 4HIS4ABLEISBASEDONANAVERAGEANTECEDENTMOISTURECONDITION
IESOILSTHATARENEITHERVERYWETNORVERYDRYWHENTHEDESIGNSTORMBEGINS 4ABLE"GIVESCONVERSION
factors to convert average curve numbers to wet and dry curve numbers. The recommended antecedent
MOISTURECONDITIONS Ø-# IN%THIOPIAARESHOWNIN4ABLE"
Land use A B C D
Without conservation treatment 72 81 88 91
Cultivated land
With conservation treatment 62 71 78 81
Pasture land Poor condition 68 79 86 89
Good condition 39 61 74 80
Meadow 30 58 71 78
4HINSTAND POORCOVER NOMULCH 45 66 77 83
Wood or forest
Good cover 25 55 70 77
'OODCONDITION GRASSCOVEROF
/PENSPACES LAWNS 39 61 74 80
area
parks
&AIRCONDITION GRASSON 49 69 79 84
#OMMERCIALANDBUSINESSAREAS
89 92 94 95
Urban districts impervious
)NDUSTRIALDISTRICTS IMPERVIOUS 81 88 91 93
ØVERAGELOTSIZE ØVERAGEIMPERVIOUS
< 0.05 hectares 65 77 85 90
0.1 hectares 38 61 75 83
Residential
0.2 hectares 25 54 70 80
0.4 hectares 20 51 68 79
0.8 hectares 12 46 65 77
0AVEDROADSWITHCURBSANDSTORMDRAINS PAVEDPARKINGAREAS ROOFS 98 98 98 98
Gravel roads 76 85 89 91
Earth roads 72 82 87 89
/PENWATER 0 0 0 0
Table B.7.7: Conversion from average to wet and dry antecedent moisture conditions
CN values
Average conditions Dry Wet
95 87 98
90 78 96
85 70 94
80 63 91
75 57 88
70 51 85
65 45 82
60 40 78
55 35 74
50 31 70
45 26 65
40 22 60
35 18 55
30 15 50
The next step in the SCS Method is to determine the Time of Concentration. This is the time it takes water
TOßOWFROMTHEEDGEOFTHECATCHMENTAREATOTHEPOINTOFINTEREST)TISACOMBINATIONOFTHREEVALUES
Ø SHEETßOW
" SHALLOWCONCENTRATEDßOW AND
# OPENCHANNELßOW
4HETYPETHATOCCURSISAFUNCTIONOFTHECONVEYANCESYSTEMANDISDETERMINEDBYÞELDINSPECTION)TIS
often a combination of these so that the total travel time is the sum of the time taken for the water to pass
through all of the segments of the catchment.
4RAVELTIMEISTHERATIOOFßOWLENGTHTOßOWVELOCITY
4 , 6 Equation B.7.9
Where:
4 TRAVELTIME HR
, ßOWLENGTH M
6 AVERAGEVELOCITY MS
3600 = conversion factor from seconds to hours.
3HEETßOW
3HEETßOWISßOWOVERPLANESURFACES)TUSUALLYOCCURSINTHEHEADWATEROFSTREAMS7ITHSHEETßOW
THEFRICTIONVALUE -ANNINGmSN ISANEFFECTIVEROUGHNESSCOEFÞCIENTTHATINCLUDESTHEEFFECTOFRAINDROP
IMPACT DRAG OVER THE PLANE SURFACE OBSTACLES SUCH AS LITTER CROP RIDGES AND ROCKS AND EROSION AND
TRANSPORTATIONOFSEDIMENT4HESENVALUESAREFORVERYSHALLOWßOWDEPTHSOFABOUTMORSO4ABLE
"GIVES-ANNINGmSNVALUESFORSHEETßOWFORVARIOUSSURFACECONDITIONS
4ABLE"-ANNINGmSROUGHNESSCOEFÞCIENTSFORSHEETßOW
Surface n1
3MOOTHSURFACESCONCRETE ASPHALT GRAVELORBARESOIL 0.011
&ALLOW NORESIDUE 0.05
Cultivated soils
Residue cover < 20% 0.06
Residue cover > 20% 0.17
Grasses
Short grass 0.15
Dense grass 0.24
Range 0.13
Woods
&ORSHEETßOWOFLESSTHANMETRES-ANNINGmSKINEMATICSOLUTIONSHOULDBEUSEDTOCOMPUTETHETRAVEL
TIME4
4 ; N, 0? 3= Equation B.7.10
Where:
4 TRAVELTIME HR
N -ANNINGmSROUGHNESSCOEFÞCIENT 4ABLE"
, ßOWLENGTH M
P2 YEAR HOURRAINFALL MM
3 SLOPEOFHYDRAULICGRADELINE LANDSLOPE MM
ØFTERDETERMININGAVERAGEVELOCITY THETRAVELTIMEFORTHESHALLOWCONCENTRATEDßOWSEGMENTISCALCULATED
from Equation B.7.9.
