ACC 116
Module 1 – Introduction to Statistical Concepts
Identification:
1. The science of collecting, organizing,
summarizing, and analyzing
information to draw conclusions or
answer questions.
2. Set of all entities under study.
3. Set of all possible values of the variable.
4. A person or object that is a member of
the population being studied.
5. Subset of the population.
6. Consist of organizing and summarizing
data. Describe data through numerical
summaries, tables, and graphs.
7. Uses methods that take a result from a
sample, extend it to the population,
and measure the reliability of the
result.
8. A researcher must determine the
question(s) he or she wants answered.
9. This step is vital to the statistical
process, because if the data are not
collected correctly, the conclusions
drawn are meaningless. Do not
overlook the importance of appropriate
data collection.
10. In this step the information collected
from the sample is generalized to the
population.
11. Characteristics of the individuals within
the population.
12. Variable that yields categorical
responses. It is a word or a code that
represents a class or category.
13. Takes on numerical values representing
an amount or quantity.
14. A quantitative variable that either a
finite number of possible values or a
countable number of possible values.
15. A quantitative variable that has an
infinite number of possible values that
are not countable.
16. This is the first level of measurement,
and it is characterized by data that
consist of names, labels, or categories
only. The data cannot be arranged in
ordering scheme.
True or False:
1. Statistics is about providing a measure
of confidence in any conclusions.
2. Descriptive statistics describe data
through numerical summaries, tables,
and graphs.
3. The question(s) must clearly identify
the population that is to be studied.
4. Conducting research on an entire
population is often difficult and
expensive, so we typically look at a
sample.
5. Inferential statistics allow the
researcher to obtain an overview of the
data and can help determine the type
of statistical methods the researcher
should use.
6. Descriptive statistics uses methods that
takes results obtained from a sample,
extends them to the population, and
measures the reliability of the result.
7. If you count to get the value of a
quantitative variable, it is continuous.
8. If you measure to get the value of a
quantitative variable, it is discrete.
9. Nominal scales have no numerical
value.
10. In a nominal level, whatever the basis
for classification, a person can only be
in one category, and members of a
given category have a common set of
characteristics.
11. An ordinal scale not only classifies
subjects but also ranks them in terms of
the degree to which they possess a
characteristic of interest.
12. An ordinal scale puts the subjects in
order from lowest to highest, from
least to most. Although ordinal scales
indicate that some subjects are higher,
or lower than others, they do not
indicate how much higher or how much
better.
 17. Sometimes called categorical scales or
categorical data. Such a scale classifies
persons or objects into two or more
categories.
18. This involves data that may be arranged
in some order, but differences between
data values either cannot be
determined or meaningless.
19. This is a measurement level not only
classifies and orders the
measurements, but it also specifies that
the distances between each interval on
the scale are equivalent along the scale
from low interval to high interval.
20. A value of zero does not mean the
absence of the quantity.
21. Represents the highest, most precise,
level of measurement. It has the
properties of the interval level of
measurement and the ratios of the
values of the variable have meaning.
22. A value of zero means the absence of
the quantity because arithmetic
operations such as multiplication and
division can be performed on the
values of the variable.
23. It is used to label variables in
different classifications and does not
imply a quantitative value or order.
24. It is used to represent non-
mathematical ideas such as
frequency, satisfaction, happiness, a
degree of pain, etc.
25. It defined as a numerical scale
where the order of the variables as
well as the difference between
these variables is known.
26. It is a variable measurement scale
that not only produces the order of
the variables, but also makes the
difference between the known
variables along with information
about the values of the true zero.

