About the Author

Dr. R.P. Rustagi was Associate Professor in Shri Ram College of Commerce, University of Delhi. He is
M.Com., M.Phil. (Accounting and Finance) from Delhi School of Economics, University of Delhi, besides
being a Fellow Member of the Institute of Company Secretaries of India, New Delhi. He obtained
Doctorate from Jiwaji University, Gwalior. He has been teaching Accounting and Finance at Shri Ram
College of Commerce (his alma mater) for more than forty years. He is also associated with Post-graduate
teaching in Department of Commerce, University of Delhi. He is a visiting faculty in Executive
Development Programmes in Finance arranged by the ICAI, ICSI and other Management Institutes. As
an academician, his areas of interest are Strategic Financial Management, Investment Management,
Capital Market, etc. He is an established author in Accounting and Financial Management.
Other books by same Author and the Publisher :
1. Derivatives and Risk Management
(For MBA/M.Com./PGDM/CFA and other Post-graduate Courses in Commerce and Management).
2. Financial Management : Theory, Concepts and Problems
(For CS, CWA, MBA, M.Com., CFA, PGDM and other Post-graduate courses in Commerce and
Management)
3. Principles of Financial Management
(For CA (IPCC) and other courses in Commerce and Management)
4. Elements of Financial Management
(For MBA (U.P. Tech. University) and other courses in Commerce and Management)
5. Financial Management : Problems and Solutions
(For CS, CWA, MBA, M.Com., CFA, PGDM and other Post-graduate courses in Commerce and
Management)
6. Working Capital Management
(For MBA/M.Com./PGDM/CFA and other courses in Commerce and Management)
7. Management Accounting
(For MBA/M.Com./CA/CS/ICWA/PGDM/CFA and other Post-graduate courses in Commerce and
Management)
8. Fundamentals of Management Accounting
(For B.Com.(H.) Vth Semester of University of Delhi and other courses in Commerce)

I-5
 Preface
Financial Management has emerged as an interesting and exciting area for the academic studies as
well as for practitioners. The financial management deals with the financial decision making. All
decisions taken by a finance manager have financial implications. Financial Management evaluates
the financial implications and help taking these decisions in such a way as to maximize the value of
the firm or in other words to maximize the wealth of the shareholders. The present book has been
designed to discuss the fundamental concepts and principles of financial management. It aims to
fulfil the requirements of the students of undergraduate courses in commerce and management,
particularly the B.Com. (H) IIIrd/Vth Semester of Delhi University and other central universities
throughout India.
The book deals primarily with the theory and concepts of financial management. Keeping in view the
target student group, an attempt has been made to present the subject-matter in a non-mathematical
and non-technical way. The motivation for the book was provided by the interaction with the
students in the classroom and it has been shaped by the experience of teaching the subject-matter at
different levels. The reactions and responses of the students have been incorporated at different
places. It has been observed that students want a simple, systematic and comprehensive explanation
of the concepts and theories underlying the financial management. The subject-matter, throughout
the book, has been presented in a well knit manner.
As a student of financial management and now as a teacher, I have gone through a vast amount of
literature available on the subject. I feel indebted to several authors, researchers and my teachers who
have helped me a lot in understanding various issues in finance. I am also grateful to my students
who have provided the stimulus for writing this book. The real inspiration for writing this book came
from my friend and erstwhile colleague, Shri S.K. Gupta, M.Com., M.Phil., M.FIS, CPA of Cleveland
State University, U.S.A. Initially, he was to co-author the book, but he could not because of his other
pre-occupations.
The motive for Seventeenth edition has been provided by the overwhelming response of the students
and academicians towards the earlier editions.
Efforts have been made to retain the basic structure of the book. Nevertheless, numerous notes and
explanations have been added at appropriate places. New practical questions have been added to
Graded Illustrations in various chapters. Other highlights of this edition are:
- Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ), Graded Illustrations and Theoretical Questions have been added
at the end of different chapters.
- Questions appeared in Latest Question Papers of Delhi University have been incorporated at
appropriate places.
- In Chapter 4, basic principles of calculations of Cash Flows for capital budgeting proposals have
been summarized as a quick reference for the readers.
I-7
I-8 PREFACE

- In Chapter 4, a new section has been introduced to deal with the Analysis of Risk in Capital
Budgeting proposals.
- In Chapter 4, discussion on Modified Internal Rate of Return has been inserted.
- Working Notes and Explanations have been added at various places and in Graded Illustrations to
explain calculations and assumptions.
I am indebted to Dr. H.N. Tiwari, Associate Professor, Shri Ram College of Commerce for immensly
helping in preparation of Appendix I, “Financial Decision making with EXCEL”. I am thankful for the
comments and suggestions made by the colleagues from Delhi University and other professional
institutes for the improvement of the book. Further comments and suggestions for improving the
quality of the book are welcome and will be gratefully acknowledged. Taxmann Publications (P.) Ltd.,
deserves a special mention for timely release of the book in its new format.

