State of The Marine Environment (SOME) Report 2016 (IMA)

State of the
Marine
Environment
Trinidad & Tobago - 2016
State of the
Marine
Environment
Trinidad & Tobago - 2016
State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016

i
A Publication of the Institute of Marine Affairs
Copyright 2016©
Institute of Marine Affairs
Hilltop Lane,
Chaguaramas,
Trinidad, West Indies
http://www.ima.gov.tt
Foreword
The Institute of Marine Affairs (IMA) is the only multi-disciplinary coastal, marine and environmen-
tal research organization in the CARICOM States established to conduct inter-disciplinary studies. IMA was
established and incorporated in accordance with the provisions of an Act of Parliament, No. 15 of 1976,
now Chapter 37:01 in the Revised Laws of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago and became operational
in 1978. For more than 35 years, the IMA has pioneered and participated in numerous programmes local-
ly and regionally, and advised the Government of Trinidad and Tobago on the sustainable management
of the coastal and marine resources. IMA’s mission is to conduct and foster research and to provide advice
for the sustainable management of the coastal and marine areas and resources of Trinidad and Tobago.
The IMA uses widely accepted and published scientific methodologies to conduct its research and monitoring
programme. This State of the Marine Environment Report attempts to convert sound scientific data into perti-
nent information that can be used by decision-makers, policy makers and the wider public to inform development
planning. Trinidad and Tobago’s marine and coastal environment is extremely important for its development
and sustainability. IMA is willing to partner with sister agencies, local and regional academic institutions and
community based organisations to foster science-based management, and to support the Science-Policy nexus.
Mrs. Toylan Arneaud

Director (Ag)
Institute of Marine Affairs

iii
Acknowledgements
The State of the Marine Environment Report 2016 is a publication of the Institute of Marine Affairs, with
contributions from Dr. Rahanna Juman, Mr. Kahlil Hassanali, Dr. Farahnaz Solomon, Dr. Darryl Banjoo, Mr. Attish
Kanhai, Ms. Wendy Nelson, Ms. Christine Bullock, Mr. Sheldon Ramoutar, Mr. Christopher Alexis and Ms. Rachael
Amoroso.
Photographs were provided by Mr. Jonathan Gomez and maps were prepared by Mr. Hamish Asmath. The design
and layout of the report was done by Mr. Karl Doyle with the assistance of Mr. Brent Yates. The report was
reviewed by Dr. Floyd Homer, Dr. Beverly Foster-Hinds and Ms. Lorraine Barrow.
The IMA wishes to thank all its technical and support staff for their contribution to the production of this report.
Table of Contents
1. Executive Summary 1
2. Introduction 4
3. Approach 5
4. Pollution 7
Total Suspended Solids 8
Hydrocarbons 9
Nutrient Pollution 10
Heavy Metals 11
Bathing Beach Water Quality 14
North Coast of Trinidad 15
West Coast of Trinidad 17

5. Beaches and Bays 21
6. Mangrove Swamp 29
7. Seagrass Beds 35
8. Coral Reefs 39
9. Soft-bottom Benthic Community 45
10. Marine Fisheries 47
11. Emerging Issues 53

Climate Change 54
Sargassum 55
Lionfish 56
12. Policy Intervention 59
13. Conclusion 63
14. Selected References 65

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Executive Summary
The State of the Marine Environment Report 2016 pro- Coastal water pollution has also partially influenced
vides a scientifically grounded understanding of the the observed decline of important ecosystems such as
condition of some of Trinidad and Tobago’s important coral reefs and seagrass beds.
coastal and marine ecosystems, habitats and species.
It also details how the status of these resources have Many coral reefs around Tobago have been experienc-
been, and are being affected by the range of natural ing phase shifts in benthic cover away from hard coral
and human pressures to which they are subjected. In to species more tolerant of nutrient enriched water.
compiling this report therefore, some degree of insight Similarly, waning health and loss of Thalassia domi-
has been presented into the future prospects for the nated seagrass beds in both Tobago and Trinidad, have
country’s coastal and marine environment should a been linked to poor water quality from land-based pol-
‘business as usual’ scenario be perpetuated into the lution (nutrients and sediments). Loss of seagrass beds
future. would result in loss of their ecosystem services such
as coastal protection and habitat for fish and other
Pollution of coastal waters has proven to be an ongo- marine species. There is an urgent need to manage,
ing and pervasive problem. In parts of the Gulf of Paria and in some areas, rehabilitate our seagrass communi-
along Trinidad’s west coast the problem is particular- ty to ensure that they continue to provide a safe haven
ly acute. However, country-wide, areas with elevated for rich biodiversity, and protect our coastline.
parameters such as total suspended solids, hydrocar-
bons, nutrients, faecal coliform and heavy metals have At the same time, a third major coastal ecosystem, man-
been identified. This pollution problem has been found groves, has been shown to be undergoing degradation
to be mainly land-based; where run off and effluent and habitat loss, not so much because of pollution, but
from terrestrial sources and activities have negatively through land-use change and development.
impacted coastal sediment and water quality. Health
and safety standards at several bathing beaches in
Trinidad and Tobago have been compromised and
some shellfish species may be unsafe for human
consumption.
Sediment plumes emanating from the Maraval River and coastal reclamation activity in Port-of-Spain

1
Waning health and loss of Thalassia dominated seagrass beds in both Tobago and Trinidad, have been linked to poor water quality from land-based pollution (nutrients
and sediments)
Loss of mangrove forest will increase threat to human is already a problem. Accelerated erosion in the future
safety and increase damage to shorelines from coast- as a result of climate change and sea level rise has
al hazards such as erosion, flooding, and storm waves the potential to put critical coastal infrastructure and
and surges. It will decrease coastal water quality, coastal communities at further risk. The ongoing long
reduce biodiversity, eliminate fish and crustacean term coastal monitoring program, which needs to be
nursery habitat, adversely affect adjacent coastal strengthened, is essential for continued identification
habitats, and eliminate a major resource for human of at risk areas, and the designing and implementation
communities that traditionally rely on mangroves for of effective ecosystem-based solutions. This would
numerous products and services. Furthermore, man- inform development planning in the coastal zone.
grove destruction can release large quantities of stored
carbon and exacerbate global warming trends. The Within the context of the ocean-based economy, this
range of essential ecosystem services these ecologi- report has also shown the imperative need to safeguard
cal communities provide cannot be overstated. Thus, Trinidad and Tobago’s fisheries resources – a source of
reasserted efforts must be made to alleviate negative livelihood and nutrition for some of this country’s most
pressures on them and boost their resilience. marginalised groups and communities. Several species
of commercially important fish have been found to be
Increased ecological resilience i.e. the capacity of an fully exploited or overexploited. However, legislation
ecosystem to respond to perturbations by resisting needed to rectify the virtually open access nature of
damage and recovering quickly, is especially needed in this country’s fisheries and modernise fisheries prac-
the face of climate change and its associated hazards. tices to make them more sustainable, is in draft form
For instance, climate change is expected to worsen and needs to be urgently laid in Parliament. Fish and
incidences of bleaching as a result of elevated sea sur- shell fish nursery habitats such as mangrove swamps
face temperatures on Tobago’s reefs, and increase the and seagrass beds also need to be conserved and/ or
occurrence of diseases, making the reef less attractive restored to ensure food security.
for tourism. Furthermore, the threats posed by cli-
mate change may become particularly evident when Updating relevant policy and legislation to enhance
it comes to coastal erosion. This report has identified the coastal and marine governance framework, mak-
a few areas around the country where coastal erosion ing it more effective in the context of Trinidad and

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Tobago’s current and projected future reality, is essen-
tial if we are to treat with issues highlighted in this
State of the Marine Environment Report. Effective
implementation of formulated plans and policies also
hinge on the adequate resourcing of management and
regulatory agencies and ensuring that these bodies, in
partnership with civil society, genuinely co-ordinate
actions and activities across sectors, space and time.
Monitoring and evaluation of management interven-
tions are also critical to facilitate adaptive management
in an uncertain future. Integrated Coastal Zone
Management (ICZM) explicitly seeks this. The adoption
of an ICZM Policy and the mainstreaming into practice
of well-established ICZM principles would aid Trinidad
and Tobago to sustainably use and develop its ocean
and coastal resources while protecting the integrity of
critical ecosystems and the services they provide.
Right:
Coral bleaching events are expected to become more frequent due to
elevated sea surface temperature associated with climate change
Bottom:
Coastal erosion, which can be exacerbated by impacts due to climate
change, threatens coastal infrastucture such as roads

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Introduction
Trinidad and Tobago is the southern-most country in the Caribbean archipelagic chain. Trinidad has a surface
area of 4,828 km2 while Tobago is substantially smaller with an area of 300 km2. Collectively the country has a
coastline length of 704 km. The country’s jurisdictional sovereignty and responsibility extends beyond the ter-
restrial into the marine through its archipelagic waters, territorial sea and exclusive economic zone (EEZ). The
collective areal extent of these encompasses 77,502 km2 of waters surrounding the islands. Trinidad and Tobago
therefore has a land to sea ratio of 1:15, which indicates the importance of the marine and coastal sphere to the
country (Draft ICZM Policy, 2014).
The country’s economy has long been supported by coastal and marine resources, primarily oil and gas, tourism
and fisheries. Data from the Central Statistical Office (CSO) has shown that for the past 10 years, the industrial
sector has accounted for more than 50% of the country’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) while the service sec-
tor (including tourism and shipping) has accounted for about 40% GDP, but more than 60% of the labour force.
Tourism is especially important in Tobago as approximately 50% of employment is tourism related. The fishing
sector, although contributing much less to GDP, cannot be underestimated, as it provides a source of livelihood,
subsistence and nutrition, especially to some of the more vulnerable in society. The current population stands
at 1,349,667 persons (CSO, 2016) and it is estimated that almost 80% of all socio-economic activities and 70% of
the population are located along the coast (CSO, 2007).
New economic policies, aimed at diversifying the economy, have seen investments in the tourism, agriculture,
aquaculture and maritime sectors, all of which depend on a healthy coastal environment. However, much of the
nation’s coastal resources have already been destroyed, degraded or over-exploited to accommodate a growing
population and their economic needs. Climate change, sea level rise and heightened erosion in some areas also
exacerbate the problems associated with many interests competing for limited coastal space.
In September 2015, the government of Trinidad and Tobago joined the rest of the world and committed to 17
Global Goals to achieve 3 extraordinary things in the next 15 years - end extreme poverty, fight inequality & injus-
tice and fix climate change. These 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), unlike Millennium Development
Goals (MDGs) derived in 2000, take into consideration the environment and its link to economic and social
development. Goal # 14 - Life below waters - speaks to the conservation and sustainable use of oceans, seas
and marine resources for sustainable development. This goal has 10 targets one of which speaks to sustainably
managing and protecting marine and coastal ecosystems to avoid significant adverse impacts, by strengthening
their resilience, and taking restoration action in order to achieve healthy and productive oceans by 2020. In
addition, the PNM’s manifesto which highlights the need to conserve the country’s natural assets has become
government policy, and the government is in the process of developing a National 2030 Vision.
In recent times, there has been increased awareness of the value of the services our coastal and ocean ecosys-
tems provide, and their significant contribution to our national economy. The concept of the ‘blue economy’
which refers to “living with the ocean and from the ocean in a sustainable relation” (Behnam, 2013; pg. 14) is
being given more consideration. Strengthening a national awareness of the role played by the oceans and its
existence, and the need to develop an integrated coastal and ocean policy through advocacy and education, for-
mal and informal and at all levels, is the gateway to the future (Behnam, 2013). To achieve this, the Institute of
Marine Affairs (IMA) has to translate data collected using standardized and widely accepted scientific methods
into pertinent information (knowledge products) that can be used by the decision-makers and civil society when
developing policies. This State of the Marine Environment Report 2016 is one such knowledge product.