Enumeration
1. What is the process of statistics? Process of Statistics:
2. Two classification groups of 1. Identify the research objective.
variables. 2. Collect the information needed to
3. Two further classification of answer the questions.
quantitative variables. 3. Organize and summarize the
4. Four levels of measurement. information.
4. Draw conclusion from the information.
Two classification groups of variables.
1. Qualitative variables
2. Quantitative variables
Two further classifications of quantitative
variables.
1. Discrete variable
2. Continuous variable
Four levels of measurement.
1. Nominal level
2. Ordinal level
3. Interval level
4. Ratio level
Module 2 – Data Collection and Basic Concepts in Sampling Design
Identification
1. The process of gathering and
measuring information on variables of
interest, in an established systematic
fashion that enables one to answer
stated research questions, test
hypotheses, and evaluate outcomes.
2. Provide a first-hand account of an
event or time period and are
considered to be authoritative. They
represent original thinking, reports on
discoveries or events, or they can share
new information. Often these sources
are created at the time the events
occurred but they can also include
sources that are created later. They are
usually the first formal appearance of
original research.
3. Offer an analysis, interpretation or a
restatement of primary sources and are
considered to be persuasive. They often
involve generalization, synthesis,
interpretation, commentary or
evaluation in an attempt to convince
the reader of the creator’s argument.
They often attempt to describe or
explain primary sources.
4. The researcher has direct contact with
the interviewee. The researcher
gathers information by asking
questions to the interviewee.
5. This methods of data collection involve
sourcing and accessing existing data
that were originally collected for the
True or False
1. An appropriate sample size is required
for validity. If the sample size it too
small, it will not yield valid results. An
appropriate sample size can produce
accuracy of results.
2. The sample size is typically denoted by
n and it is always a positive integer.
3. Representativeness, not size, is the
more important consideration.
4. Use no less than 30 subjects if possible.
5. If you use complex statistics, you may
need a minimum of 100 or more in
your sample (varies with method).
6. The goal in sampling is to obtain
individuals for a study in such a way
that accurate information about the
population can be obtained.
7. Sampling is important that the
individuals included in a sample
represent a cross section of individuals
in the population
8. If sample is not representative, it is
biased. You cannot generalize to the
population from your statistical data.
 purpose of the study.
6. A group interview of approximately six
to twelve people who share similar
characteristics or common interests. A
facilitator guides the group based on a
predetermined set of topics.
7. A method of collecting data where
there is direct human intervention on
the conditions that may affect the
values of the variable of interest.
8. A method of collecting data on the
phenomenon of interest by recording
the observations made about the
phenomenon as it happens.
9. A type of question that does not
include response categories.
10. A type of question that includes a list of
response categories from which the
respondent will select his answer.
11. Used to calculate the sample size n
given the population size and error.
12. Slovin’s formula for sample size.
13. Samples are obtained using some
objective chance mechanism, thus
involving randomization.
14. A complete listing of the elements of
the universe.
15. Generally referred to as random
samples.
16. Samples are obtained haphazardly,
selected purposively or are taken as
volunteers.
17. Most basic method of drawing a
probability sample. Assigns equal
probabilities of selection to each
possible sample.
18. It is obtained by selecting every kth
individual from the population. The first
individual selected corresponds to a
random number between 1 to k.
19. It is obtained by separating the
population into non-overlapping groups
called strata and then obtaining a
simple random sample from each
stratum. The individuals within each
stratum should be homogeneous (or
similar) in some way.
20. There is no system of selection but only
those whom the researcher or
interviewer meets by chance.
 21. There is specified number of persons of
certain types is included in the sample.
The researcher is aware of categories
within the population and draws
samples from each category. The size of
each categorical sample is proportional
to the proportion of the population
that belongs in that category.
22. It is a process of picking out people in
the most convenient and fastest way to
get reactions immediately. This method
can be done by telephone interview to
get the immediate reactions of a
certain group of sample for a certain
issue.
23. It is based on certain criteria laid down
by the researcher. People who satisfy
the criteria are interviewed. It is used
to determine the target population of
those who will be taken for the study.
24. Selects sample in accordance with an
expert’s judgment.
25. Defined as a non-probability sampling
technique in which the samples have
traits that are rare to find. This is a
sampling technique, in which existing
subjects provide referrals to recruit
samples required for a research study.
26. Errors that result from the survey
process. Any errors that cannot be
attributed to the sample-to-sample
variability.
27. Error that results from taking one
sample instead of examining the whole
population. Error that results from
using sampling to estimate information
regarding a population.