DR. R.P. RUSTAGI

 Organization of the Book
The subject-matter has been presented in 17 Chapters placed in Six Parts each dealing with a specific area
of financial management. Part I, deals with the introduction to financial management, finance function
and the financial decision making. The basic concepts of Risk-Return trade off and the Time Value of
Money have also been explained in detail in Part I, comprising of Chapters 1 and 2.
Part II of the book deals with long-term investment decisions i.e. the capital budgeting process. Chapter 3
explains the significance and process of capital budgeting. The different techniques of evaluation of
capital budgeting proposals have been discussed in Chapter 4.
The Financing Decision deals with the leverage and the formation of the capital structure of any firm and
it has been discussed in detail in Part III. The cost of capital, an important concept for capital budgeting
and financing decisions, has been taken up in Chapter 5. Chapters 6 and 7 deal with the Leverage Analysis
and EBIT-EPS Analysis, Different theories on the relationship between the leverage, cost of capital and
value of the firm have been taken up in Chapter 8. The theoretical considerations for the planning of the
capital structure have been summarised in Chapter 9 of the book.
Part IV (Chapters 10 & 11) deals with another important area of decision making i.e. the Dividend
Decision. Besides giving an analytical overview of different models on the relationship between dividend
decision and value of the firm, an attempt has also been made to give the determinants of dividend policy
for any firm.
Part V deals with the management of current assets (total as well as individual). Chapter 12 deals with
the planning and management of total working capital and discusses the basic trade off between liquidity
and profitability. The estimation of total working capital requirement has been taken up in Chapter 13.
The management of individual elements of working capital i.e. the Cash, Receivables and Inventory has
been taken up in Chapters 14, 15 and 16 respectively of the book.
In the last, Valuation of Securities has been discussed in Chapter 17 in Part VI of the book. Each of the
17 Chapters has been structured in the following fashion:
1. Synopsis (Chapter Plan)
2. Main Body (Contents)
3. Points to Remember
4. Graded Illustrations
5. Objective Type Questions (True/False)
6. Multiple Choice Questions
7. Theoretical Assignments
8. Problems (Unsolved Questions with Answers).

I-9
 Detailed Outline of Financial Management
Syllabus
CBCS B.COM. (HONS.) SEMESTER III/V (UNIVERSITY OF DELHI)

1. Introduction - Meaning, Functions of Financial Management, Objectives of Financial Management,

Critical analysis of Profit Maximization, Wealth Maximization, EPS, etc., Time Value of Money, PV
concepts and calculation, Concept of Risk and Return.
2. Capital Budgeting - Concept, Significance, Characteristics of Capital Investment, Types of Capital
Investments, Capital Budgeting Process, Estimation of Costs and Benefits, Cash Flows vs. Profit,
Initial Investment, Additional Working Capital, Terminal Cash Flows, Depreciation, Dividends and
Interest, Treatment of Taxes. Methods : Payback Period, Accounting Rate of Return, Net Present
Value, Internal Rate of Return, Profitability Index, ‘MIRR’, Definition, Assumptions, Calculation,
Acceptance/Rejection Rule, Advantages and Disadvantages, Risk & Uncertainty in Capital Budget-
ing - Certainty - Equivalent Method and Risk Adjusted Discount Rate.
3. Cost of Capital - Concept, Significance of Cost of Capital, Overall vs. Specific Cost of Capital (Simple
Cases), Debt (excluding amortization of the cost of issue, semi annual interest payments), Preference
Shares (Both Redeemable and Non-Redeemable), Equity (Dividends as well as Earnings Approach),
Retained Earnings, Calculation of Weighted Average Cost of Capital, Meaning, Significance, Calcu-
lation, Determination of Proportions or Weights, Choice of Weights, Book Value vs. Market Value
Weights, Concept of Marginal Cost of Capital.
Financing Decision - Definition of Capital Structure, Meaning of Operating and Financial Leverages,
Measures of Financial Leverage, Effect on the shareholders’ risk, Financial risk; Capital Structure
Matters : The Net Income Approach; Capital Structure does not Matter : The Net Operating Income
Approach; MM Hypothesis without taxes: Assumptions, Theory, Criticism, Arbitrage process, Factors
Influencing Capital Structure.
4. Dividend Policy - Meaning, Significance, Dividend Policy and Valuation of the Firm, Irrelevance of
Dividends, Passive Residuals Theory, MM Hypothesis, Assumption, Theory, Model; Relevance of
Dividends : Walter’s Models, Determinants of Dividends, Forms of Dividend Payments i.e., cash,
bonus shares, Stability of Dividends.
5. Working Capital Management - An overview of working capital management, Definition of working
capital, Types of working capital, Trade off between profitability and risk, Computation of Working
Capital, Determinants of Working capital, Sources of funds for working capital.
l Cash Management - Meaning, Significance, Motives for holding cash, Factors determining cash
needs, Preparation of cash budget, Receipts and Payments method.

I-11
I-12 DETAILED OUTLINE OF FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT SYLLABUS

l Receivables Management - Meaning, Objectives, Costs and benefits associated with the receiv-
ables, Credit Policies, Credit Standards (i.e., effect of collection costs, bad debts, sales volume,
average collection period), Credit analysis (e.g., obtaining credit information analysis of credit
information), Credit Terms (i.e., cash discount, credit period), Collection Policies.
l Inventory Management - Meaning, Significance, Costs of holding inventory (e.g., ordering
costs, carrying costs), Benefits of holding inventory, Economic Order Quantity.
 I-13

PAGE

Chapter-Heads
PAGE
About the Author I-5
Preface I-7
Organization of the book I-9
Detailed Outline of Financial Management Syllabus I-11
Contents I-15
Abbreviations and Notations I-23

PART I : BACKGROUND
CHAPTER 1 : FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT : AN INTRODUCTION 3
CHAPTER 2 : THE MATHEMATICS OF FINANCE 19

PART II : LONG-TERM INVESTMENT DECISIONS : CAPITAL BUDGETING

CHAPTER 3 : CAPITAL BUDGETING : AN INTRODUCTION 39
CHAPTER 4 : CAPITAL BUDGETING : TECHNIQUES OF EVALUATION 59

PART III : FINANCING DECISION

CHAPTER 5 : COST OF CAPITAL 107
CHAPTER 6 : FINANCING DECISION : LEVERAGE ANALYSIS 137
CHAPTER 7 : FINANCING DECISION : EBIT-EPS ANALYSIS 157
CHAPTER 8 : LEVERAGE, COST OF CAPITAL AND VALUE OF THE FIRM 179
CHAPTER 9 : CAPITAL STRUCTURE : PLANNING AND DESIGNING 201

PART IV : DIVIDEND DECISION

CHAPTER 10 : DIVIDEND DECISION AND VALUATION OF THE FIRM 213
CHAPTER 11 : DIVIDEND POLICY : DETERMINANTS AND CONSTRAINTS 231