/PEN#HANNELßOW
/PEN CHANNELS ARE ASSUMED TO BEGIN WHERE SURVEYED CROSS SECTION INFORMATION HAS BEEN OBTAINED
WHERE CHANNELS ARE VISIBLE ON AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS OR WHERE BLUE LINES INDICATING STREAMS APPEAR ON
%THIOPIAN-APPINGØUTHORITYTOPOGRAPHICMAPS ØVERAGEßOWVELOCITYISUSUALLYDETERMINED
FORBANKFULLELEVATION-ANNINGmSEQUATIONORWATERSURFACEPROÞLEINFORMATIONCANBEUSEDTOESTIMATE
ØFTERTHEAVERAGEVELOCITYISCOMPUTED THETRAVELTIMEFORTHESEGMENTCANBECALCULATEDUSING%QUATION
B.7.9.
Reservoir or Lake
Sometimes it is necessary to compute a time of concentration for a catchment area having a relatively
LARGEBODYOFWATERINTHEßOWPATH4HETRAVELTIMEISCOMPUTEDUSINGTHEEQUATION
Vw G$m Equation B.7.12
Where:
Vw THEWAVEVELOCITYACROSSTHEWATER Ms
G MS
Dm MEANDEPTHOFLAKEORRESERVOIR M
4HISEQUATIONONLYDEALSWITHTHETRAVELTIMEACROSSTHELAKE NOTTHETIMEATTHEINßOWOROUTßOWCHANNELS
The times for these are generally very much longer and must be added to the travel time across the lake
SEE%2ØS$RAINAGE$ESIGN-ANUAL %QUATION"CANBEUSEDFORSWAMPSWITHMUCHOPENWATER BUT
WHERETHEVEGETATIONORDEBRISISRELATIVELYTHICK LESSTHANABOUTOPENWATER -ANNINGmSEQUATION
is more appropriate.
7HERE1ISINMMANDØISINUNITSOFHECTARES
The required size of a culvert opening is estimated using the nomographs in Figure B.7.5 to Figure B.7.7.
4HESEÞGURESAPPLYTOCULVERTSWITHINLETCONTROLWHERETHEREISNORESTRICTIONTOTHEDOWNSTREAMßOWOF
the water.
If a high proportion of structures along a road or in a region have been in operation for a number of years
WITHOUTOVERTOPPING ITISREASONABLETOASSUMETHATTHERELATIONSHIPBETWEENCATCHMENTAREA CATCHMENT
CHARACTERISTICS RAINFALLINTENSITYANDMAXIMUMWATERßOWUSEDINTHEIRDESIGNISVALID4HEDESIGNOFNEW
culverts can be based on simply the catchment area using the same relationships.
$RIFTSANDFORDSAREDESIGNEDFORWATERTOßOWOVERTHERUNNINGSURFACE)TISNOTEXPECTEDTHATVEHICLES
can use them at all times. The following criteria should be considered when designing drifts:
The level of the drift should be as close as possible to the existing river bed level.
4HENORMALDEPTHOFWATERSHOULDBEAMAXIMUMOFMMANDTHEMAXIMUMYEARßOWSHOULD
be 6m3SECONDONTHEDRIFTTOALLOWTRAFÞCTOPASS
ØPPROACHRAMPSSHOULDHAVEAMAXIMUMGRADIENTOF FORROADSWITHLARGENUMBERSOF
HEAVYTRUCKS
Those parts of the natural slope drainage system that experience increased run-off as a result of road
construction should be strengthened through:
Control of road surface drainage;
$ESIGNOFCULVERTSORDRIFTSTHATCONVEYWATERANDDEBRISLOADEFÞCIENTLY
/PTIMISEDFREQUENCYOFDRAINAGECROSSINGSTOPREVENTEXCESSCONCENTRATIONOFßOW
Protection of drainage structures and stream channels for as far downstream as is necessary to
ensure their safety and to prevent erosion of land adjacent to the water course;
0LANTINGOFVEGETATIONONALLNEWSLOPESANDPOORLYVEGETATEDAREAS AROUNDTHEEDGESOFDRAINAGE
structures and appropriately along stream courses.