Enumeration Steps in Data Gathering

1. Steps in Data
Gathering.
2. Consequences from
Improperly Collected
Data
3. Sources of Data
4. Five methods in
collecting primary
data Consequences from Improperly Collected Data
5. Key Design Principles
1. Set the objectives for collecting data
2. Determine the data needed based on the set
objectives.
3. Determine the method to be used in data gathering
and define the comprehensive data collection
points.
4. Design data gathering forms to be used.
5. Collect data
6. Inability to answer research questions accurately.
 of a Good 7. Inability to repeat and validate the study.
Questionnaire 8. Distorted findings resulting in wasted resources.
6. Five methods in 9. Misleading other researchers to pursue fruitless
collecting secondary avenues of investigation.
data 10. Compromising decisions for public policy
7. Reasons for 11. Causing harm to human participants and animal
Sampling subjects.
8. Type of Samples Sources of Data
9. Basic Sampling 12. Primary sources
Techniques of 13. Secondary sources
Probability Sampling Five methods in collecting primary data
10. Cases wherein Non- 14. Direct personal interviews
Probability Sampling is 15. Indirect/Questionnaire Method
Useful 16. Focus group
11. Sources of Errors in 17. Experiment
Sampling 18. Observation
Key Design Principles of a Good Questionnaire
19. Keep the questionnaire as short as possible.
20. Decide on the type of questionnaire (Open Ended or
Closed Ended).
21. Write the questions properly.
22. Order the questions appropriately.
23. Avoid questions that prompt or motivate the respondent
to say what you would like to hear.
24. Write an introductory letter or an introduction.
25. Write special instructions for interviewers or
respondents.
26. Translate the questions if necessary.
27. Always test your questions before taking the survey.
(Pre-test)
Five methods in collecting secondary data
1. Published reports on newspaper and periodicals.
2. Financial data reported in annual reports.
3. Records maintained by the institution.
4. Internal reports of the government departments.
5. Internal reports of the government departments.
Reasons for Sampling
1. Important that the individuals included in a sample
represent a cross section of individuals in the population.
2. If sample is not representative, it is biased. You cannot
generalize to the population from your statistical data.
Type of Samples
1. Probability sample
2. Non-probability sample
Basic Sampling Techniques of Probability Sampling
1. Simple Random Sampling
 2. Systematic Random Sampling

3. Stratified Random Sampling

4. Accidental Sampling
5. Quota Sampling
6. Convenience Sampling
7. Purposive sampling
8. Judgement sampling
9. Snowball sampling
Cases wherein Non-Probability Sampling is Useful
1. Only few are willing to be interviewed
2. Extreme difficulties in locating or identifying subjects
3. Probability sampling is more expensive to implement
4. Cannot enumerate the population elements
Sources of Errors in Sampling
1. Non-responses
2. Interviewer Error
3. Misrepresented Answers
4. Data entry errors
5. Questionnaire Design
6. Wording of Questions
7. Selection Bias

Module 3 – Descriptive Statistics

Identification True or False

 1. Refers to an exhibition or putting up
data in an attractive and useful
manner such that it can be easily
interpreted.
2. All the data is presented in the form of
text, phrases, or paragraphs. It involves
enumerating important characteristics,
emphasizing significant figures and
identifying important features of data.
3. The principal method for explaining
findings, outlining trends, and providing
contextual information.
4. It is a systematic and logical
arrangement of data in the form of
Rows and Columns with respect to the
characteristics of data.
5. Best suited for representing individual
information and represents both
quantitative and qualitative
information.
6. Must tell as simply as possible what is
in the table. It should answer the
questions: Who? What are the data?
Where are the data from? When?
7. It is also known as row captions.
8. Given at the foot of the table for
explanation of any fact or information
included in the table which needs some
explanation. Thus, they are meant for
explaining or providing further details
about the data that have not been
covered in title, captions and stubs.
9. A very effective visual tool as it displays
data at a glance, facilitates comparison,
and can reveal trends and relationships
within the data such as changes over
time, and correlation or relative share
of a whole. Ex. Bar graph, Line graph,
Pie Chart.
Data Representation
1. Data are usually collected in a raw
format and thus the inherent
information is difficult to understand.
2. Raw data need to be summarized,
processed, and analyzed to usefully
derive information from them.
3. No matter how well manipulated, the
information derived from the raw data
should be presented in an effective
format, otherwise, it would be a great
loss for both authors and readers.
4. Planning how the data will be
presented is essential before
appropriately processing raw data.
5. Table is the principal method for
explaining findings, outlining trends,
and providing contextual information.
6. A text is best suited for representing
individual information and represents
both quantitative and qualitative
information.
7. The boxhead contains the captions or
column headings.
8. The heading of each column should
contain as few words as possible, yet
explain exactly what the data in the
columns represent.
9. Items in the stub should be grouped to
facilitate interpretation of the data.
10. We should also mention the source of
information from which data are taken.
This may preferably include the name
of the author, volume, page and the
year of publication.
11. Graphical presentation is suited
when we need to show the results of
the study to nonprofessionals and or
people who dislike numbers and too
lengthy texts.

Enumeration Three main forms of data presentation

1. Three main forms of
data presentation
2. Steps in preparing
tables
1. Textual Presentation
2. Tabular Presentation
3. Graphical Presentation
Steps in preparing tables
1. Title
2. Boxhead
3. Stubs
4. Footnotes
5. Sources of data