PART V : MANAGEMENT OF CURRENT ASSETS

CHAPTER 12 : WORKING CAPITAL : PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT 245
CHAPTER 13 : WORKING CAPITAL : ESTIMATION AND CALCULATION 267
CHAPTER 14 : MANAGEMENT OF CASH AND MARKETABLE SECURITIES 281
CHAPTER 15 : RECEIVABLES MANAGEMENT 307
CHAPTER 16 : INVENTORY MANAGEMENT 325

I-13
I-14 CHAPTER-HEADS

PAGE

PART VI : VALUATION
CHAPTER 17 : VALUATION OF SECURITIES 343

APPENDICES
APPENDIX I : FINANCIAL DECISION MAKING WITH EXCEL 365
APPENDIX II : PAST YEAR QUESTION PAPERS WITH SUGGESTED ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS 379
APPENDIX III : MATHEMATICAL TABLES 400
 I-15

PAGE

Contents
PAGE
About the Author I-5
Preface I-7
Organization of the book I-9
Detailed Outline of Financial Management Syllabus I-11
Chapter-heads I-13
Abbreviations and Notations I-23

PART I : BACKGROUND
1
FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT : AN INTRODUCTION
u Evolution of Finance as a discipline 4
- Finance upto 1950 - The Traditional Phase 4
- After 1950 - An integrated view of Finance Function 4
u Finance as an Area of Study 5
u Scope of Finance Function 5
u Financial Decision Making 7
- Financial Decision Making and the Relevant Groups 7
- Goal or Objective of the Financial Decision Making 8
u Risk and return : Basic Dimensions of Financial Decisions 10
u Financial Management and other areas of Management 10
u Some Basic Propositions and Axioms of Financial Management 11
u Treasury Management 12
u Financial Management and Financial Accounting : Complementary Companions 12
u Financial System and Environment in India : An Overview 13
Points to Remember 14
Objective Type Questions 15
Multiple Choice Questions 15
Assignments 16

2
THE MATHEMATICS OF FINANCE
u Concept and Relevance 20
u Compounding Technique 21

I-15
I-16 CONTENTS

PAGE
u Discounting Technique 24
u Other Specific Cash Flows 25
u Applications of the Concept of TVM 27
Points to Remember 29
Graded Illustrations 30
Objective Type Questions 32
Multiple Choice Questions 32
Assignments 34
Problems 34

PART II : LONG-TERM INVESTMENT DECISIONS : CAPITAL BUDGETING

3
CAPITAL BUDGETING : AN INTRODUCTION
u Features and Significance 40
u Problems and Difficulties in Capital Budgeting 40
u Types of Capital Budgeting Decisions 41
u Capital Budgeting Decisions and Funds availability 42
u Capital Budgeting Decisions : Assumptions and Procedure 42
u Estimation of Costs and Benefits of a Proposal 42
u Incremental Approach to Cash Flows 46
u Taxation and Cash Flows 47
u Depreciation, Non-cash items and Cash Flows 47
u Treatment of depreciation and Profit/Loss on Sale/Scrapping of an Asset 47
u Financial Cash Flows 49
Points to Remember 50
Graded Illustrations 51
Objective Type Questions 54
Multiple Choice Questions 55
Assignments 56
Problems 56

4
CAPITAL BUDGETING : TECHNIQUES OF EVALUATION
u Evaluation of Proposals : The Background 60
u Capital Budgeting : Techniques of Evaluation 60
u Traditional or Non-discounting Techniques 60
- Payback Period 61
- Accounting Rate of Return or Average Rate of Return (ARR) 62
u Discounted Cash Flows or Time-Adjusted Techniques 63
- Discounting Procedure : A common ingredient to Discounted Cash flow Techniques 64
- Net Present Value (NPV) Method 64
- Profitability Index (PI) 66
- Discounted Payback Period 67
- Internal Rate of Return (IRR) 67
- Modified Internal Rate of Return (MIRR) 70
u Capital Budgeting Decisions : Some cases 71
u Capital Budgeting with Unequal Lives of Proposals 76
u Risk Analysis in Capital Budgeting 77
u Conventional Techniques of Risk Analysis 78
u Selecting the Appropriate Technique 80
 CONTENTS I-17

PAGE
Points to Remember 81
Graded Illustrations 81
Capital Budgeting Problems based on Block of Assets Concept 97
Objective Type Questions 99
Multiple Choice Questions 99
Assignments 101
Problems 101

PART III : FINANCING DECISION

5
COST OF CAPITAL
u Concept of Cost of Capital 108
u Factors Affecting the Cost of Capital 108
u Types of Cost of Capital 109
u Measurement of Cost of Capital 110
u Cost of Long-term Debt and Bonds 110
u Cost of Preference Share Capital 112
u Cost of Equity Share Capital 113
u Cost of Retained Earnings 117
u Weighted Average Cost of Capital 117
u Marginal Cost of Capital 120
Points to Remember 123
Graded Illustrations 123
Objective Type Questions 132
Multiple Choice Questions 133
Assignments 134
Problems 135

6
FINANCING DECISION : LEVERAGE ANALYSIS
u Concept of Leverage 138
u Operating Leverage 139
u Financial Leverage 141
u Combined Leverage 144
Points to Remember 145
Graded Illustrations 145
Objective Type Questions 152
Multiple Choice Questions 152
Assignments 154
Problems 154

7
FINANCING DECISION : EBIT-EPS ANALYSIS
u Constant EBIT and Change in the Financing Patterns 158
u Varying EBIT with Different Patterns 159
u Financial Break-even Level 160
u Indifference Point/Level 160
u Short-falls of EBIT-EPS Analysis 164
I-18 CONTENTS

PAGE
Points to Remember 165
Graded Illustrations 166
Objective Type Questions 174
Multiple Choice Questions 174
Assignments 175
Problems 175