4
Approach
The data provided in this report were collected under IMA’s on-going monitoring, and research projects using
standardized scientific methods. The nutrients in the water were determined following Grasshoff et al. (1983)
and Strickland and Parson (1972). Analyses for heavy metals were performed using the Perkin-Elmer AAnalyst
100 Atomic Absorption Spectrometer with deuterium background correction. Petroleum hydrocarbons were
measured using chrysene standard and UV/ fluorescence spectrometric analysis (IOC, 1984). Microbiological
analyses were done using rapid methods (Colilert-18, Colilert and Enterolert) and Standard Methods ISO 9308
(membrane filtration) in accordance with the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA). Beach
profiles were conducted using standard survey leveling techniques. Coral reefs were surveyed using both
video and photo transect methods and the National Coral Reef Institute (NCRI)/Nova South-eastern University
Oceanographic Centre’s Coral Point Count with Excel extensions program (CPCe) Analysis. Seagrass sampling
was done using methodology provided by CARICOMP (2000) while mangroves were mapped using GIS software
(ArcGIS 9.0), topographic maps and IKONOS satellite imagery. In situations where IMA does not have primary
data, information from reference sources was used.
IMA's researchers collecting field data

5
Pollution
Pollutants that find their way into Trinidad and Tobago’s
rivers through direct dumping or land based run-off can
travel downstream and enter the marine environment.
Our actions on land “far away”, although not necessar-
ily immediately apparent, can have an impact on the
marine environment. In fact, it is estimated that more
than 75% of marine pollution in the Caribbean is due
to land-based sources and activities.

7
Pollutants that find their way into Trinidad and Tobago’s rivers through direct dumping or land based
run-‐off can travel downstream and enter the marine environment. Our actions on land “far away”,
although not necessarily immediately apparent, can have an impact on the marine environment. In fact,
it is estimated
Temperature, pH that
and more
dissolvedthan oxygen
75% of marine pollution inin coastal
concentration the Caribbean
waters is
aredue to land-‐based
generally withinsources
the USEPA (1995)
and activities. Temperature, pH and dissolved oxygen concentration
acceptable limits for the protection of aquatic life as well as the Trinidad and Tobago water pollution rules (Table in coastal waters are generally
1). within the USEPA (1995) acceptable limits for the protection of aquatic life as well as the Trinidad and
However, poor water quality is noted at major rivers receiving land-based discharge such as Diego Martin,
Tobago water pollution rules (Table 1). However, poor water quality is noted at major rivers receiving
Maraval, Caroni, Madame Espagnole, Couva, Guaracara, Cipero and Godineau. The Gulf of Paria (GoP) on the
west coast of discharge
land-‐based such as Diego
Trinidad, receives excessiveMartin, Maraval,
pollution Caroni,
loading from Madame Espagnole,
agriculture, industrial, Couva, and
Guaracara,
domestic sources.
Cipero and Godineau. The Gulf of Paria (GoP) on the west coast of Trinidad, receives excessive pollution
This has resulted in several hot spot areas characterized primarily by elevated levels of suspend solids, nutrients
loading from agriculture, industrial, and domestic sources. This has resulted in several hot spot areas
and hydrocarbons.
characterized primarily by elevated levels of suspend solids, nutrients and hydrocarbons.
Table
Table 1:1: Summary ofophysical
Summary measurements
f physical fromfrom
measurements the Gulf ofulf
the G Paria, of PTrinidad
aria, Trinidad
Dissolved
Oxygen
pH (mg/L) Temperature (°C ) Salinity ( ppt.)
Average (n=250)α 7.84 6.01 28.1 29.22
Minimum 7.22 0.51 26.0 0.88
Maximum 8.23 8.53 30.9 36.20
should not exceed 3.0°C

6.5-‐8.5 > 5.0 N/A
US EPA 1995 Limits above ambient
Trinidad Water Pollution should not exceed 3.0°C

6.0-‐9.0 > 4.0 N/A
Rules* above ambient
α
Data from 250 measurements in the Gulf of Paria from Banjoo and Ramoutar ( 2016), Banjoo, (2013a)
and Banjoo (2013b).
* Quantity, condition or concentration at which substance or parameter is define as a pollutant. Values
not within ranges are considered pollutant.
N/A -‐ No Assessment.

Total Suspended Solids
Total Suspended Solids
Excessive total suspended solids (TSS) and sediment pollution affects the coastal water of Trinidad
particularly near the mouth of the Caroni River (west coast) and the North Oropouche River (east coast)
Excessive total suspended solids (TSS) and sediment 30.5 mg/L in the Bon Accord Lagoon to 66 mg/L in
where levels greater than 50 mg/L have been recorded. Levels of TSS found in the GoP are
pollution affects the coastal water of Trinidad partic- La Guira Bay. Although southwest Tobago does not
representative of ambient conditions at some locations and elevated at others locations. TSS varied
ularly near the mouth of the Caroni River (west coast) receive riverine flow, high TSS may be accounted for
from 7.0 mg/L to 64.0 mg/L in the dry season with an average of 16.2 + 11.3 mg/L and from 9.2 mg/L to
and132.1
the North Oropouche
mg/L in Riverw(east
the wet season ith an coast) where
average lev-
of 21.5 by m
+ 22.2 resuspension
g/L. TSS levels ofin bottom sediments
Southwest Tobago winere shallow areas
els quite variable ranging between 0.5 to 30.5 mg/L in the Bon Accord Lagoon to 66 mg/L in La Guira Bay.
greater than 50 mg/L have been recorded. Levels with turbulent conditions. There is no standard level
of TSS found in the GoP are representative of ambi- for TSS in marine waters, but the levels should not
ent conditions at some locations and elevated at other affect photosynthetic organisms adversely, by reducing
locations. TSS varied from 7.0 mg/L to 64.0 mg/L in the the available sunlight needed for primary productivity.
dry season with an average of 16.2 + 11.3 mg/L and Excessive TSS (> 50.0 mg/L) can result the smothering
from 9.2 mg/L to 132.1 mg/L in the wet season with an of benthic organisms, reduced photosynthetic activi-
average of 21.5 + 22.2 mg/L. TSS levels in Southwest ty, low dissolved oxygen and reduced species diversity
Tobago were quite variable ranging between 0.5 to and abundance.

8
Hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbon pollution results from mainly acciden- Analysis of fish and shellfish tissue samples for
tal spills via transport, and oil and gas operations. In AAPH in 2014 indicate low levels that ranged 0.07
December 2013, a major spill of refined oil (>7000 - 2.73 ppm in the edible/ muscle tissues of Carite
barrels) contaminated the Southwestern Peninsula of (Scomberomorus brasiliensis), Cavali (Caranx hippos),
Trinidad from Pointe-a-Pierre to Cedros. Generally, Croaker (Micropogonias spp.), Mullet (Mugil curema),
petroleum hydrocarbon levels in water and sediment Red Snapper (Lutjanus synagris), Salmon (Cynoscion
are higher on the west coast compared to other coast- jamaicensis) and Shrimp (Xiphopenaeus kroyeri and
al areas of Trinidad and Tobago. Dissolved dispersed Panaeus schmitti) samples. There is no standard for
petroleum hydrocarbon (DDPH) concentrations above AAPHs in biota tissues, but a comparison is made to a
10.0 parts per billion (ppb) are found close to oil and study in 1986 were levels were relatively similar rang-
gas operations on the west coast whereas concentra- ing from 0.25 - 1.79ppm.
tions less than 1.0 ppb are considered ambient, and
found in other areas away from petroleum sourc- Analysis of oysters (Crassotrea rhizophorae) tissue
es. Sediment quality off Pointe-a-Pierre, La Brea and collected at the Rousillac Swamp in 2014 for AAPH
Granville indicated hots spot areas with elevated lev- indicate elevated levels ranging between 10.58 and
els (>100.0 ppm) of hydrocarbons as adsorbed and 38.59 ppm. A history of oil contamination of oysters
absorbed petroleum hydrocarbons (AAPH). Elevated in this area is established from a 2002 study. Caution
levels of AAPH (>100.0 ppm) were also found in areas of should be taken when consuming oysters since these
Port of Spain and Chaguaramas likely due to accidental organisms are filter feeders that can bio-accumulate
spills from shipping activity. Levels less than 2.4 ppm toxic hydrocarbons. AAPH measures polycyclic aromat-
in sediments are considered ambient and are found in ic hydrocarbons which are known carcinogens (US EPA,
coastal areas not affected by petroleum hydrocarbons. 1995) that can be harmful to human health if ingested.
Oil spill cleanup at Coffee Beach, La Brea, 2013

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Nutrient Pollution
Coastal areas off the Point Lisas Industrial Estate and which is the base for marine food webs and the support
the Caroni River mouth receive excessive nutrients, for fisheries. Average chlorophyll “a” values found in
and have toxic ammonia levels exceeding the USEPA the GoP are above the value of 3.20 µg/L reported by
1995 acceptable limit of 1.43 µM for the protection Morrel and Corredor (2001), consistent with eutrophic
of aquatic life (Table 2). Higher levels of ammonia and (nutrient rich) coastal waters. In comparison, marine
chlorophyll “a” are found in the GoP compared to the water in the East Coast of Trinidad averaged 0.08 µg/L
of Trinidad averaged 0.08 µg/L which suggests low primary productivity in the East Coast compared to
East coast of Trinidad
the W est Coast. (Table 2). Chlorophyll “a” is a which suggests low primary productivity in the East
common measure of total phytoplanktonic biomass Coast compared to the West Coast.
Table 2:Table
Summary
2: data on dissolved
Summary data ammonia and chlorophyll
on dissolved ammonia“a” concentrations
and chlorophyllin“a”
marine waters of Trinidad’s
concentrations West and East Coast
in marine
and Southwest Tobago
waters of Trinidad’s West and East Coast and Southwest Tobago
Metric or guideline
Location α Ammonia (µM) Chlorophyll “a” (µg/L)
value
Average (n=68) 0.72 3.52

Standard Deviation 1.52 4.51
West Coast, Gulf of Paria
Min. 0.01 0.11
Max. 9.05 31.83
Average (n =120) 0.34 0.08
East Cost Trinidad
Min. 0.01 0.01
Max. 1.97 0.65
Average (n =6) 1.74 5.95
Point Lisas Bay
Min. 0.01 3.11
Max. 7.63 10.83
Average (n =5) 2.01 2.52
Caroni River mouth
Min. 0.01 1.60
Max. 9.05 3.19
Average (n=46) 1.3 1.0
Bon Accord Lagoon, Tobago
Min 0.01 0.0
Max 6.0 5.5
Average (n=23) 1.1 0.32
Kilgwyn Bay, Tobago
Min 0.12 0
Max 3.24 1.6
US EPA 1995 Limits 1.43 N/A

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In Tobago, the coastal environment is more sensitive to be a problem as nitrate levels ranged between 0
to nutrient pollution as nitrogen enrichment enhances - 9.9 µM, ammonia levels ranged between 0 - 6 µM
the proliferation of faster growing phytoplankton, epi- and Chlorophyll “a” concentrations ranged between 0
phytic and macro-algae that compete with seagrasses - 5.5 µg/ L in the Bon Accord Lagoon, which receives
and coral reefs for light and space (Hauxwell et al. effluent from a sewage treatment plant. The USEPA
2001; Deegan et al. 2002). Coral reef and seagrasses 1995 acceptable limit of 1.43 µM for ammonia for the
community changes are initiated by nutrient enrich- protection of aquatic life was exceeded at many sites
ment above some threshold level (Birkeland, 1987), sampled in southwest Tobago both on the Leeward
however these threshold levels are still contentious. (Bon Accord Lagoon, Buccoo Bay and Culloden Bay)
In Southwest Tobago, land-based pollution continues and Windward coast (La Guira and Kilgwyn Bay).
Heavy Metals
Heavy metals have been identified as major pollutants This classification was based on how concentrations
since human health disasters in the late 1970s were of total recoverable vanadium, chromium, manga-
attributed to the release of mercury and cadmium efflu- nese, iron, cobalt, nickel, arsenic, barium and lead in
ent into the environment. They encompass a range of sediments compared with metal concentrations at
elements including chromium, nickel, manganese and the most pristine stations in the assessment or, where
iron, as well as the more toxic mercury, cadmium and available, with Canadian Sediment Quality Guidelines
lead. Heavy metals occur naturally in the environment (CCME, 2007). Results of the assessment suggest that
but anthropogenic activities increase the bioavailable heavy metals in sediments at some locations within
metal pool. While some of these metals such as cop- the coastal area of Trinidad and Tobago may have the
per, zinc and selenium are essential elements that are potential to adversely affect aquatic life.
required for important biochemical functions in organ-
isms, all metals can have toxic effects when present in Sediment quality is poorest in the GoP, off the west
excess. Trace metals are persistent in the environment coast of Trinidad (Figure 1). Many anthropogen-
and can bio-accumulate in aquatic organisms, posing ic activities occur on this coast and in its associated
a threat to consumers, including man. Adverse effects watersheds. These include manufacturing, light and
on human health may include neurological, systemic, heavy industries such as plants producing iron and
carcinogenic effects and birth defects, depending on steel, iron carbide, power, gas, ammonia fertiliser, urea
the metal involved. and methanol, liquid natural gas, cement; petroleum
refining, oil and gas exploration and production as
Coastal sediments are considered important reservoirs well as shipyard and yachting activities and intensive
for heavy metals, as metals tend to become adsorbed agriculture (IMA/ UNEP, 2008). The main urban areas,
onto suspended particles and are scavenged from the residential/ housing areas, commercial areas, employ-
water column into bottom sediments (Daskalakis and ment centres and the two main seaports in Trinidad are
O’Connor, 1995; Karickhoff, 1984), but may become also located on this coast. Other factors which may be
re-suspended due to storm events, activities such contributing to sediment quality include the sediment
as dredging and burrowing by benthic organisms. Total Organic Carbon (TOC)/ organic matter content
Sediments also provide a time-integrated indication and the semi-enclosed/ sheltered nature of the water
of metal contamination (Schropp et al., 1990). The body. TOC is the carbon found in organic matter that
most recent island-wide assessment of heavy met- can be used as an indicator of organic matter, which
als in coastal sediments was conducted in 2011. Total has an affinity for heavy metals. Only one area off the
recoverable heavy metal concentrations in coastal sed- west coast is classed as “good”- this is in the southwest
iments from Trinidad and Tobago are shown in Figure near Cedros, where there is limited anthropogenic
1 and 2. Sediment quality was classed as “very good”, activity.
“good”, “fair” or “poor” in this report.