Side drains serve two main functions: collection and removal of surface water from the road and the
IMMEDIATEVICINITYOFTHEROAD ANDPREVENTIONOFSUBSURFACEWATERFROMADVERSELYAFFECTINGTHEROAD
PAVEMENTSTRUCTURE3IDEDRAINSCANBECONSTRUCTEDINTHREEFORMS6SHAPED RECTANGULARORTRAPEZOIDAL
4HETRAPEZOIDALCROSSSECTIONFACILITATESMAINTENANCEANDIMPROVEDTRAFÞCSAFETY4RAPEZOIDALDRAINSCAN
BECONSTRUCTEDANDMAINTAINEDBYHAND)NßATTERRAINANDREASONABLESOILSITMAYBEBESTTOUSEWIDE
UNLINEDDRAINSWITHHIGHCAPACITYYETLOWßOWVELOCITY4HEMINIMUMRECOMMENDEDWIDTHOFTHESIDE
drain is 500mm.
Design volumes of run-off in side drains and other channels are estimated using the Rational Method.
4HECROSSSECTIONALAREAOFTHEDRAINMUSTBESUFÞCIENTTOACCOMMODATETHEEXPECTEDßOWOFWATER 1
where:
1 Ø6
6VELOCITYINMS
2HYDRAULICDEPTH THEAREAFORTHESTREAM
ßOWDIVIDEDBYTHEWETTEDPERIMETER
3HYDRAULICGRADIENT THESLOPEOFTHE
river bed over a reasonable distance either
SIDEOFTHECROSSINGPOINT
NROUGHNESSCOEFÞCIENT SEE4ABLE"
$EÞNITIONOFHYDRAULICDEPTH
Figure B.7.6: Headwater depth and capacity for corrugated metal pipe
culverts with inlet control (Adapted from FHWA, 1998)
4ABLE"2OUGHNESSCOEFÞCIENT N FORDRAINS
,IMITINGVALUESFORTHEVELOCITYOFßOWTOPREVENTSCOURINEXCAVATEDDRAINSAREGIVENIN4ABLE"
Scour checks reduce the speed of water and help prevent it from eroding the road structure. The scour
CHECKACTSASASMALLDAM7HENTHESCOURCHECKISNATURALLYSILTEDUPONTHEUPSTREAMSIDE ITEFFECTIVELY
REDUCESTHEGRADIENTOFTHEDRAINONTHATSIDE ANDTHEREFORETHEVELOCITYOFTHEWATER4HEREMUSTBE
SUFÞCIENTCROSSSECTIONALAREAINTHEDRAINABOVETHESCOURCHECK IEWHERETHEWATERHASBEENSLOWED
DOWN TOACCOMMODATETHEMAXIMUMDESIGNßOW
The distance between scour checks depends on the road gradient and the erosion potential of the soils.
4ABLE"SHOWSRECOMMENDEDVALUES4HESESHOULDBEMODIÞEDFORERODIBLESOILS
When constructing a channel lining it is important to reproduce or exceed the dimensions of the original
CHANNELØCURVEDSHAPEDCROSSSECTIONTOTHELININGISPREFERABLETOARECTANGULARCROSSSECTION-EASURES
must be taken to control erosion downstream of the drain outlet.
$RYSTONEPITCHINGFORDRAINLININGISUSUALLYONLYSUITABLEWHERETHEDISCHARGEISLOWERTHANMSECPER
METREWIDTH ANDWHERESEDIMENTLOADISRELATIVELYÞNEGRAINED
Water from the side drains should be discharged as frequently as possible. If the water can be discharged
ONTHESAMESIDEOFTHEROADASTHEDRAIN ATURNOUTORMITREDRAINISUSEDTOLEADTHEWATERONTOADJACENT
LAND,OWVOLUMESOFßOWANDLOWVELOCITIESSHOULDBEACHIEVEDATEACHDISCHARGEPOINTTOMINIMISE
erosion. Table B.7.13 shows the maximum spacing of mitre drains related to gradient.