8
LEVERAGE, COST OF CAPITAL AND VALUE OF THE FIRM
u Capital Structure Theories 180
u Net Income Approach : Capital Structure matters 181
u Net Operating Income Approach : Capital Structure does not matter 182
u Traditional Approach : A Practical Viewpoint 183
u Modigliani-Miller Model : Behavioural Justification of the NOI Approach 185
u The Arbitrage Process 186
u MM Model with Taxes 189
Points to Remember 189
Graded Illustrations 190
Objective Type Questions 196
Multiple Choice Questions 196
Assignments 198
Problems 198

9
CAPITAL STRUCTURE : PLANNING AND DESIGNING
u Factors determining Capital Structure 202
u Profitability and Capital Structure : EBIT-EPS Analysis 203
u Liquidity and Capital Structure : Cash Flow Analysis 204
Points to Remember 206
Graded Illustrations 206
Objective Type Questions 208
Multiple Choice Questions 209
Assignments 209

PART IV : DIVIDEND DECISION

10
DIVIDEND DECISION AND VALUATION OF THE FIRM
u Concept and Significance 214
u Relevance of Dividend Policy 215
- Walter’s Model 215
- Gordon’s Model 216
u Irrelevance of Dividend Policy 217
- Residuals theory of Dividends 217
- MM Approach 218
Points to Remember 221
Graded Illustrations 221
Objective Type Questions 227
Multiple Choice Questions 227
Assignments 228
Problems 229
 CONTENTS I-19

PAGE

11
DIVIDEND POLICY : DETERMINANTS AND CONSTRAINTS
u Dividend Payout Ratio 232
u Stability of Dividends 233
u Constant DP Ratio 233
u Steady Dividend per Share 233
u Steady Dividends plus extra 234
u Legal and Procedural Considerations 234
u Scrip Dividend or Bonus Shares 235
u Informational Contents of Dividends 236
Points to Remember 237
Graded Illustrations 237
Objective Type Questions 239
Multiple Choice Questions 240
Assignments 241

PART V : MANAGEMENT OF CURRENT ASSETS

12
WORKING CAPITAL : PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT
u The Operating Cycle and Working Capital Needs 247
u Factors Determining Working Capital Requirement 249
u Working Capital : Policy and Management 250
u Financing of Current Assets 254
u Working Capital : Monitoring and Control 258
Points to Remember 259
Graded Illustrations 259
Objective Type Questions 263
Multiple Choice Questions 263
Assignments 265

13
WORKING CAPITAL : ESTIMATION AND CALCULATION
u Working Capital as a Percentage of Net Sales 268
u Working Capital as a Percentage of Total Assets or Fixed Assets 268
u Working Capital Based on Operating Cycle 269
Points to Remember 271
Graded Illustrations 271
Assignments 278
Problems 278

14
MANAGEMENT OF CASH AND MARKETABLE SECURITIES
u Motives for Holding Cash 282
u Cash Management : Theoretical Framework 283
I-20 CONTENTS

PAGE
u Cash Management : Planning Aspects 284
- Cash Budget 286
u Cash Management : Control Aspects 288
u Managing the Float 289
u Electronic Fund Transfer 290
u Optimum Cash Balance : A few Models 291
- Baumol’s Model 291
- Miller-Orr Model 292
u Management of Marketable Securities 293
Points to Remember 294
Graded Illustrations 295
Objective Type Questions 301
Multiple Choice Questions 302
Assignments 303
Problems 303

15
RECEIVABLES MANAGEMENT
u Costs of Receivables 308
u Benefits of Receivables 308
u Credit Policy 309
u Credit Evaluation 310
u Control of Receivables 311
u Evaluation of Credit Policies 312
Points to Remember 313
Graded Illustrations 313
Objective Type Questions 320
Multiple Choice Questions 321
Assignments 322
Problems 322

16
INVENTORY MANAGEMENT
u Types of Inventories 326
u Inventory Management 326
u Reasons and Benefits of Inventories 327
u Costs of Inventory 328
u Cost of Stock-outs (A hidden cost) 328
u Techniques of Inventory Management 328
u ABC Analysis 329
u Economic Order Quantity Model 330
u Re-order Level 332
u Safety Stock or Minimum Inventory level 332
u Quantity Discounts and Order Quantity 333
Points to Remember 333
Graded Illustrations 334
Objective Type Questions 338
Multiple Choice Questions 338
 CONTENTS I-21

PAGE
Assignments 339
Problems 340

PART VI : VALUATION
17
VALUATION OF SECURITIES
u Concept of Valuation 344
u Required Rate of Return 344
u Basic Valuation Model 345
u Bond Valuation 345
- Bond Value in case of Semi-Annual Interest 347
u Yield to Maturity (YTM) 347
u Valuation of Convertible Debentures 348
u Valuation of Deep Discount Bonds (DDB) 348
u Valuation of Preference Shares 349
u Valuation of Equity Shares 349
- Valuation of Equity Shares based on Accounting Information 350
- Valuation of Equity Shares based on Dividends 350
- Valuation of the Share Currently not paying Dividends 353
- Valuation of Equity Shares based on Earnings 354
Points to Remember 355
Graded Illustrations 355
Objective Type Questions 358
Multiple Choice Questions 358
Assignments 360
Problems 360

APPENDICES
APPENDIX I : FINANCIAL DECISION MAKING WITH EXCEL 365
APPENDIX II : PAST YEAR QUESTION PAPERS WITH SUGGESTED ANSWERS TO PRACTICAL QUESTIONS
IN QUESTION PAPERS OF FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT, B.COM. (H.), UNIVERSITY OF DELHI 379
l NOVEMBER 2018 (SEMESTER V) 379
l DECEMBER 2019 (SEMESTER V) 384
l DECEMBER 2020 (SEMESTER V) (OBE) 390
l DECEMBER 2021 (SEMESTER V) (OBE) 393
l NOVEMBER 2022 (SEMESTER V) 396
APPENDIX III : MATHEMATICAL TABLES 400
 I-23