11
Sediment quality on the north coast of Trinidad is Sediment quality in Tobago is better than sediment
generally good; only two areas near Saut d’Eau Island quality in Trinidad. There is very little industrial activ-
and La Filette are classed as “fair” (Figure 1). TOC con- ity in Tobago: the economy is largely tourism-based.
centrations in sediment from these areas are higher Sediments in Tobago are classed as “very good” or
compared with the other areas on the coast. On the “good” except for one area near the seaport in the cap-
east and south coasts of Trinidad, levels also range from ital, Scarborough (Figure 2). Harbour sediments tend
“fair” to “good” (Figure 1). While some land-based to be more polluted due to the associated shipping
sources and activities exist along the east and south activities (Denton et al., 2005) e.g. dredging. Harbours
coasts (such as small built-up/urban areas, agriculture are also often located near more urban/ built-up areas,
and fishing), there is much more marine-based anthro- so the coastal sediments are subject to greater anthro-
pogenic activity - extensive areas off these coasts pogenic input from the associated watersheds.
are used for oil and gas exploration and production.
Compared with the Gulf of Paria, however, these areas
are better flushed and contain more sandy/ stony sed-
iments with lower TOC/ organic matter concentrations
so there is a lower potential for accumulation of metals
in the sediments.

Poor
Fair
Good
Very good

Figure 1: Heavy metal concentration in coastal sediments off Trinidad

Figure 1: Heavy metal concentration in coastal sediments off Trinidad

12

Poor
Fair
Good
Very good

Figure 2: Heavy metal concentration in coastal sediments off Tobago
Figure 2: Heavy metal concentration in coastal sediments off Tobago
Bathing Beach Water Quality

Bacteriological water quality studies conducted by the IMA since 1981 reveal that some of our popular
beaches are sewage-‐contaminated. Some sources of sewage contamination for beaches in Trinidad and
Tobago are non-‐functional sewage treatment plants, seepage of sewage from pit latrines built on river
banks and along the coastline, as well as from improperly constructed septic tanks and runoff from
livestock farming operations. Swimming in polluted water can cause illness. Swimmers could contract
any illness that is spread by ingestion of faecal-‐contaminated water and polluted waters may contain
several different disease-‐causing organisms. Viruses are believed to be the major cause of swimming-‐
associated diseases such as gastroenteritis, hepatitis, respiratory illness and ear, nose and throat
ailments. Microbial diseases that can be contracted by swimmers include salmonellosis, shigellosis and
infections caused by Escherichia coli bacteria. Other microbial disease causing organisms found at
varying concentrations in recreational waters include amoeba and protozoa which cause giardiasis,
amoebic dysentery, skin rashes and pink eye.
Swimming-‐related illnesses are not usually severe or life-‐threatening. However, some cases of
gastroenteritis can be serious for certain people, such as, infants, the elderly and those with
compromised immune systems. Swimming-‐related illness can take a substantial toll in terms of
convenience, comfort and the well-‐being of affected individuals. They can also result in substantial
Industrial activities, both onshore and offshore, could significantly contibute to heavy metal pollution in the marine environment
economic costs in terms of lost work/sick days. The swimmer who contracts a sewage-‐borne illness may

13
Bathing Beach Water Quality
Bacteriological water quality studies conducted by the amoeba and protozoa which cause giardiasis, amoebic
IMA since 1981 reveal that some of our popular beach- dysentery, skin rashes and pink eye.
es are sewage-contaminated. Some sources of sewage
contamination for beaches in Trinidad and Tobago are Swimming-related illnesses are not usually severe or
non-functional sewage treatment plants, seepage of life-threatening. However, some cases of gastroenteri-
sewage from pit latrines built on river banks and along tis can be serious for certain people, such as, infants,
the coastline, as well as from improperly constructed the elderly and those with compromised immune sys-
septic tanks and runoff from livestock farming opera- tems. Swimming-related illness can take a substantial
tions. Swimming in polluted water can cause illness. toll in terms of convenience, comfort and the well-be-
Swimmers could contract any illness that is spread by ing of affected individuals. They can also result in
ingestion of faecal-contaminated water and polluted substantial economic costs in terms of lost work/sick
waters may contain several different disease-caus- days. The swimmer who contracts a sewage-borne
ing organisms. Viruses are believed to be the major illness may also pass the disease on to household
cause of swimming-associated diseases such as gas- members, thus multiplying the effects of the polluted
troenteritis, hepatitis, respiratory illness and ear, nose water. Bacteriological water quality data can indicate
and throat ailments. Microbial diseases that can be whether there would be potential health risks for per-
contracted by swimmers include salmonellosis, shigel- sons participating in water contact activities at a beach
losis and infections caused by Escherichia coli bacteria. or bay. Data of this type are available for some of the
Other microbial disease causing organisms found at beaches and bays along the north and west coast of
varying concentrations in recreational waters include Trinidad (Figure 3).
Figure 3: Bathing Beaches in Trinidad

14
The IMA assessed bathing water quality at some of the popular beaches by determining compliance with the
United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) Quality Criteria for Water (1976), in the absence of any
local bathing beach standards.
North Coast of Trinidad

Maracas Beach
Maracas Bay
Maracas Bay River
North Coast Road
• Eastern section safe for bathing (blue)

• Western section unsafe for bathing in the wet season as well as occasionally in the dry season (green)
• Mouth of the Maracas Bay River unsafe for bathing as water quality was poor (red)
• The main source of pollution for the western Maracas Beach is the sewage contaminated Maracas Bay River.

15
Las Cuevas Bay
Las Cuevas Bay
Fish depot
North Coast Road
• Western end of the bay, a section of which is now in its second season of Blue Flag Certification, has good
bathing water quality (blue)
• Eastern section of Las Cuevas Bay is unsafe for bathing (red)
• The main source of pollution for eastern Las Cuevas Bay is a river which discharged to the bay and is
contaminated with effluent from a sewage treatment plant and waste from a fishing depot.

16
West Coast of Trinidad
Williams Bay
Chagville Beach
Welcome Bay
Williams Bay
• Water quality is good at the popular bathing area at the eastern corner, just west of ALCOA (blue)
• Water quality is poor from mid bay to the popular bathing area at the western corner of Williams Bay during
the wet season (green).
Chagville Beach
• Water quality is good at the eastern section (blue)
• Western section has poor bathing water quality after periods of heavy rainfall (green). This is attributed to
increased land surface runoff and storm water flow as well as increased discharge from drains and Chagville
River to the beachfront.
Welcome Bay
• Most popular bathing location at Welcome Bay is mid bay area
• Safe for bathing during the dry season (green)
• Bathing water quality sometimes adversely affected in the wet season when increased rainfall levels results
in increased surface runoff, storm water flow, and increased flow from rivers and drains

17
San Fernando Coastline (from the cemetery on Lady Hailes Avenue to the Marabella River)
San Fernando
Yacht Club
Gulf of Paria
San Fernando Hill

L ad
yH
aile
s
Ave
.
Cipero River

18
South of King’s Wharf
• Unsafe for bathing in the dry season (red).
• Sources of pollution include waste from fish market as well as five drains
North of King’s Wharf to the Yacht Club
• Two bathing areas (1) vicinity of Spring Vale Point and (2) off the iron ladder just south of the second break
in the sea wall, approximately 300m north of King’s Wharf Jetty.
• Bathing water quality is poor at both locations during the dry season (red).
• A source of pollution for the bathing area closer to King’s Wharf Jetty is discharge from a large drain nearby.
North of Yacht Club
• Unsafe for bathing (red).
• The main sources of contamination are seepage of sewage from pit latrines dug within a few meters of the
seawall and discharge from the polluted Guaracara River and Marabella River.
Train line crossing the Marabella River mouth

19
Beaches
and Bays
The IMA has been monitoring the dynamic nature (ero-
sion and accretion rates, littoral processes) of selected
beaches and bays throughout Trinidad and Tobago
since 1988. Currently, 27 bays in Trinidad (70 stations)
and 27 bays in Tobago (55 stations) are monitored.

21
Beaches are dynamic coastal features which respond Rijn, 1998). The majority of beaches monitored in
to storms, wind, waves, currents and tides differently Trinidad and Tobago appear to be stable or in dynamic
dependent on its geology. Where the coastal geolo- equilibrium, where there is no net loss of sediment. It
gy is resistant to wave attack, erosion may occur at a should be noted that between November 9 and 15th
reduced rate and where it is more susceptible, it may 2014, 2.5 km of this road was damaged primarily by
be eroded at a faster rate (Van Rijn, 1998). In Trinidad,
runoff from rainfall over several days. The Mayaro -
the north coast is mainly rocky cliff, while the west Manzanilla Road is a coastal road built on a sand bar
coast is rocky at the north, consists of wetlands and between the Nariva Swamp, a wetland of international
mudflat at its central region and alluvium material importance (Ramsar Site), and the Manzanilla Beach.
toward the south. The south coast is mainly sandstone The road was initially utilised by workers in the coco-
cliff, and the east coast is varied with rock cliffs at the
nut industry but in recent times, has been the main
north and wetlands and cliffs toward the central and access route for coastal communities and workers/
southern regions. In Tobago, the coastline consists material going to the oil and gas industries located
mainly of rocky cliff to the central and north east of in Mayaro/ Guayaguayare. The road and other infra-
the island with coral limestone in the south west. structure such as electricity poles and houses were
damaged as floodwaters from the swollen Nariva and
During 2011-2015, the north coast of Trinidad experi- Dubloon Rivers removed sediments from under these
enced the highest winds (range 0.0 -18.1 m/s) from the structures. The road was repaired by the Ministry of
north-east, and the highest waves (range 0.3 -1.5 m) Works and Infrastructure and was reopened to traffic
from a north-easterly direction compared to the other in early 2015.
coasts. It also experienced the fastest longshore cur-
rent speed (range 1.0 -67.0 cm /s) which was generally However, in Trinidad, Columbus Bay on the southwest
to the west. The Windward coast of Tobago experienced coast, Cocos Bay on the east coast and Guayaguayare
increased littoral impact compared to the Leeward Bay on the south coast experienced erosion during
coast as wind speed (0.1 -8.0 m/s), wave height (0.1- 2011-2015. In Tobago, Richmond Bay, Goldsborough
1.5 m) and longshore current (1.2-44.0 cm/s) were Bay, and La Guira Bay experienced erosion during
all greater on this coastline. Only the breaker height 2011-2015.
(0.20-2.70 m) was higher on the Leeward Coast.
The following maps, photographs and graphs illustrate
Beaches can be classified as being in a state of ero- the dynamic nature of the country’s coasts and in par-
sion, accretion or dynamic equilibrium (D.E.). Erosion ticular, some of the sites of severe erosion. On Cocos
can occur either horizontally, where the backshore Bay (Figure 4) from 2011-2015 the erosion rate was
recedes landward, or vertically, where the sand eleva- 0.14 m per year at IMA’s monitoring Station 5 (Figure
tion decreases along the beach face (Cambers, 1998). 5). Continued erosion could threaten the Manzanilla/
Accretion occurs where there is an increase in sedi- Mayaro Main Road which runs parallel to the beach
ment on the beach face which can extend the beach and is located approximately 30m landward of the IMA
horizontally increasing the width of the beach (Van benchmark (Plate 1).
Opposite page:
Figure 4: Map of Cocos Bay showing
location of monitored station