ØBLOCKOFFISREQUIREDTOENSURETHATWATERßOWSOUTOFTHESIDEDRAININTOTHEMITREDRAIN4HEANGLE
BETWEENTHEMITREDRAINANDTHESIDEDRAINSHOULDPREFERABLYBEDEGREES BUTNOTGREATERTHAN
degrees.
The desirable slope of the mitre drains is 2%. The gradient should not exceed 5% otherwise there may
be erosion in the drain or on the land where the water is discharged. The drain should lead gradually
ACROSSTHELAND GETTINGSHALLOWERANDSHALLOWER3TONESMAYNEEDTOBELAIDATTHEENDOFTHEDRAINTO
help prevent erosion.
3PECIALDRAINAGEORCONSTRUCTIONMETHODSARENEEDEDIFWETAREASMUSTBECROSSEDØNEMBANKMENTIS
normally required. The embankment should include multiple drainage pipes or coarse permeable rock-
ÞLLTOKEEPTHEßOWDISPERSED3UBGRADEREINFORCEMENTWITHCOARSEPERMEABLEROCK ÞLTERLAYERSAND
GEOTEXTILESMAYALSOBEREQUIRED4HEOBJECTIVEISTOMAINTAINTHENATURALGROUNDWATERLEVELANDßOW
PATTERNDISPERSEDACROSSTHEWETLANDAND ATTHESAMETIME PROVIDEASTABLE DRYROADWAYSURFACE
Longitudinal subsoil drains can be used to locally lower a water table. They normally consist of porous
CONCRETE OPENJOINTEDORPERFORATEDPIPELAIDINATRENCHANDBACKÞLLEDWITHAFREEDRAININGMATERIALSUCH
as graded crushed stone or gravel. The pipe size should not be less than 15cm internal diameter. The
trench should be at least 60cm wide and 1.5m deeper than the formation level of the road.
7.5.7 Filters
ØÞLTERISASATRANSITIONALLAYEROFSMALLGRAVELORGEOTEXTILEPLACEDBETWEENASTRUCTURE SUCHASRIPRAP
ORGABIONS ANDTHEUNDERLYINGSOIL)TSPURPOSEISTOPREVENTTHEMOVEMENTOFSOILBEHINDTHESTRUCTURE
ORINTOUNDERDRAINS&ILTERSALLOWGROUNDWATERTODRAINFROMTHESOILWITHOUTBUILDINGUPPRESSUREØ
SANDORGRAVELÞLTERLAYERISTYPICALLYABOUTTOMMTHICK)NSOMEAPPLICATIONS TWOÞLTERLAYERS
MAYBENEEDEDBETWEENÞNESOILANDVERYLARGEROCK'EOTEXTILESARECOMMONLYUSEDTOPROVIDEÞLTER
ZONESBETWEENMATERIALSOFDIFFERENTSIZEANDGRADATION4HEGEOTEXTILECANBEAWOVENMONOÞLAMENT
ORANEEDLEPUNCHEDNONWOVENGEOTEXTILE BUTITMUSTBEPERMEABLE4HEGEOTEXTILESHOULDHAVEAN
APPARENTOPENINGSIZEOFTOMMØGMNEEDLEPUNCHEDNONWOVENGEOTEXTILEISCOMMONLY
USEDFORSOILÞLTRATIONANDSEPARATIONAPPLICATIONS
4HESEDRAINSARECONSTRUCTEDTOPREVENTWATERßOWINGINTOVULNERABLELOCATIONSBYlINTERCEPTINGm lCUTTING
OFFmORlCATCHINGmTHEWATERßOWANDDIVERTINGITTOASAFEPOINTOFDISCHARGE USUALLYANATURALWATERCOURSE
Interceptor drains above cut faces should have a gradient of 2% on their full length and should be at least
3 to 5 m from the cut face. If steeper gradients in the drain are unavoidable then scour checks should be
installed or the drain should be lined. The drain should also be lined where seepage will weaken the cut
SLOPEØLTERNATIVELYTHEDRAINSHOULDBEREPLACEDBYAVEGETATEDEARTHBUND
7.5.9 Chutes
#HUTES ARE STRUCTURES INTENDED TO CONVEY A CONCENTRATION OF WATER DOWN A SLOPE THAT WITHOUT SUCH
PROTECTION WOULD BE SUBJECT TO SCOUR 3INCE ßOW VELOCITIES ARE VERY HIGH STILLING BASINS ARE REQUIRED
to prevent downstream erosion. The entrance of the chute needs to be designed to ensure that water
IS DEßECTED FROM THE SIDE DRAIN INTO THE CHUTE PARTICULARLY WHERE THE ROAD IS ON A STEEP GRADE /N
embankments it may be necessary to lead water to the top of chutes using kerbing.