PAGE

Abbreviations and Notations

b Retention Ratio (1-DP ratio) g Growth Rate

Bo Bond Value at present GP Gross Profit
β Beta factor (CAPM) I or Int. Interest
BV Book Value (Also Balance Sheet Value) IRF Risk-free Rate of Interest
C0 Cost at Present [Initial cost] IRR Internal Rate of Interest
CA Current Assets k Rate of discount/Required rate of return
CAPM Capital Assets Pricing Model kd Cost of Debt
CE Certainty Equivalent ke Cost of Equity Capital
CF Cash Flows ko Overall Cost of Capital (also WACC)
CFS Cash Flow Statement kp Cost of Preference Share Capital
CL Current Liabilities kr Cost of Retained Earnings
CML Capital Market Line MP Market Price
CVAF Cumulative Value Annuity Factor n, N Number of Years
CVF Cumulative Value Factor NOP Net Operating Profit (also EBIT)
CV Coefficient of Variation NP Net Profit (also PAT)
D Debt NPV Net Present Value
Div Dividend on Equity Shares NW Net Worth
DCL Degree of Combined Leverage OC Operating Cycle
Dep. Depreciation OL Operating Leverage (also DOL)
DFL Degree of Financial Leverage P0 Current Market Price of Share
DOL Degree of Operating Leverage P1 Market Price after 1 year
DP Ratio Dividend Pay out Ratio Pn Market Price after n years
DPS Dividend Per Share PAT Profit After Tax (also NP)
E Equity or Value of Equity PB Payback Period
EAM Equivalent Annuity Method PBIT Profit before Interest & Taxes (also EB1T)
EBIT Earnings before Interest & Taxes (also NOP) PBT Profit before Tax (also EBT)
EBT Earnings before Taxes (also PAT) PD Preference Dividend
EOQ Economic Order Quantity PE Ratio Price Earnings Ratio
EPS Earnings Per Share PI Profitability Index
FA Fixed Assets PV Present Value
FC Fixed Cost PVAF Present Value Annuity Factor
FL Financial Leverage (also DFL) PVF Present Value Factor
FV Future Value r Required Rate of Return

I-23
I-24 ABBREVIATIONS AND NOTATIONS

RM Rate of Return on Market Portfolio VL Value of Levered Firm PAGE

RS Required Rate of Return of a Security Vu Value of Unlevered Firm

ROA Raturn on Assets VC Variable Cost
ROI Return on Investment w,W Weight
ROR Rate of Return WACC Weighted Average Cost of Capital, k0
RV Redemption Value WC Working Capital
SEBI Securities and Exchange Board of India WDV Written Down Value
SF Shareholders Funds WIP Work in Process (or Progress)
SLM Straight Line Method (of Depreciation) WMCC Weighted Marginal Cost of Capital.
t Tax Rate YTM Yield Till Maturity
V Value of the Firm
 12
CHAPTER

Working Capital :
Planning and Management
“Working Capital, also called net current assets, is the excess of current assets
over current liabilities. All organizations have to carry working capital in one
form or the other. The efficient management of working capital is important
from the point of view of both liquidity and profitability. Poor management of
working capital means that funds are unnecessarily tied up in idle assets hence
reducing liquidity and also reducing the ability to invest in productive assets
such as plant and machinery, so affecting the profitability.”1

SYNOPSIS
u Introduction to Working Capital Management.
u Operating Cycle.
u Factors Affecting Working Capital Requirements.
u Need for adequate Working Capital.
u Working Capital Policy and Management
n Types of Working Capital Policy.
n Liquidity and Profitability.
n Permanent and Temporary Working Capital.
u Financing of Working Capital.
n Hedging Approach.
n Conservative Approach.
n Aggressive Approach.
u Working Capital : Monitoring and Control.
u Graded Illustrations in Working Capital Management.