22
Cocos Bay
Point Radix

23
2
20110707
1.5
Elevaton (m)
landward recession 20120720

1 3
20130515
0.5 2.5
20140819
2
0 20110707
-‐10 0 1.5 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 20150826
Elevaton (m)
-‐0.5 landward recession 20120720

1
20130515
-‐1 0.5
20140819
-‐1.5 0
20150826
-‐10
-‐0.5
0 10 20 Distance
30 40 (m) 50 60 70 80 90
-‐1
ure 5: The beach
-‐1.5 profiles at Station 5 on Cocos Bay, Trinidad (2011-‐2015)
Distance (m)

Figure 5: The beach profiles at Station 5 on Cocos Bay, Trinidad (2011-2015)
Figure 5: The beach profiles at Station 5 on Cocos Bay, Trinidad (2011-‐2015)

Plate 1: Coastal erosion occurring at Station 5, Cocos Bay (2013)
1: Coastal erosion occurring at Station 5, Cocos Bay (2013)

Plate
te 1: Coastal erosion occurring
State at ofStation
the Marine 5, Environment
Cocos Bay Trinidad
(2013)
& Tobago - 2016
24
At Guayaguayare Bay (Figure 6) erosion at Station 1 has led to landward recession representing an erosion rate of
0.75 m per year (Figure 7). This erosion also threatens critical infrastructure. For example, the erosion illustrated
in Plate 2 lies just west of a pipeline landing site.
At Guayaguayare Bay (Figure 6) erosion at Station 1 has led to landward recession representing an
erosion rate of 0.75 m per year (Figure 7). This erosion also threatens critical infrastructure. For
example, the erosion illustrated in Plate 2 lies just west of a pipeline landing site.
3
Galeota Point
Guayaguayare Bay
2
1

Figure
Figure 6: Map 6: of
Guayaguayare
Map of GBay
uayaguayare Bay showing
showing location location
of monitored of monitored stations
stations
2
1.5
1
0.5 20110811
landward recession
Elevaton (m)
0 20120327
-‐10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
-‐0.5 20130718
-‐1 20140818
-‐1.5 20150602
-‐2
-‐2.5
-‐3
Distance (m)
Figure
Figure 7: The 7: beach
The beach
profiles profiles
at Station 1 onaGuayaguayare
t Station 1 on Bay,
Guayaguayare Bay, Trinidad (2011-‐2015).
Trinidad (2011-2015)

25
Columbus Bay, on the southwest
coast of Trinidad continues to suf-
fer from erosion, a problem that
has unfortunately ravaged the
bay for the past forty years. The
most noticeable physical coastline
change to date is the erosion of the
once protruding headland at Los
Gallos Point, to three stacks, which
are locally referred to as the “three
sisters”.
Plate 2: Coastal erosion on

Guayaguayare Bay at Station 1 (2013)

Plate 2: Coastal erosion on Guayaguayare Bay at Station Shoreline1 (2013) change analysis con-
ducted by the IMA shows that

between 1994 and 2007, there
was a linear regression of coast
as large as 150 m at Corral
Columbus Bay, on the southwest coast of Trinidad continues to suffer from erosion, a problem that has
unfortunately ravaged the bay for the past forty years. The mPoint, and an
ost noticeable opposite
physical effect
coastline change to
date is the erosion of the once protruding headland at Los Gallos of accretion noticed
Point, to three stacks, wat Punta
hich are locally
del Arenal; an area located
referred to as the “three sisters”. Shoreline change analysis conducted by the IMA shows that between
1994 and 2007, there was a linear regression of coast as large as 150 m at Corral
immediately south Point, of
and Corral
an opposite
effect of accretion noticed at Punta del Arenal; an area located immediately south of Corral Point.
Point. Ongoing monitoring at
Ongoing monitoring at Columbus Bay (Figure 8) has confirmed erosion continues to occur at the
Columbus Bay (Figure 8) has
southernmost station with landward regression of the shoreline occurring at a rate of about 1.91m per
confirmed
year from 2011-‐2015 (Figure 9). Plate 3 illustrates felled coconut erosion
trees and continues
a receding shoreline at
Columbus Bay to occur at the southernmost
station 8. The coastal land is privately owned and coastal protection structures were installed along the
northern region of the bay to arrest the erosion but have failed. station with landward regres-

sion of the shoreline occurring
at a rate of about 1.91m per
year from 2011-2015 (Figure
9). Plate 3 illustrates felled

coconut trees and a receding
shoreline at station 8. The
coastal land is privately owned
and coastal protection struc-
tures were installed along the
northern region of the bay to
arrest the erosion but have
failed.
Figure 8: Map of Columbus Bay

showing location of monitored
stations

26
Elevaton (m) 8 20110518
erosion 20120508
6
12 20130326
4 10 20130515
8 20110518
20140408
Elevaton (m)
2 erosion 20120508 20150826

6
20130326
0 4 20130515
-‐20 0 20 40 60 80 100
20140408
2 Distance (m) 20150826
0
-‐20 0 20 40 60 80 100
gure 9: Beach profiles at Station 8 Columbus B(ay,
Distance m) Southwest Trinidad (2011-‐2015)

Figure 9: Beach profiles at Station 8 Columbus Bay, Southwest Trinidad (2011-2015)
Figure 9: Beach profiles at Station 8 Columbus Bay, Southwest Trinidad (2011-‐2015)

Plate 3: Coastal erosion at Station 8 on Columbus Bay (2013), southern view.
Plate 3: Coastal erosion at Station 8 on Columbus Bay (2013), southern view

ate 3: Coastal erosion at Station
State 8 ofon
the Columbus Bay (2013),
Marine Environment Trinidads&
outhern view.
Tobago - 2016
27
Mangrove
Swamp
Loss of mangrove forest will increase the threat to
human safety and increase damage to shorelines from
coastal hazards such as erosion, flooding, and storm
waves and surges. It will decrease coastal water qual-
ity, reduce biodiversity, eliminate fish and crustacean
nursery habitat, adversely affect adjacent coastal
habitats, and eliminate a major resource for human
communities that traditionally rely on mangroves for
numerous products and services. Furthermore, man-
grove destruction can release large quantities of stored
carbon and exacerbate global warming trends.

29
Much of the mangrove forests in the Caribbean have In Trinidad, the majority of mangrove forests are found
been impacted by human activities, and now they are on the sheltered west coast (Gulf of Paria); which is
projected to be negatively affected by sea-level rise the coastline that is occupied by more than 70% of
especially where they are constrained on the landward the population and has experienced the most intense
side by built development, or starved of sediment. In development activities within the past five decades.
2008, the Institute of Marine Affairs began an assess- Current mangrove coverage is estimated at 7,532 ha
ment of mangrove forests in Trinidad and Tobago. on the west coast of Trinidad compared to 1,132.8 ha
Using high resolution satellite imagery (2000-2007), on the east coast, 481.3 ha on the south coast, and 0.3
remote sensing and GIS technology, all mangrove for- ha on the north coast.
ests were mapped and their extent determined (Figure
10 and 11).
Figure 10: Map of mangrove forests in Trinidad (Juman and Ramsewak, 2010)

30
Figure 11: Map of mangrove forests in Tobago (Juman and Ramsewak, 2010)
In Tobago, mangrove coverage was estimated at 222.9 decreased by 393.5 ha. Built development increased
ha encompassing 11 systems, most of which are locat- by 835 ha while the Beetham landfill expanded from
ed on the Windward Coast. Seventy percent of the 47.5 ha in 1986 to 73.7 ha in 2007. Generally, natural
mangroves on the west coast are found in the Caroni wetland communities (mangrove, marshes and open
Swamp, 10% in the Godineau Swamp and the remain- water/ pond) increased between 1942 and 2003, as
ing 20% amongst smaller systems. agricultural lands reverted to marsh, and mangroves
colonized new areas on the seaward side: mudflats
While mangroves were cleared along the west coast and deposited dredged spoilt. However, between
of Trinidad for housing, industries, agriculture, roads 2003 and 2007, natural wetland coverage declined by
and ports, there has been some regeneration or about 346 ha as built developed and agricultural lands
new growth, but at the expense of other wetland increased. In Godineau Swamp, mangrove coverage
communities (brackish and freshwater marshes) in increased by approximately 48 ha between 1969 and
most instances. In Caroni Swamp, mangrove cover- 2007 as salt water intruded further inland and col-
age increased by 1,105 ha between 1942 and 2007 onised marsh area.
while marshland decreased by 523 ha and agriculture

31
Mangroves however, were recently cleared on the seaward side for the construction of the Point Fortin Highway
(Plate 4).
Mangroves are also spreading into freshwater marsh and open pond areas in Icacos Swamp, and the reason may
be climate induced as opposed to human alteration. The Icacos wetland was predominantly freshwater marsh
and open pond with some mangroves fringing Columbus Bay. As the mangroves along the coast are eroding,
salt water is intruding further inland and mangroves are now colonizing marshland. Similarly in Los Blanquizales,
which is on the south coast, east of Icacos, the mangrove forest continues to undergo erosion.
Plate 4: Strip of mangrove cleared on the seaward side of Godineau Swamp for highway construction (January 2014)
: Strip of mangrove cleared on the seaward side of Godineau Swamp for highway constru
y 2014)
32
Mangrove forests in the central region of the Gulf of Paria are expanding seaward onto extensive mudflats.
Sedimentation seems to have increased from Brickfield in the north to Claxton Bay in the south as fish landing
sites located in Brickfield, Orange Valley and Claxton Bay have become shallower and boats have had to be
relocated. While the landward margin of these forests is being encroached upon by built development, the
mangroves are expanding seawards. Further south on the west coast, in Claxton Bay, Guaracara, Marabella,
Cipero, Rousillac and La Brea the mangrove forests are being negatively impacted, and encroached upon by
housing developments. The December 2013 oil spill negatively impacted the mangrove forests from Rousillac to
Iros Bay (Plate 5), however these systems have since shown signs of recovery/ regrowth.
Plate 5: Oil spill clean- up in the Rousillac mangrove forest (January 2014)
On the east coast, the largest mangrove forests are Galeota has been fragmented by road construction.
found within the Nariva Swamp (580.7 ha), North On the North Coast there are no extensive mangrove
Oropuche/ Fishing Pond (268.8 ha) and Ortoire River forests, only small systems in Maracas and Scotland
(215.7 ha). Nariva Swamp is the largest wetland in Bay.
Trinidad and Tobago (11,343 ha), but it is primarily a
freshwater wetland, with mangrove accounting for less In Tobago, the largest mangrove communities are
than 10 %. Unlike systems on the west coast, the wet- found at the southwest end of the island which is the
lands on the East Coast (Atlantic Ocean) are subjected most populated and developed part of the island.
to higher wave energy. These wetlands are not open Mangroves were cleared in the 1990’s for the extension
to the ocean but occur behind sand barriers, which are of the Crown Point Airport and for hotel development.
experiencing problems with coastal erosion. In 2007, mangroves were cleared in the Bon Accord
Lagoon for proposed resort development and in 2008
On the south coast of Trinidad relatively large man- for housing. However, there is indication that the Bon
grove forests are found near the Moruga River and Accord mangrove forest is migrating landward as salt
at Los Blanquizales. Smaller systems are found with- water appears to be intruding inland. Even in areas
in Guayaguayare Bay and Erin Bay. Mangroves were that were recently cleared, there are signs of new
cleared along the Moruga River and in Erin Bay for growth as many white mangrove seedlings have been
uction unplanned housing, while the mangrove forest in Point re-established.
of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016

late 5: Oil spill clean-‐ uState
p in the Rousillac
33
mangrov
Whether salt water intrusion is due to channel con- Mangrove forests in Trinidad and Tobago have been
struction or sea-level rise is unknown and needs to negatively impacted, and continue to be threat-
be determined. However, there is a serious concern ened by human activities as present and proposed
in this area with regards to ‘coastal squeeze’ as built developments are concentrated on the coast. These
development occurs on the landward edge of the for- degraded systems are more susceptible to climate
est leaving very little space for landward migration of change impacts especially where there is little space
mangroves. for landward migration of mangroves as sea-level
rises. Although mangrove coverage has expanded in
There is little historical data for the smaller wetlands wetlands such as Caroni, Godineau, Icacos, and Nariva,
on the Atlantic coast of Tobago such as Louis D’or, it has been at the expense of other freshwater com-
Goldsborough, Belle Garden, and Rockly Bay. On this munities. The causes for vegetation change may be
coast where most mangrove systems are found, there site-specific or climate related but this can only be
are concerns that coastal erosion on the seaward side determined by undertaking vulnerability assessments,
and encroachment by built development on the land- and long-term monitoring of parameters such as rela-
ward edge, will lead to coastal squeeze of mangrove tive sea-level and sedimentation rates.
forests.