2ECOMMENDEDCUTANDÞLLSLOPESFOR,62STOAVOIDEXCESSIVEEROSIONAREGIVENIN4ABLE"AND4ABLE
B.7.15.
4ABLE"#OMMONÞLLSLOPEBATTERSFOR,62S
The design of water crossings and associated structures for low volume are covered in Part E Chapter 8 of
the manual. This Part of the manual includes bridges up to a span of 10m. For detailed design of bridges
WITHSPANSGREATERTHANM THEDESIGNERSHOULDCONSULTTHE%2Ø"RIDGE$ESIGN-ANUALq
4HE%2Ø'EOMETRIC$ESIGN-ANUALPROVIDESTHEREQUIREMENTSFORROADFURNITUREANDSIGNAGE4HEMAIN
elements are:
4RAFÞCSIGNSPROVIDEESSENTIALINFORMATIONTODRIVERSFORTHEIRSAFEANDEFÞCIENTMANOEUVRINGON
the road;
Road markings to delineate the pavement centre line and edges to clarify the paths that vehicles
SHOULDFOLLOW PAVEDROADS
Marker posts to indicate the alignment of the road ahead.
9.1 4RAFÞC3IGNS
4RAFÞCSIGNSAREOFTHREEGENERALTYPES
2EGULATORY3IGNSINDICATELEGALREQUIREMENTSOFTRAFÞCMOVEMENTANDAREESSENTIALFORALLROADS
Warning Signs: indicate conditions that may be hazardous to highway users
Information Signs: convey information of use to the driver
7ARNINGSIGNSSHOULDBEPROVIDEDWHERETHEREAREUNEXPECTEDCHANGESINTHEDRIVINGCONDITIONS FOR
example where:
The geometric standards for a particular class of road have been changed along a short section
OF ROAD FOR EXAMPLE A SHARP BEND A SUDDEN NARROWING OF THE ROAD OR AN UNEXPECTEDLY STEEP
gradient;
ØBENDOCCURSAFTERALONGSECTIONOFSTRAIGHTROAD
There is an unexpected school crossing;
ØDRIFTOROTHERSTRUCTUREISNOTCLEARLYVISIBLEFROMASAFEDISTANCE
4HEDRIVERISAPPROACHINGTRAFÞCCALMINGMEASURESSUCHASSPEEDHUMPS
Hazard warnings that are done by means of road markings on paved roads must be done by means of
TRAFÞCSIGNSONUNPAVEDROADS
Information signs are less important on lower classes of road frequented primarily by local people.
Guideposts are intended to make drivers aware of potential hazards such as abrupt changes in shoulder
WIDTH ABRUPTCHANGESINTHEALIGNMENT APPROACHESTOSTRUCTURESETC&ORCHANGESINSHOULDERWIDTH
ANDAPPROACHESTOSTRUCTURES GUIDEPOSTSSHOULDBEPLACEDATMINTERVALS
Kilometre posts are a requirement for all trunk and link roads and are therefore only likely to be needed
on some roads of class DC4. Details are given in the section on “Road Furniture and Markings” in the
Geometric Design Manual-2011.
Rainfall Regions
Note:
2AINFALL DATA USED IN THE PREPARATION OF THIS ÞGURE WAS COLLECTED FROM -INISTRY OF 7ATER 2ESOURCES
METEOROLOGYSTATIONSANDANALYSEDDURINGTHEPREPARATIONOFTHE%2Ø$RAINAGE$ESIGN-ANUAL
4HEINFORMATIONISSUBJECTTOREVIEW ANDFUTUREDATAMAYINDICATETHENEEDFORAFURTHERREÞNEMENTIN
both values and regional boundaries.