1. Woolf, Tanna and Karam Singh, Financial Management, MacDonald and Evans, Plymouth, First Edition, p. 245.
245
246 PART V : MANAGEMENT OF CURRENT ASSETS
T
he working capital management refers to manage-
ment of the working capital, or to be more precise, the
management of current assets. A firm’s working capi-
tal consists of its investment in current assets which include
short term assets such as cash and bank balance, inventories,
receivables (including debtors and bills), and marketable
securities. Working capital management refers to the man-
agement of the level of all these individual current assets. The
need for working capital management arises from two con-
siderations. First, existence of working capital is imperative in
any firm. The fixed assets which usually require a large chunk
of total funds, can be used at an optimum level only if
supported by sufficient working capital, and second, the
working capital involves investment of funds of the firm. If
the working capital level is not properly maintained and
managed, then it may result in unnecessary blocking of scarce
resources of the firm. The insufficient working capital, on the
other hand, put different hindrances in smooth working of
the firm. Therefore, the working capital management needs
attention of all the financial managers.
The working capital management includes the management
of the level of individual current assets as well as the manage-
ment of total working capital. However, each individual
current assets has unique characteristics which the financial
manager must consider in deciding how much money should
be invested in each of these current assets. In other words, he
must decide the level of all the current assets. The manage-
ment of individual current assets i.e., cash and bank balance,
marketable securities, receivables and inventories has been
taken up in subsequent chapters. However, the general prin-
ciples of working capital management have been taken up in
this chapter.
Nature and Types of Working Capital : The term working
capital refers to current assets which may be defined as (i)
those which are convertible into cash or equivalents within a
period of one year, and (ii) those which are required to meet
day to day operations. The fixed assets as well as the current
assets, both requires investment of funds. So, the manage-
ment of working capital and of fixed assets, apparently, seem
to involve same types of considerations but it is not so.
The management of working capital involves different con-
cepts and methodology than the techniques used in fixed
assets management. The reason for this difference is obvious.
The very basics of fixed assets decision process (i.e., the capital
budgeting) and the working capital decision process are
different. The fixed assets involve long period perspective and
therefore, the concept of time value of money is applied in
order to discount the future cash flows; whereas in working
capital the time horizon is limited, in general, to one year only
and the time value of money concept is not considered. The
fixed assets affect the long term profitability of the firm while
the current assets affect the short term liquidity position. The
fixed assets decisions, as already discussed in Chapter 8, are
irreversible and affect the growth of the firm, whereas the
working capital decisions can be changed and modified with-
out much implications.
Managing current assets may require more attention than
managing fixed assets. The financial manager cannot simply
decide the level of the current assets and stop there. The level
of investment in each of the current assets varies from day to
day, and the financial manager must therefore, continuously
monitor these assets to ensure that the desired levels are being
maintained. Since, the amount of money invested in current
assets can change rapidly, so does the financing required. Mis-
management of current assets can be costly. Too large an
investment in current assets means tying up funds that can be
productively used elsewhere (or it means added interest cost
if the firm has borrowed funds to finance the investment in
current assets). Excess investment may also expose the firm
to undue risk e.g., in case, the inventory cannot be sold or the
receivables cannot be collected.
On the other hand, too little investment also can be expensive.
For example, insufficient inventory may mean that sales are
lost as the goods which a customer wants are not available.
The result is that the financial managers spend a large chunk
of their time managing the current assets because level of
these assets changes quickly and a lack of attention paid to
them may result in appreciably lower profits for the firm. So,
in the working capital management, a financial manager is
faced with a decision involving some of the considerations as
follows :
1. What should be the total investment in working capital of
the firm?
2. What should be the level of individual current assets ?
3. What should be the relative proportion of different sources
to finance the working capital requirements ?
Thus, the working capital management may be defined as the
management of firm’s sources and uses of working capital in
order to maximize the wealth of the shareholders. The proper
working capital management requires both the medium term
planning (say up to three years) and also the immediate
adaptations to changes arising due to fluctuations in operat-
ing levels of the firm.
The term working capital may be used in two different ways :
(i) Gross Working Capital (or Total Working Capital) : The
gross working capital refers to the firm’s investment in all
the current assets taken together. The total of invest-
ments in all the individual current assets is the gross
working capital. For example, if a firm has a cash balance
of ` 50,000, debtors of ` 70,000 and inventory of
raw material and finished goods has been assessed at
` 1,00,000, then the gross working capital of the firm is
` 2,20,000 (i.e., `50,000 + `70,000 + ` 1,00,000).
(ii) Net Working Capital : The term net working capital may
be defined as the excess of total current assets over total
current liabilities. It may be noted that the current liabili-
ties refer to those liabilities which are payable within a
period of 1 year. The extent, to which the payments to
these current liabilities are delayed, the firm gets the
availability of funds for that period. So, a part of the funds
 CH. 12 : WORKING CAPITAL : PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT
required to maintain current assets is provided by the
current liabilities and the firm will be required to invest
the funds in only those current assets which are not
financed by the current liabilities.
The net working capital may either be positive or negative. If
the total current assets are more than total current liabilities,
then the difference is known as positive net working capital,
otherwise the difference is known as negative net working
capital. The net working capital measures the firm’s liquidity.
The greater the margin (i.e., net working capital) by which the
firm’s current assets cover its current liabilities, the better will
it be. Although the firm’s current assets may not be converted
into cash precisely when they are needed, still greater net
working capital assures that in all likelihood some current
assets will be converted into cash to pay the current liabilities.
The distinction between gross working capital and net work-
ing capital does not in any way undermine the relevance of the
concepts of either gross or net working capital. A financial
manager must consider both of them because they provide
different interpretations. The gross working capital denotes
the total working capital or the total investment in current
assets. A firm should maintain an optimum level of gross
working capital. This will help avoiding (i) the unnecessarily
stoppage of work or chance of liquidation due to insufficient
working capital, and (ii) effect on profitability (because over
flowing working capital implies cost). Therefore, a firm should
have just adequate level of total current assets. The gross
working capital also gives an idea of total funds required for
maintaining current assets.
On the other hand, net working capital refers to the amount
of funds that must be invested by the firm, more or less,
regularly in current assets. The remaining portion of current
assets being financed by the current liabilities. The net work-
ing capital also denotes the net liquidity being maintained by
the firm. This also gives an idea of buffer available to the
current liabilities.
Both concepts of working capital i.e., the gross working
capital and the net working capital have their own relevance
and a financial manager should give due attention to both of
these.
THE OPERATING CYCLE AND WORKING
CAPITAL NEEDS
The working capital requirement of a firm depends, to a great
extent upon the operating cycle of the firm. The operating
cycle may be defined as the time duration starting from the
procurement of goods or raw materials and ending with the
sales realization. The length and nature of the operating cycle
may differ from one firm to another depending upon the size
and nature of the firm.
In a trading concern, there is a series of activities starting from
procurement of goods (saleable goods) and ending with the
realization of sales revenue (at the time of sale itself in case of
cash sales and at the time of debtors realizations in case of
credit sales). Similarly, in case of manufacturing concern, this
series starts from procurement of raw materials and ending
247
with the sales realization of finished goods (after going through
the different stages of production). In both the cases, how-
ever, there is a time gap between the happening of the first
event and the happening of the last event. This time gap is
called the Operating Cycle.
Thus, the operating cycle of a firm consists of the time
required for the completion of the chronological sequence of
some or all of the following :
(i) Procurement of raw materials and services.
(ii) Conversion of raw materials into work-in-progress.
(iii) Conversion of work-in-progress into finished goods.
(iv) Sale of finished goods (cash or credit).
(v) Conversion of receivables into cash.
These activities create and necessitate cash flows which are
neither synchronized nor certain. The relevant cash flows are
not synchronized because the cash disbursements (i.e., pay-
ment for purchases) take place before the cash inflows (from
sales realizations). These cash flows are uncertain because
these depend upon the future costs and sales. Of course, the
cash outflows relating to payment for purchases and pay-
ment for wages and other expenses are less uncertain with
respect to time as well as quantum. What is required on the
part of a firm is to make adjustments and arrangements so
that the uncertainty and unsynchronization of these cash
flows can be taken care of.
The firm is often required to extend credit facilities to custom-
ers. The finished goods must be kept in store to take care of
the orders and a minimum cash balance must be maintained.
It must also have a minimum of raw materials to have smooth
and uninterrupted production process. So, in order to have a
proper and smooth running of the business activities, the firm
must make investments in all these current assets. This
requirement of funds depends upon the operating cycle
period of the firm and is also denoted as the working capital
needs of the firm.
Operating Cycle Period : The length or time duration of the
operating cycle of any firm can be defined as the sum of its
inventory conversion period and the receivable conversion
period.
(i) Inventory Conversion Period (ICP) : It is the time re-
quired for the conversion of raw materials into finished
goods sales. In a manufacturing firm the ICP is consisting
of Raw Material Conversion Period (RMCP), Work-in-
Progress Conversion Period (WPCP), and the Finished
Goods Conversion Period (FGCP). The RMCP refers to
the period for which the raw material is generally kept in
stores before it is issued to the production department.
The WPCP refers to the period for which the raw mate-
rials remain in the production process before it is taken
out as a finished unit. The FGCP refers to the period for
which finished units remain in stores before being sold to
the customers.
(ii) Receivables Conversion Period (RCP) : It is the time
required to convert the credit sales into cash realization.
It refers to the period between the occurrence of credit
sales and collection of debtors.
248 PART V : MANAGEMENT OF CURRENT ASSETS