34
Seagrass Beds
Seagrasses are flowering plants that grow on the
seafloor in shallow coastal habitats. They are very
productive, faunally rich and ecologically important
marine resources that provide nursery habitats for a
number of commercially important species such as
conch and lobster, and they help sequester carbon
dioxide in the ocean.

35
Seagrasses are semi-permeable filters that stabilize Since 2002, IMA has been monitoring the health and
bottom sediments, slow current flow, prevent erosion productivity of selected Thalassia dominated seagrass
and filter suspended solids and nutrients from coast- beds around the islands. The healthiest and most
al waters. These filters are becoming overloaded as productive seagrass sites in the country were found
land-use changes in the coastal catchment and in the in Southwest Tobago at Buccoo Bay and Kilgwyn Bay,
nearshore environment are impacting negatively on however since 2015, the seagrass beds in La Guira to
them. Increasing population density in coastal areas Kilgwyn Bay have disappeared (Figure 12). This disap-
has enhanced sediment and nutrient loading and nutri- pearance coincided with the Sargassum bloom in 2015.
ent over-enrichment of coastal waters has been cited Bon Accord Lagoon has the lowest seagrass biomass
as the main reason for seagrass bed decline worldwide. and density in Tobago, but while the monitored sites
within the Lagoon are overgrown by macroalgae, sea-
In 1997, the Institute of Marine Affairs (IMA) began an grasses have spread into adjacent areas near Buccoo
assessment of seagrass communities around Trinidad Reef. Seagrass coverage in the Buccoo Reef/ Bon
and Tobago. The inventory revealed that Thalassia Accord Lagoon Marine Protected Area has doubled
testudinum (turtlegrass), the slow growing climax within the past 14 years. The grasses have colonized
seagrass species in the Caribbean, was being nega- the Nylon Pool, a very popular shallow, sandy area in
tively impacted by intense coastal activities and beds the back reef zone, where visitors are allowed to swim
once reported in Cocorite, Balandra and Scotland Bay at the end of glass bottom boat tours.
were no longer present. In Cocorite, the beds were
destroyed by reclamation for housing and road con- In Trinidad, the most productive seagrass site was
struction, while in Scotland Bay and Monos Island they found at William’s Bay. This area was home to a diversi-
have been replaced by sparse communities of colonis- ty of species including fishes such as seahorses, grunts
er species (Halodule wrightii and Halophila sp.). The and snappers, green turtles and invertebrates such as
most extensive Thalassia dominated seagrass commu- starfish, conch and urchins. However, since 2012, a
nity remaining in Trinidad was found at William’s Bay. decline in seagrass biomass and productivity has been
recorded, and this coincides with the development tak-
In Tobago, extensive Thalassia dominated commu- ing place on the peninsula (Figure 12 and Figure 13).
nities were found in the southwest - in Bon Accord Thalassia community once found on the eastern side
Lagoon, Buccoo Bay, La Guira Bay and Kilgwyn Bay - of St Peter’s Bay was destroyed in 2010 while the com-
where there has been extensive development in the munity on the western side of the bay was destroyed
tourism and housing sectors. The seagrass community in 2012. These areas are now overgrown with algae
within the Bon Accord Lagoon was negatively impact- (Caulerpa sp.) and sparse communities of seagrasses
ed by nutrient enriched conditions. Partially treated (Halodule wrightii and Halophila sp.). St Peter’s Bay
or untreated domestic wastewater is discharged from has been impacted by land reclamation activities over
water treatment systems and many households in the the past decade, and receives sediment laden waters
coastal catchment have soak-away septic systems built from the coastal catchment which have been deforest-
into the coralline limestone geology of the area. This ed for housing.
limestone is porous, and nutrients from sewage filter
down into the water table and then enter the sea.
Seagrass areas in La Guira Bay, Tobago were reclaimed
in the 1990’s for the extension of the airport runway,
but the bed in the bay has recovered. La Guira and
Kilgwyn Bays are now utilized by beach goers, since
facilities have been provided, and by fishermen.
Current land use in the coastal catchment include
guest houses, an airport, residential development and
an industrial estate.

36
Poor water quality from land-based pollution (nutrients and sediments) and coastal development are the main
factors affecting the health of the seagrasses in Trinidad and Tobago. The beds in Trinidad are found along the
most intensely developed coastlines, and continue to be subjected to development pressures from the coastal
catchment. Loss of seagrass beds would result in loss of their ecosystem services such as coastal protection and
habitat for fish and other marine species. There is an urgent need to manage, and in some areas, rehabilitate
our seagrass
2500.0 community to ensure that they continue to provide a safe haven for rich biodiversity, and protect
our coastline.
2) wt. m2)
2500.0
2000.0
(g m
g dry wt.
total b(iomass dry
2000.0 William's Bay

1500.0
West of Alcoa
total biomass
St Peter's Bay West

William's Bay
1500.0 St Peter's Bay East
West of Alcoa
testudinum
1000.0 Bon Accord Lagoon A

St Peter's Bay West
Bon Accord Lagoon B
St Peter's Bay East
testudinum
1000.0 Buccoo Bay

Bon Accord Lagoon A
Thalassia
500.0 La Guira Bay

Bon Accord Lagoon B
Kilgwyn Bay
Buccoo Bay
Thalassia
500.0 La Guira Bay

0.0
Kilgwyn Bay
0.0
Year

Figure 12: Total Thalassia testudinum biomass aYear
t monitored sites in Trinidad and Tobago

Figure 12: Total Thalassia testudinum biomass at monitored sites in Trinidad and Tobago
Figure 12: Total Thalassia testudinum biomass at monitored sites in Trinidad and Tobago
8.00
7.00
8.00
Williams' sBay
wt. m2d-‐1
6.00
7.00 W. Of Alcoa
Williams' sBay
2d-‐1
5.00 St Peter's Bay West

dry
6.00
g dry wt. g m
W. Of Alcoa
Areal ProducXvity
5.00 St Peter's Bay West

Bon Accord Lagoon A
4.00
Areal ProducXvity
Bon Accord Lagoon B

2.00 Bon Accord Lagoon A
3.00 Buccoo Bay
Bon Accord Lagoon B
1.00 La Guira Bay
2.00 Buccoo Bay
Kilgwyn Bay
0.00
1.00 La Guira Bay
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2012 2013 2014 2015
Year Kilgwyn Bay
0.00
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2012 2013 2014 2015
Figure 13: Thalassia testudinum areal productivity at monitored sites in Trinidad and Tobago
Year
37
38
Coral Reefs
Coral reef communities around Tobago appear to be in
a state of flux with the most noticeable trend being a
decline in average hard coral cover around the island
over the last three decades. The temporal trend in hard
coral cover decline on the Tobagonian fringing reefs is
not to the magnitude of that reported in some other
Caribbean countries but it is still a cause for concern.

39
With an average 33% decline in hard coral cover across the island since 1985, the extent of coral loss in Tobago
is still substantial.
Hard corals are the reef builders – their polyps secrete the calcium carbonate that is responsible for the cementing
and expanding coral reef structures over time. Percentage hard coral cover is used globally as an indicator of reef
health. Findings of declining cover of these corals on reefs around Tobago is unfortunate but certainly not sur-
prising. The ever increasing pressures on Tobago’s marine environment via a myriad of factors such as population
increases; rampant unregulated coastal development; changing watershed and land use that promotes terres-
trial run off; increased tourism volume; and rising artisanal fishing effort is negatively affecting the viability and
resilience of the reef ecosystems there (Burke and Maidens, 2004; Mora, 2008; Lapointe et al., 2009; Mallela et
al., 2010; Jackson et al., 2014; WTTC., 2015).
An examination of the
data over the long term
reveals the declining
Hard coral cover
hard coral cover in many 40
areas being accompanied
35
by concomitant increases
30
Mean % cover
in algae, soft corals, zoo-

anthids and/or sponges 25
(Figure 14). These long 20
term phase shifts away 15
from bottoms dominated 10
by hard corals to those
5
dominated by other
organisms are as a result 0
Charlo@eville Culloden Speyside Buccoo Arnos Vale
of a combination of fac-
tors which kill or weaken
corals while promoting 1985 2009 2013
the proliferation of alter-
native space occupiers.

SoH coral cover
35
30
25

Mean % cover
20
15

Pgs. 40 and 41
10
Figure 14: Benthic
community cover of 5 gure
5 sites from 1985 to
2013. 0
Charlo@eville Culloden Speyside Buccoo Arnos Vale 14:
1985 2009 2013
40

Sponge cover
30
25

Mean % cover
20
15
10
5
0
Vale Charlo@eville Culloden Speyside Buccoo Arnos Vale
1985 2009 2013

Algae cover

35
30

Mean % cover
25
20

15
10
5
gure 0
Charlo@eville Culloden Speyside Buccoo Arnos Vale
Vale 14: 1985 2009 2013

Climate change and its associated impacts is a major contributor to hard coral cover decline around Tobago.
5 to 2013.
For example, Buccoo, Culloden and Speyside were severely affected by temperature induced coral bleaching in
1998, 2005 and 2010. Bleaching occurs when corals expel symbiotic photosynthetic algae that provide the corals
with food and give them their vibrant colours. The 2005 mass bleaching event resulted in up to 85% bleaching
and up to 75% mortality of important reef-building species in some areas (O’Farrell & Day, 2005; Wilkinson &
Souter, 2008; Eakin et al., 2010.).

41
Grooved Brain Coral, (Diploria labyrinthiformis), Flying Reef, Tobago
Great star coral, (Montastraea cavernosa), Man O War Bay, Tobago

42
White band disease affecting Star Coral, Flying Reef, Tobago
Following on from this, the 2010 event was Tobago’s Charlotteville and other localised regions where land
most severe bleaching event on record but in this use is changing (Mora, 2008; Lapointe, 2010). Like
case, while bleaching extent was high, mortality was bleaching, poor water quality can leave corals more
low (Alemu, & Clement, 2014). Bleaching however, susceptible to disease and/or directly cause mortality.
increases coral susceptibility to disease. Within recent The declining cover of hard corals and growth in cover
times Tobagonian reefs have been plagued by occur- of soft corals, zoanthids and, in particular, algae, in
rences of Yellow Band Disease, which primarily affects several locations, including parts of Buccoo, Speyside,
the Orbicella complex, the most dominant framework Arnos Vale, Culloden and Charlotteville, is evidence
builders on the island’s reefs. Yellow Band Disease is of cumulative impacts from land based sources of
known to cause partial to total colony mortality and is pollution.
considered to be one the most widespread and dam-
aging coral diseases (Gil-Agudelo et al., 2004; Bruckner Speyside is an interesting location to pay particu-
& Bruckner, 2006; Weil et al., 2009). It has therefore lar attention to because it is considered by some to
been proposed that this disease has been partially have the best diving in Tobago. Substantial hard coral
responsible for the waning reef health especially in the declines with concomitant increases in sponge cover
aftermath of bleaching. from 2009 to 2013 also imply a shifting state here
(Figure 14). Presently in Speyside the observed cover of
Pulse disturbances such as bleaching and disease cou- the barrel sponge Xestospongia muta is high. Although
pled with poor water quality encourages benthic cover this sponge is known to be susceptible to bleaching in
dominance shifting away from hard corals (Hughes, elevated water temperatures, it is possible that both
1994; McManus et al., 2000; Szmant, 2002; Wolanski low mortality and high recruitment contributed to
et al., 2003; Diaz-Pulido, et al., 2009). Analyses have observed population growth in recent times. While
pinpointed high nutrients to be a problem in several Speyside is still relatively healthy and teeming with life,
fringing reefs around Tobago with sewage pollution changing benthic assemblages on reefs have implica-
and agricultural fertilizer run off identified as some tions for reef function and the ecosystem services they
of the chief sources (Lapointe, 2010; Mallela, 2010). provide e.g. food, amenity value, animal habitat.
Sedimentation is also problematic in areas such as
43
44
Soft-bottom
Benthic
Community
Marine benthic communities are excellent indicators of
local ecological health because, unlike migratory spe-
cies, they generally have low mobility and thus cannot
easily relocate when there are changes in environmen-
tal quality. In addition, several macrofaunal taxa, such
as polychaetes, are considered sentinel species that
may be amongst one of the first groups to respond to
anthropogenic change such as eutrophication, sewage
pollution or fisheries depletion.

45
Benthic invertebrates play a key role in the nutrient resilience to changes that may occur over time. As a
cycling, pollution metabolism and energy flows through contrast, when sampling was conducted in oil polluted
the marine food webs. Epibenthic and benthic condi- areas from Pointe- a- Pierre to La Brea, 25,129 individ-
tions can, in turn, have significant direct and indirect uals were collected from only 204 species (Gobin and
effects on fisheries, as well as species of conservation Agard, 1992). A smaller number of species were able
concern such as; sea turtles or rays that feed on the to thrive in disturbed communities, thus such a com-
sea floor. Monitoring of key ecosystem indicators is an munity would be less resilient and more vulnerable to
important component of successful management in disturbances.
marine protected areas. Monitoring can help identify
stresses on the environment which may lead to early In 2015, the IMA sampled the benthic community along
mitigation of the problem, and is also crucial to detect the Caroni Swamp in the months of April and August.
large-scale changes in environmental systems such as Of the three major bodies of water flowing through
climate change so that resource managers can adjust the Caroni Swamp, the Blue River was found to have
conservation strategies. the healthiest benthic community with the most spe-
cies, number of individuals and highest diversity. One
A study published by Gobin (2010) off five islands in thousand one hundred and thirteen (1113) organisms
Chaguaramas provided one of the first comprehen- were collected during the two sampling periods. Thirty
sive lists of hard substrate marine polychaetes for four (34) species were recorded in the dry season and
Trinidad. The study yielded a count of 2,377 poly- 44 species in the wet season. Arthropoda accounted
chaete worms belonging to 19 different families and for 52% of organisms found, polychaetes 45% and all
comprising 89 species. Analysis suggested that more other organisms 3%. Evidence from this study showed
than 25% of these polychaete worms could be new that the Caroni Swamp is dominated by species that are
species. Another study on Salybia Bay, Guayaguayare tolerant to pollution. This coupled with the presence of
and Chagville beach identified 41 macroinvertebrate few pollution intolerant species supports the hypoth-
species (Fanovich, Nelson, & Lawrence, 2010). The esis that the Caroni Swamp is slightly to moderately
phylum Annelida, represented by polychaete worms, polluted as it receives polluted water in its catchment
was the most species rich group, with most species area from industrial, agricultural and domestic sourc-
being found in Chagville. Only at Salybia was this group es. Gobin and Agard (1992) have suggested that areas
surpassed in richness by the arthropods, consisting of of impoverished benthic fauna are characteristic of
isopods and amphipods with 11 species. In compar- being moderately disturbed.
ison, 10 species of annelids were identified. Porifera
and Cnidaria were also present only at Salybia.
In 2009 the IMA studied the benthic macro-faunal

communities characterized in Thalassia testudinum
(turtlegrass) dominated beds in Bon Accord Lagoon
and La Guira Bay in Tobago and Williams Bay in
Trinidad. A total of 461 species comprising 6,488
individuals were recorded; 206 species in Williams
Bay, 130 species in Bon Accord Lagoon and 125 spe-
cies in La Guira Bay. Polychaetes accounted for 48%
of the species while amphipods accounted for 17
%; decapods 12%; non segmented worms 11%,
molluscs, other arthropods, echinoderms and miscel-
laneous accounted for the remaining 12% indicating Using a PVC corer to sample soft bottom benthic communities
a highly diverse benthic community. The diversity-
stability hypothesis suggests that communities contain-
ing more species will vary less through time in response
to various disturbances thus conferring a higher
46
Marine
Fisheries
Marine fisheries is important both economically and
socially for many rural/coastal communities who
depend either entirely or partially on fisheries for
their livelihood (Potts et al., 2003; Ferreira and Martin,
2005; GOTT, 2005). Fisheries contributes towards food
security, poverty alleviation, foreign exchange earn-
ings, culture, recreation and tourism.

47
A total of 1,013 finfish species belonging to 474 genera, 170 families and 36 orders (Ramjohn, 1999) have been
identified in the waters of Trinidad and Tobago. However, only a small percentage of these species is caught and
landed by the commercial fisheries (Table 3). Other coastal and marine resources present include crustaceans
(shrimps, lobsters, crabs), cephalopods (squids), mollusks or shellfish (oysters, conch, mussels) and sea turtles
(Kenny and Bacon 1981; Chan A Shing, 2002). Some of the main species exploited are listed in Table 4.

Table 3:Table
Main3finfish
: Main finfish
species species in
exploited exploited
Trinidad iand
n Trinidad and ATobago
Tobago (Chan (Chan A Shing, 2002)
Shing, 2002)
Finfish catfish (Arius spp., Bagre spp.); cavalli and other jacks (Caranx spp., Trachinotus spp., Seriola spp.,
Decapterus spp., Selene spp.); shark (Carcharhinus spp., Rhizoprionodon spp., Sphyrna spp.); snook
(Centropomus spp.); herring (Opisthonema oglinum, Harengula spp., Sardinella spp.); dolphinfish
(Coryphaena hippurus); flyingfish (Hirundichthys affinis, Cheilopogon spp., Cypselurus spp.); blinch
(Diapterus spp.); grunt-‐ (Haemulon spp., Anisotremus spp., Genyatremus luteus); snapper (Lutjanus
spp., Rhomboplites aurorubens, Etelis oculatus); mullet (Mugil spp.); ancho (Pomatomus saltator);
salmon/croaker (Cynoscion spp., Macrodon ancylodon, Micropogonias furnieri); mackerel/tuna
(Thunnus spp., Scomberomorus brasiliensis, S. cavalla, Acanthocybium solandri, Euthynnus
alletteratus); grouper (Epinephelus spp., Mycteroperca spp., Cephalopholis spp.); barracuda (Sphyraena
spp.); cutlassfish (Trichiurus lepturus); swordfish (Xiphias gladius)
Table 4:Table
Marine 4: fisheries
Marine fresources
isheries rexploited
esources inexploited
Trinidad and in TTobago
rinidad (finfish
and Tobago
excluded) (finfish excluded)
Shrimps Brown shrimp (Farfantepenaeus subtilis), pink shrimp (F. notialis), pink-‐spotted shrimp (F.
brasiliensis), white shrimp (Litopenaeus schmitti), seabob (Xiphopenaeus kroyeri)
Lobster Caribbean spiny lobster (Panulirus argus)
Crabs Cirique/serrette/swimming crabs (Callinectes spp.); blue crab (Cardisoma guanhumi); hairy crab
(Ucides cordatus)
Shellfish Oysters (Crassostrea rhizophorae); Queen Conch/Lambie (Strombus gigas); Black conch
(Melongena melongena); Rock mussel (Perna perna); Green mussel (Perna veridis); mok (Mytella
spp.); Pachro/Sea Cockroach (Chiton marmoratus, C. tuberculatus; Acanthopleura granulata); Chip
chip (Donax denticulatus, D. striatus)
Turtles Leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea); hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata), green (Chelonia mydas),
olive ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea), and loggerhead (Caretta caretta)

Shellfish, Crabs and Turtles Bacon, 1981). Stocks in Tobago are perceived to
There a re f ive ( 5) s pecies
Collection is on a small scale casual basis for most spe- beo f m arine t urtles o ccurring in the waters of Trinidad
commercially and Tobago
endangered. Over (Table The three
the4). past
cies, by Protection
villagers living of Sea inTurtle
someand coastalTurtle areas
Eggs Rand egulations,
by decades, promulgated a drastic under decline
Section 4has of tbeen
he Fisheries
observed Act, in the
stipulates that: no person shall, kill, harpoon, catch
families on recreational visits to beaches (Kenny and catch per unit effort of conch on traditional harvesting or otherwise take possession of or purchase, sell,
Bacon, offer
1981).or Bullock
expose for andsale or cause to
Moonesar (2003) be sold or offered
found grounds or exposed
(Lovelace, for sale
2002). any turtle or turtle meat.
that oysters
Despite this, illegal prhizophorea),
(Crassostrea mok (Mytella
oaching is a pervasive problem on both islands. For example, it is not uncommon to
guyanensis)
have tand
urtle green
meat bmussels eing served (Perna viridis)
in Tobago were festivals.
at harvest Several Aspecies of crabs
dditionally, (Table 4)
this resource is tare also utilized
hreatened by for
sold at incidental
roadside stalls. catch (the Oysters and ‘mok’
accidental were sold
entanglement food
of sea locally.
turtles in The
nets blue crab
set for and Several
fish). the hairy crab are the
hundred
raw withleatherback
sauce as cocktails whilst green mussels were
turtles are ensnared each year along the north and east coasts of Trinidad, a number which sold
two most important species in terms of numbers
bought may
unopened
represent byat customers
least 25% oand cooked
f the n before active
esting females in markets throughout
in that area (Bachan, 2009). Trinidad (Kenny and Bacon,
consumption. The Queen conch (Strombus gigas) is 1981). Due to limited studies however, the level of
found on Trinidad’s North Coast and Tobago’s Lagoons, present exploitation for most species is unknown.
sandy bottoms and turtle grass beds (Kenny and

48
There are five (5) species of marine turtles occurring (1) Coastal pelagic (mainly gillnetting for carite, king-
in the waters of Trinidad and Tobago (Table 4). The fish, flyingfish, and shark)
Protection of Sea Turtle and Turtle Eggs Regulations,
promulgated under Section 4 of the Fisheries Act, (2) Soft substrate demersal (trawl fishery for shrimps
stipulates that: no person shall, kill, harpoon, catch and a number of bottom methods for associated
or otherwise take possession of or purchase, sell, groundfish i.e. salmon, croaker, snapper and catfish)
offer or expose for sale or cause to be sold or offered
or exposed for sale any turtle or turtle meat. Despite (3) Hard substrate demersal (mainly snappers and
this, illegal poaching is a pervasive problem on both groupers; bycatch may include lobster and grunts)
islands. For example, it is not uncommon to have tur-
tle meat being served in Tobago at harvest festivals. (4) Oceanic (highly migratory) pelagic (targets tunas
Additionally, this resource is threatened by incidental and swordfish; dolphinfish, marlins, sharks and wahoo
catch (the accidental entanglement of sea turtles in are considered bycatch; main fleets are semi-industri-
nets set for fish). Several hundred leatherback tur- al longline, semi-industrial multi-gear and recreational
tles are ensnared each year along the north and east (Ferreira and Martin, 2005))
coasts of Trinidad, a number which may represent at
least 25% of the nesting females active in that area Except for the oceanic (highly migratory) pelagic fish-
(Bachan, 2009). ery, all fisheries are coastal. In terms of landings, the
artisanal gillnet fishery for coastal pelagics is one of
Finfish and Shrimp the most important fisheries of Trinidad and Tobago
The finfish and shrimp resources exploited in Trinidad accounting for the largest finfish and shark catches
and Tobago can be broadly categorized into the follow- of any fishery. It is second only to the trawl fishery in
ing groups based on the type of sea bottom substratum terms of landings and revenues (Ferreira and Soomai,
and oceanographic conditions (Fabres and Kuruvilla, 2001). Estimated annual landings for some commer-
1992): cially important species groups in the marine capture
Fisheries of Trinidad and Tobago is given in Figure 15.
Figure 15: Estimated annual landings

(tonnes) for some commercially important
species groups in the marine capture fish-
eries of Trinidad and Tobago from fishing
fleets for which data are available, 1998-

2007. Source: Fisheries Division, Ministry of Agriculture,
Land and Marine Resources, Trinidad and Tobago
Figure 15: Estimated annual landings (tonnes) for some commercially important species
groups in the marine capture fisheries of Trinidad and Tobago from fishing fleets
for which data are available, 1998-‐2007. 49Source: Fisheries Division, Ministry of
Table 5: Status and Management of Marine Fisheries Resources
ASSESSMENT
SPECIES STOCK STATUS MANAGEMENT RECOMMENDATIONS
YEAR Table 5: Status and
Management of Marine
Carite No increase in fishing effort; minimum mesh size of 4.75”;
encourage line fishing (Henry and Martin, 1992)
Fisheries Resources
(Scomberomorus 1991-‐1992 Fully exploited
brasiliensis)
Improve input data for generating growth parameters; reduce