The total of ICP and RCP is also known as Total Operating Operating Cycle (NOC) of the firm is arrived at by deducting
Cycle Period (TOCP). The firm might be getting some credit the DP from the TOCP. Thus,
facilities from the supplier of raw materials, wage earners etc. NOC = TOCP – DP
The period for which the payments to these parties are
deferred or delayed is known as Deferral Period (DP). The Net = ICP + RCP – DP
The operating cycle of a firm has been shown in Figure 12.1.

➤ ➤➤ ➤➤ ➤
Receivable Conversion Period
RMCP WPCP FGCP ➤ ➤
➤ ➤
Inventory Conversion Period

Net Operating Cycle

➤ ➤ ➤ ➤
Deferral Period

FIGURE 12.1: THE OPERATING CYCLE

For calculation of TOCP and NOC, various conversion peri- On the basis of above conversion periods, the TOCP and NOC
ods may be calculated as follows : may be ascertained as follows :

Average Raw Material Stock Particulars Number of Days

RMCP = × 365
Total Raw material consumption RMCP ........ Days
+WPCP ........ Days
Average Work-in-progress
WPCP = × 365 +FGCP ........ Days
Total Cost of production
+RCP ........ Days
Average Finished Goods TOCP ........ Days
FGCP = × 365
Total Cost of goods sold –DP ........ Days
NOC ........ Days
Average Receivable
RCP = × 365 The TOCP and NOC do not measure the absolute amount of
Total Credit sales
funds invested in working capital. However, a longer NOC will
Average Creditors generally indicate a requirement for more working capital.
DP = × 365 Lesser amount of working capital will be required at the
Total Credit purchase
beginning of the operating cycle than at the end because most
In respect of these formulations, the following points are of the expenses are incurred well after initial raw materials
worth noting : are procured and introduced in the production process. The
operating cycle for an individual component keeps on chang-
1. The ‘Average’ value in the numerator is the average of
ing from time to time, particularly the RCP and the DP.
opening balance and closing balance of the respective
Therefore, a regular attention and review is required. It would
item. However, if only the closing balance is available,
be extremely difficult to determine an optimum operating
then even the closing balance may be taken as the ‘Aver-
cycle for a particular firm. The comparison of firm’s operat-
age’.
ing cycle for a period with that of the previous period and with
2. The figure ‘365’ represents number of days in a year. that of the operating cycle of other firms may help in main-
However, there is no hard and fast rule and sometimes taining and controlling the length of the operating cycle.
even 360 days are considered. Example 12.1 explains the procedure for the calculation of
3. The ‘Total’ figure in the denominator refers to the total Operating Cycle of the firm.
value of the item in a particular year, and
Example 12.1
4. In the calculation of RMCP, WPCP, and FGCP, the
denominator is calculated at cost-basis and the profit From the following information taken from the books of a
margin has been excluded. The reason being that there is manufacturing concern, compute the operating cycle in days :
no investment of funds in profit as such. Period covered 365 days
Average period of credit allowed by suppliers 16 days
 CH. 12 : WORKING CAPITAL : PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT 249