Kingfish 1996-‐1998; fishing mortality; implement close season; enforce fish or mesh
Overexploited
2004 size regulations; do not increase fishing effort (Martin and
(S. cavalla)
Hoggarth, 2007)
Determine stock range, migration patterns, growth, and

Kingfish 1996-‐1998; mortality rate parameters. Include catch, effort and biological
Inconclusive
2006-‐2007 data from all countries harvesting the stock in the assessment
(S. cavalla)
(Martin and Dié, 2008).
Shark Precautionary approach to harvesting due to the vulnerability

1992 Under exploited
of sharks to overfishing (Walker, 1992)
(Carcharinus porous)
Four-‐winged flyingfish Fully exploited Conservative approach to increasing local effort; reduce foreign
1990-‐1992
(Hirundichthys affinis) fishing effort (Samlalsingh and Pandohee, 1992).
Lane snapper Uncertain; possibly Preliminary assessment; monitor fishing effort and do not
1980-‐2004
growth-‐overfished increase until further research (Soomai and Porch, 2007)
(Lutjanus synagris)
Caribbean red snapper Restrict fishing effort and increase age of first capture to 3
1990-‐1991 Fully to overexploited
years (Manickchand-‐Heileman and Phillip, 1992 and1996)
(Lutjanus purpureus)
Vermillion snapper
Restrict fishing effort and increase age of first capture to 3
(Rhomboplites 1990-‐1991 Overexploited
years (Manickchand-‐Heileman and Phillip, 1992)
aurorubens)
A 20% reduction in existing levels of effort to improve profits to
1995 -‐ 1998 Fully to overexploited
Shrimp fishery (All the fishery and reduce the probability of the biomass falling
shrimp species) between sustainable levels (Seijo et al., 2000; Ferreira and
Over capitalized
Soomai, 2001)
Implement closed season for trawling; increase stakeholder

1975; 1988 -‐ Overexploited. Stock
Shrimp Fishery involvement; limit number of trawlers in the fishery; enforce
2004 biomass declining
regulations (Ferreira and Medley 2007)
Croaker 1989-‐1997 Overexploited No increase in fishing effort; limited entry into fishery; reduce
fishing mortality (Soomai et al., 1999)(Alió et al., 1999)
(Micropogonias furnieri)
Salmon 1989-‐1997
Overexploited No increase in fishing effort (Soomai et al., 1999)
(Cynoscion jamaicensis)
Groundfish Fishery
1989-‐1997 Fully to overexploited Limit fishing effort for all fleets (Soomai and Seijo, 2000)
(Croaker and Salmon)
Yellowfin Tuna
(Thunnus albacares) ICCAT Database
– annual
submissions Implement Total Allowable Catch (TAC) Limits on a yearly basis;
from countries establish Observer Programme and Port Sampling Plan;
Bigeye Tuna exploiting the Fully to overexploited contracting and operating parties to implement a Multi-‐annual
resources and Management and Conservation Programme for 2012-‐2015;
(Thunnus obesus) findings of implement a time-‐area closure for FAD associated fishing.
scientific
research papers

50
Stock assessments using a variety of methods have supporting inefficient operations and contributing
been conducted to determine the status of marine to overfishing.
fisheries resources in Trinidad and Tobago since the
late 1980s. Some of these assessments have been in 5. Very little is known about recreational fishery.
collaboration with neighbouring Venezuela due to the Studies are needed to determine the impact
shared nature of the resources. Table 5 shows a subset of recreational fisheries on the resources.
of these assessments. Research findings suggest that
the marine fisheries resources of Trinidad and Tobago 6. Lack of implementation and enforcement of reg-
are either heavily exploited or over exploited. There ulations pertaining to the management of marine
does not appear to be any potential for expansion of resources.
the coastal fishery for shrimp and groundfish, or the
coastal pelagic fishery for carite and kingfish (Henry 7. The absence or lack of accurate verifiable data on
and Martin, 1992; Martin and Hoggarth, 2007; Ferreira fisheries is a major impediment to the planned
and Soomai, 2001; Soomai and Seijo, 2000). Hard strategic approach to fisheries management.
bottom demersal stocks such as snappers are fully
exploited (Manickchand-Heileman and Phillip, 1992) 8. Out-dated and inadequate fisheries legislation
and over-capitalization is evident in the trawl fishery as a legal basis for a modern national fisheries
(Seijo, et al., 2000; Ferreira and Soomai, 2001). Highly management system. The legislation provide for
migratory pelagic species are currently the manage- rudimentary controls (type and mesh size of fishing
ment responsibility of the International Commission nets, closed seasons and areas) as far as fisheries
for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT) of management is concerned.
which Trinidad and Tobago is a contracting party.
Assessments are conducted and reviewed annually by
ICCAT. These assessments indicate that the main spe-
cies exploited by the local oceanic pelagic fishery are
fully to overexploited.
Main Factors Impacting on the Exploitation and Status

of Marine Fisheries Resources
1. An open access fishery for marine resources result
in an environment of competition rather than
management. The ultimate result is over fishing
with assessments indicating that most coastal
marine resources are either heavily exploited or
over-exploited.
2. There are large quantities of by-catch discards from

the trawl fishery which includes undersized fish of
commercially important species.
3. Illegal fishing by foreign vessels of neighboring

countries (Venezuela, Barbados and occasionally
Guyana) also exploit local resources.
4. Given the over exploited state of man

commercial species and the over-capitalization
of some fleets, financial incentives provided by
concessions, rebates and subsidies to encour-
age development of the fisheries sector may be

51
52
Emerging
Issues
• Climate Change
• Sargassum
• Lionfish

53
Climate Change
The occurrence of anthropogenic induced climate physical and chemical oceanographic conditions.
change is now a largely undisputed phenomenon Climate change impacts represent added stressors to
which has far reaching implications for the current and the marine environment which compound the numer-
future management of Trinidad and Tobago’s coastal ous challenges our aquatic and coastal flora and fauna
and marine environment. Climate change is a process have to overcome in order to survive. Through all these
whereby increasing concentrations of greenhouse impacts, the climate change phenomenon therefore
gases in the atmosphere, especially carbon dioxide threatens the viability and sustainability of a number
(CO2) emitted through the burning of fossil fuels and of important coastal sectors including tourism, oil and
deforestation, is causing average global temperatures gas and fisheries. It will necessitate the protection of
to rise. These atmospheric alterations are bringing with existing coastal infrastructure located in vulnerable
it a suite of meteorological and oceanographic changes areas and will require livelihood diversification and
which threaten a number of species, ecosystems and adaptation throughout coastal communities.
livelihoods in the marine and coastal sphere.
For successful future mitigation of and adaptation
Modelling forecasts of climate change impacts for to climate change impacts in Trinidad and Tobago, a
Trinidad and Tobago have found that the two islands multi-pronged approach is required. Strategies include
would experience rising sea levels, less frequent but conducting coastal vulnerability and risk assessments
more intense rainfall, sea surface temperature increas- and applying this to development planning; main-
es and extreme events, including hurricanes and storm taining and restoring environmental integrity through
surges, occurring more regularly. In addition, it has alleviation of pollution and protection of critical eco-
been observed that some of the extra CO2 in the atmo- systems; continuous monitoring and research so that
sphere is absorbed by the world’s oceans and seas management decisions are informed by sound sci-
leading to the pH of their waters decreasing – a pro- ence and the effect of interventions can be properly
cess known as ocean acidification. assessed; and extensive sensitization, awareness rais-
ing and education of various publics to the climate
Through climate change our coastlines would be more change phenomenon and methods to limit its social,
at risk to erosion and flooding, coastal aquifers more economic and environmental impacts. These strate-
vulnerable to salt water intrusion and coral reefs are gies and several others aiming to mainstream climate
anticipated to experience more frequent and pro- change mitigation and adaptation into management
longed bleaching. Less understood, but no less likely, of coastal and marine resources are all inherent to the
are a range of potentially negative species specific and Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) program
trophic level interactions that come with the changing which Trinidad and Tobago is seeking to implement.
Small Island Developing States (SIDS) are

especially vulnerable to climate change and
its impacts, including coastal erosion

54
Sargassum
Sargassum is a genus of brown macroalgae (Class and local tourists and beach-goers. Ecologically, both
Phaeophyceae) that has both attached and free-float- adult and juvenile sea turtles can become entangled
ing forms. The former has always been a part of in the thick masses while the prolonged presence of
Trinidad and Tobago’s local marine flora with at least the seaweed could have negative effects on the natu-
eight species documented. The latter consists of just ral environment as it shades the sea floor and marine
two species, Sargassum natans and Sargassum flui- habitats such as coral reefs and seagrass beds. During
tans which are only found in the Atlantic Ocean and past Sargassum events the Tobago House of Assembly
have never been part of this country’s marine flora. (THA) and affected Regional Corporations have had
However, first occurring in 2011, massive quantities of to dispense resources to remove and dispose of the
the floating form of Sargassum seaweed have inter- beached Sargassum plants which emanate noxious
mittently fouled beaches off the windward coasts of fumes upon decay. Decomposing Sargassum has had
Trinidad and Tobago. In incidents occurring in Tobago, human health impacts, which is one of the main rea-
mats up to 0.6m thick have washed ashore at Pinfold sons that clean-up activities need to be conducted
Bay, King’s Bay, Hope Beach, Kilgwyn and Little Rockly when influxes occur in populated areas. Most recent-
Bay while in Trinidad, east coast communities from ly, in July 2015, the coastal village of Speyside, Tobago
Cumana to Guayaguayare have been impacted. was inundated with Sargassum in an overnight event
which necessitated the THA spending millions of dol-
An area spanning across the tropical Atlantic, near to lars in clean-up efforts over the course of 30 days.
the equator, has been identified as the source region
for the Sargassum plants affecting Trinidad and Tobago Sargassum invasion of Trinidad and Tobago’s beaches
and the wider Caribbean within recent times. A combi- is a relatively novel phenomenon for which we have
nation of factors have been postulated as contributing been largely unprepared for in the past. However,
to the flourishing of the floating plants there: warming with climate change causing continuous warming of
sea surface temperature; increased nutrient input from the oceans, it appears that future events are likely. In
land-based sources via massive continental rivers such preparation for these, consultations with key stakehold-
as the Amazon and Orinoco in South America and the ers from government, academia, community-based
Congo in Africa; and fertilization from iron rich Sahara organisations (CBOs), non-governmental organisations
dust. Changing oceanic circulation patterns subse- (NGOs) and the private sector have been taking place
quently transport mats of Sargassum northwards into in an effort to develop a National Sargassum Response
the Caribbean basin where they break up and come Plan. The Plan will foster a coordinated approach to
ashore when influenced by local currents. the problem involving key sectors and stakeholders,
and will include an early warning component, com-
During Sargassum invasion events fishers have difficulty munication mechanism and strategy for clean-up and
launching their boats and accessing fishery resources, disposal/utilisation of plant material.
while the sight and smell of piles seaweed deter foreign
Sargassum seaweed inundating Tobago's Atlantic coastline in 2015

55
56
Lionfish
The Indo-Pacific lionfish’s (Pterois spp.) presence in the held in 2014, 2015 and 2016. As well as seeking to
Atlantic was first reported off Florida’s coast in 1985. control the growth of the population, these activities
Non-native to this hemisphere, it was not until the gave some indication of hotspots (North east Tobago)
year 2000 that the species began to be regularly sited and changing population structure in the early years
off the south east Atlantic coast of the United States. of the invasion. Outreach and education were also a
Subsequently, a rapid spread of this invasive fish took major component of this project.
place throughout the wider Caribbean region. Its
anticipated arrival in Trinidad and Tobago’s waters was What is required now is for culling activities to become
confirmed in February 2012 in Castara, Tobago. more self-sustaining through the creation of a lionfish
fishery. Lionfish has proven that it can be a versatile,
Lionfish are recognised as a significant threat to reef tasty meal and might now be on the cusp of entering
ecosystems. This voracious predator feeds on resi- the seafood mainstream appearing on menus as a
dent marine species, particularly small and juvenile sustainable option alongside salmon, shrimp, and the
reef fish, shrimp and lobster. Being non-native to this occasional mahi mahi. They are being marketed as a
region, there is a scarcity of natural population con- sustainable eco-friendly food option with the added
trols such as predators, parasites and/or diseases. This, appeal that eating Lionfish is beneficial to reefs and
coupled with its high fecundity and wide environmen- marine ecosystems.
tal tolerance, has led to populations rapidly expanding
in the coastal waters surrounding Trinidad and Tobago.
This expansion, especially threatens Tobago’s reef eco-
systems as the potential exists for lionfish to decimate
organisms that serve important ecological roles e.g.
herbivorous fish that keep algae in check on reefs, and
also out compete other reef predators for food.
Efforts to control the proliferation of lionfish in this

country have centred around attempts to actively cull
individuals. From 2013 to present the Green Fund
financed a lionfish removal program where dive pro-
fessionals were paid to shoot the fish, and lionfish
derbies were hosted in Tobago. About 1000 lionfishes
were removed from the environment during derbies
Opposite page: Credit Dr. D. Buddo
Left: Dissecting of Lionfish at the 2015 Lionfish Derby, Castara,

Tobago
Right: Lionfish tempura

57
58
Policy
Intervention
In Trinidad and Tobago, there are 24 policies that
touch on aspects of coastal and ocean management.
The Draft Fisheries Management Policy (FMP) (2011),
National Forest Policy (2011), National Protected Areas
Policy, and the National Policy and Programmes on
Wetland Conservation for Trinidad and Tobago (2001)
deal with conservation of biodiversity. The National
Climate Change Policy (NCCP) focuses on climate
mitigation.

59
60
Additionally, economic and planning policies that institutions having a defined legal and/or policy role in
affect the marine and coastal environment include aspects of coastal and ocean management. The sheer
the National Tourism Policy (2010), the draft Yachting number of agencies with responsibility for coastal and
Policy, the Draft National Spatial Development Strategy marine area management creates problems such as
for Trinidad and Tobago (2013) and the Comprehensive overlapping jurisdiction and improper co-ordination
Economic Development Plan for Tobago: Clean, with regards to enforcement. The work of these agen-
Green, Safe and Serene. Alongside these the National cies is hindered by insufficient capacity and resources.
Environment Policy (2005) and the Integrated Solid A further setback faced by enforcement agencies is the
Waste / Resource Management Policy for Trinidad absence of sanction levels that offer a strong deterrent
and Tobago (2012) treat with pollution. Trinidad and to breaching laws. These low financial penalties have
Tobago has also acceded to the Cartagena Convention contributed to the lack of enthusiasm on the part of
- Land-Based Sources (LBS) Pollution Protocol which agencies for bringing court actions in order to enforce
requires the adoption of measures aimed at prevent- the law (Ramlogan, 2013).
ing, reducing and controlling pollution of coastal and
marine areas from land-based sources and activities. Global climate change and climate variability adds to
In 2008, a National Plan of Action for the Protection of the continuous pressure on the coastal and marine
the Coastal and Marine Environment from Land-based environment, especially since Trinidad and Tobago is
Sources and Activities, 2008-2013 was submitted to faced with a limited resource base, logistical challeng-
Cabinet for approval. However, this plan was never es and rising pressures for economic development. A
adopted and therefore not implemented. key challenge would be minimising, and adapting to
sea level rise, and in particular the increased coastal
The main issues with respect to many policies are erosion and salinization of coastal aquifers that may
that they are outdated, lack specificity, or have been result. High levels of threat exist to coastal infrastruc-
inadequately implemented. In addition, the various ture, housing and other built development, but this can
policies address problems in the coastal and marine be minimized by promoting sustainable land-use and
environment in a piecemeal and fragmented manner better planning and development control, including
(Ramlogan, 2013) and does not allow for a comprehen- controlling land-based sources of coastal and marine
sive, coordinated approach. pollution which degrades coastal ecosystems that can
protect coastal developments. Mainstreaming climate
To complement policy there are also some 20 pieces change mitigation and adaptation across all sectors
of legislation that can potentially address problems in should help improve the way the government “does
the coastal and marine environment. These include business” and achieves sustainable development. This
the State Lands Act (revised 2011), Fisheries Act 1916 will be via stimulating actions that strengthen verti-
(amended 1966; 1975), the Water Pollution Rules 2001, cal policy, planning and budgeting processes between
Shipping Act (revised 2011), the Archipelagic Waters national (Trinidad and Tobago) and sub-national
and Exclusive Economic Zone Act (1986), and the more institutions (e.g. Tobago House of Assembly), and hor-
recent Planning and Facilitation of Development Act izontal cross-sectoral initiatives that aim to contribute
(2014). While it is perceived that sufficient laws exist in to coastal sustainability.
the country to enable effective planning and manage-
ment of coastal and marine resources and activities,
most of the laws are worded in a general manner,
with the intent being the passage of regulations to
provide for specificity. Unfortunately, there has been
a reluctance to use such regulatory powers and this
has resulted in some laws being largely unenforceable
(Ramlogan, 2013).
Opposite page: Land-based sources of coastal and marine pollution degrade
The many laws and policies impacting on coastal and coastal ecosystems that can protect coastal developments.
marine areas give rise to as many as twenty-nine (29)
61
An important part of climate change mainstreaming is reached. Going beyond government-led mainstream-
climate risk analysis, which aims to define the extent of ing, issues such as “green jobs”, social enterprises, and
the current and future climate risk within the sector or wealth accounting are among other initiatives which
area under consideration. Climate risk analysis should are increasingly being seen as ways to address the
become an integral part of strategy or policy develop- integration of true social and environmental costs for a
ment in all sectors and areas. When the climate risk better quality of sustainable development.
is appropriately addressed at the national level within
strategic plans and policies, this creates an enabling For Trinidad and Tobago to achieve the Sustainable
environment for government agencies to engage with Development Goals there must be an enabling leg-
climate risk reduction and risk management, and islative and policy environment that allows for
for the private sector and communities to take their cooperation and co-ordination among state agencies,
own steps to reduce risks and manage residual risks. the private sector and civil society organizations. The
Climate-responsive policies and strategies thus pave draft ICZM Policy Framework attempts to create such
the way for practical on-the-ground activities that a platform. It seeks to address impacts from climate
manage the climate risk (Sustainable Seas Ltd., 2014b). change, and to attenuate anthropogenic impact from
the range of coastal stakeholders across the land-sea
A major issue is ensuring that changes to national continuum and encourage sustainable management
plans, and impacts from new sectoral priorities start to aimed at maintaining and where necessary, enhanc-
reach people on the ground. This will require contin- ing, the functional integrity of the coastal and marine
ued coordination across the range of different activities resource systems while enabling sustainable econom-
going on at the national, sub-national, and local levels. ic development through rational decision-making and
Mainstreaming experience has demonstrated that, planning. In pursuing this policy, all state and non-state
for example, many national development goals are agencies would have to instill public awareness about
interlinked, and that achieving the goal of coastal and the dangers of the degradation of environmental con-
marine conservation will not be possible if other relat- ditions in the country’s coastal zones and oceans, and
ed goals, including poverty reduction, are not met. encourage active participation of the people in all
Newly emerging ideas of measuring coastal commu- undertakings to conserve and enhance these resourc-
nity and the environmental dimensions of livelihood, es. Scientific research conducted/undertaken by state
and going beyond measurements of GDP, are gaining agencies would need to be policy-driven and policy-rel-
traction internationally. Experience from many nations evant using sound methods and the best available
has shown that quality of life can be expressed beyond technology. Data would have to be readily available,
the measure of GDP per capita and that the integra- and translated into pertinent information (knowledge
tion of social and environmental factors are equally products) that can be used by the decision-makers and
important in ensuring wider development goals are civil society when developing policies.
Stakeholder consultations have proven to be integral to the policy formulation process

62
Conclusion

63
1. The Gulf of Paria (GoP) receives excessive pollu- • north of Yacht Club, San Fernando
tion loading from agriculture, industrial, and domestic
sources. This has resulted in several hot spot areas 8. While most of the beaches and bays ( 27 in
characterized primarily by elevated levels of suspend Trinidad and 27 in Tobago) monitored are in dynamic
solids, nutrients and hydrocarbons. equilibrium, during the 2011-2015 period, erosion was
recorded at Manzanilla, Columbus and Guayaguayare
2. Excessive total suspended solids (TSS) and sed- Bay, Trinidad and at Richmond, Goldsborough and La
iment pollution affects the coastal water of Trinidad Guira Bay, Tobago.
particularly near the mouth of the Caroni River (west
coast) and the North Oropouche River (east coast) 9. Mangrove forests continue to be cleared to
where levels greater than 50 mg/L have been recorded. facilitate built development, and are more suscepti-
ble to impacts from climate change (coastal squeeze).
3. Petroleum hydrocarbon levels in water and However, in Caroni, Godineau, Nariva and Icacos
sediment are higher on the west coast compared to Swamp mangrove coverage is increasing at the expense
other coastal areas of Trinidad and Tobago. Dissolved of freshwater marsh communities.
dispersed petroleum hydrocarbon (DDPH) concen-
trations above 10.0 part per billion (ppb) were found 10. Thalassia dominated seagrass beds were lost
close to oil and gas operations. along the north-western peninsula of Trinidad and in
Kilgwyn and La Guira Bay in Tobago due to poor water
4. Sediment quality off Pointe-a-Pierre, La Brea quality. Seagrasses have spread into Nylon Pool as
and Granville indicated hots spot areas with elevated consequence of nutrient pollution.
levels (>100.0 ppm) of hydrocarbons as adsorbed and
absorbed petroleum hydrocarbons (AAPH). 11. Coral reefs are negatively impacted by land-
based sources of pollution (nutrients and sediments)
5. Analysis of oysters (Crassotrea rhizophorae) making them more vulnerable to impacts from climate
tissue collected at the Rousillac Swamp in 2014 for change (bleaching) and diseases. Many coral reefs
AAPH indicate elevated levels ranging between 10.58 around Tobago have been experiencing phase shifts in
and 38.59 ppm. Caution should be taken when con- benthic cover away from hard coral to species more
suming oysters since these organisms are filter feeders tolerant of nutrient enriched water.
that can bio-accumulate toxic hydrocarbons. AAPH
measures polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons which are 12. Several species of commercially important fish
known carcinogens (US EPA, 1995) that can be harmful have been found to be fully exploited or overexploited.
to human health if ingested.
13. The degradation of coastal and marine ecosys-
6. Heavy metal pollution of sediments is reported tems mainly from anthropogenic impacts (pollution)
at sites within the GoP make them more vulnerable to impacts from cli-
mate change, and other emerging issues like impacts
7. Bathing beach quality was poor - from invasive alien species (IAS) such as lionfish, and
• near the mouth of the Maracas River, Maracas Sargassum blooms.
Bay
• eastern section of Las Cuevas Bay 14. To arrest the degradation of our coastal and
• mid bay to the western section of William’s Bay, marine resources, immediate policy and legislative
Chaguaramas in the wet season interventions are required.
• western section of Chagville Bay, Chaguaramas
after heavy rainfall 15. Increase in citizen awareness of the fragility,
• Welcome Bay, Chaguaramas in the wet season importance, and benefits derived from our marine
• south of King’s Wharf, Sean Fernando resources is required.
• nouth of King’s Wharf at Spring Vale Point and
off the iron ladder south of the seawall
64
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70
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State of the

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016

Mrs. Toylan Arneaud

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016

9. Soft-bottom Benthic Community 45

10. Marine Fisheries 47

11. Emerging Issues 53

12. Policy Intervention 59

14. Selected References 65

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016

IMA's researchers collecting field data

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016

Average (n=250)α 7.84 6.01 28.1 29.22

Minimum 7.22 0.51 26.0 0.88

Maximum 8.23 8.53 30.9 36.20

should not exceed 3.0°C

Trinidad Water Pollution should not exceed 3.0°C

N/A -­‐ No Assessment.

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016

Oil spill cleanup at Coffee Beach, La Brea, 2013

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016

Average (n=68) 0.72 3.52

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016

Figure 1: Heavy metal concentration in coastal sediments off Trinidad

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016

Bathing Beach Water Quality

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016

Figure 3: Bathing Beaches in Trinidad

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016

North Coast of Trinidad

Maracas Bay River

North Coast Road

• Eastern section safe for bathing (blue)

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016

Las Cuevas Bay

North Coast Road

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016

San Fernando Hill

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016

Train line crossing the Marabella River mouth

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016

landward recession 20120720

-­‐0.5 landward recession 20120720

1: Coastal erosion occurring at Station 5, Cocos Bay (2013)

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016

Plate 2: Coastal erosion on

Figure 8: Map of Columbus Bay

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016

2 erosion 20120508 20150826

Plate 3: Coastal erosion at Station 8 on Columbus Bay (2013), southern view

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016

State of the Marine Environment Trinidad & Tobago - 2016

N/A -‐ No Assessment.

-‐0.5 landward recession 20120720