(` in ’000) In case of manufacturing concerns, different types of

Average debtors outstanding 480 production processes are performed. One unit of raw
material introduced in the production schedule may take
Raw materials consumption 4,400 a long period before it is available as finished goods for
Total production cost 10,000 sale. Funds are blocked not only in raw materials but also
Total cost of goods sold 10,500 in labour expenses and overheads at every stage of
production. So, in case of manufacturing concerns, there
Sales for the year 16,000 is a requirement of substantial working capital.
Value of average stock maintained : 2. Business Cycle Fluctuations : Different phases of busi-
Raw materials 320 ness cycle i.e., boom, recession, recovery etc. also affect
the working capital requirement. In case of boom condi-
Work-in-progress 350
tions, inflationary pressure appears and business activi-
Finished goods 260 ties expand. As a result, the overall need for cash, inven-
Solution : tories etc. increases resulting in more and more funds
blocked in these current assets. In case of recession
Operating Cycle of XYZ Ltd.
period however, there is usually a dullness in business
Average Raw Materials 320
1. Raw Material : × 365 = × 365 = 27 days activities and there will be an opposite effect on the level
Raw Material Consumed 4,400
of working capital requirement. There will be a fall in
Average Work-in-progress 350 inventories and cash requirement etc.
2. Work-in-progress: × 365 = × 365=13 days
Total Cost of Production 10,000
3. Seasonal Operations : If a firm is operating in goods and
Average Stock 260 services having seasonal fluctuations in demand, then the
3. Finished Goods: × 365 = × 365 = 9 days
Total Cost of Goods Sold 10,500
working capital requirement will also fluctuate with
Average Debtors 480 every change. In a cold drink factory, the demand will
4. Debtors: × 365 = × 365 = 11 days
Credit Sales 16,000 certainly be higher during summer season and therefore,
The credit allowed by Creditors = 16 days more working capital is required to maintain higher
production, in the form of larger inventories and bigger
TOCP = RMCP + WPCP + FGCP + RCP receivables. On the other hand, if the operations are
= 27 + 13 + 9 + 11 = 60 days smooth and even throughout the year then the working
capital requirement will be constant and will not be
NOC = TOCP – DP
affected by the seasonal factors.
= 60 – 16 = 44 days
4. Market Competitiveness : The market competitiveness
Therefore, the firm has a NOC of 44 days. has an important bearing on the working capital needs of
a firm. In view of the competitive conditions prevailing in
FACTORS DETERMINING WORKING CAPITAL the market, the firm may have to offer liberal credit terms
REQUIREMENT to the customers resulting in higher debtors. Even larger
inventories may be maintained to serve an order as and
The working capital needs of a firm are determined and when received; otherwise the customer may go to some
influenced by various factors. A wide variety of consider- other supplier. Thus, the working capital tends to be high
ations may affect the quantum of working capital required as a result of greater investment in inventories and
and these considerations may vary from time to time. The receivables. On the other hand, a monopolistic firm may
working capital needed at one point of time may not be good not require larger working capital. It may ask the custom-
enough for some other situation. The determination of work- ers to pay in advance or to wait for some time after
ing capital requirement is a continuous process and must be placing the order.
undertaken on a regular basis in the light of the changing
5. Credit Policy : The credit policy means the totality of
situations. Following are some of the factors which are rele-
terms and conditions on which goods are sold and pur-
vant in determining the working capital needs of the firm :
chased. A firm has to interact with two types of credit
1. Basic Nature of Business : The working capital require- policies at a time. One, the credit policy of the supplier of
ment is closely related to the nature of the business of the raw materials, goods etc., and two, the credit policy
firm. In case of a retail shop or a trading firm, the amount relating to credit which it extends to its customers. In
of working capital required is small enough. Most of the both the cases, however, the firm while deciding its credit
transactions are undertaken in cash and the length of the policy, has to take care of the credit policy of the market.
operating cycle is generally small. The trading concerns For example, a firm might be purchasing goods and
usually have smaller needs of working capital, however, services on credit terms but selling goods only for cash.
in certain cases, large inventories of goods may be re- The working capital requirement of this firm will be
quired and consequently the working capital may be lower than that of a firm which is purchasing cash but has
large. In case of financial concerns (engaged in financial to sell on credit basis.
business) there may not be stock of goods but these firms
6. Supply Conditions : The time taken by a supplier of raw
do have to maintain sufficient liquidity all the times.
materials, goods etc. after placing an order, also deter-
250 PART V : MANAGEMENT OF CURRENT ASSETS
mines the working capital requirement. If goods are
received as soon as or in a short period after placing an
order, then the purchaser will not like to maintain a high
level of inventory of that goods. Otherwise, larger inven-
tories should be kept e.g., in case of imported goods. It is
often seen that the shopkeepers may not be keeping stock
of all items, but whenever there is a demand, they pro-
cure from the wholesaler/producer and supply it to their
customers.
Thus, the working capital requirement of a firm is determined
by a host of factors. Every consideration is to be weighted
relatively to determine the working capital requirement. Fur-
ther, the determination of working capital requirement is not
once a while exercise, rather a continuous review must be
made in order to assess the working capital requirement in
the changing situation. There are various reasons which may
require the review of the working capital requirement e.g.,
change in credit policy, change in sales volume, etc.
NEED FOR ADEQUATE WORKING CAPITAL : The need and
importance of adequate working capital for day to day opera-
tions can hardly be underestimated. Every firm must main-
tain a sound working capital position otherwise, its business
activities may be adversely affected. The financial manager
must see that the firm has sufficient working capital as and
when required so that the fixed assets of the firm are option-
ally used. The objective of financial management i.e., to
maximize the wealth of the shareholder cannot be attained if
the operations of the firm are not optimized. Thus, every firm
must have adequate working capital. It should have neither
the excessive working capital nor inadequate working capital.
Both situations are risky and may have dangerous outcome.
The excessive working capital, when the investment in work-
ing capital is more than the required level, may result in
(a) Unnecessary accumulation of inventories resulting in
waste, theft, damage etc.
(b) Delays in collection of receivables resulting in more
liberal credit terms to customers than warranted by the
market conditions.
(c) Adverse influence on the performance of the manage-
ment.
On the other hand, inadequate working capital situation,
when the firm does not have sufficient working capital to
support its operations, is also not good for the firm. Such a
situation may have following consequences :
(i) The fixed assets may not be optimally used.
(ii) Firms growth may stagnate.
(iii) Interruptions in production schedule may occur ulti-
mately resulting in lowering of the profit of the firm.
(iv) The firm may not be able to take benefit of an opportu-
nity.
(v) Firm’s goodwill in the market is affected if it is not in a
position to meet its liabilities on time.
In view of the above, it can be said that the management of a
firm in general and the financial manager in particular, must
understand the importance of adequate working capital. In
other words, the working capital level of a firm must be
maintained and managed at an appropriate level. The finan-
cial manager must establish (i) a well defined working capital
policy and (ii) a self sufficient working capital management
system. While designing the working capital policy, the finan-
cial manager should take care of the following aspects:
(a) What should be the level of total and individual current
assets in view of the expected sales level?
(b) The financing pattern of the total working capital needs.
The working capital system should be established to take care
of management of all aspects of the current assets. Efforts
should be made to establish a built-in internal control system
to take note of the level as well as fluctuations in all compo-
nents of the working capital. Different aspects of working
capital policy and management have been discussed in the
following section.
WORKING CAPITAL : POLICY AND MANAGEMENT
The working capital management includes and refers to the
procedures and policies required to manage the working
capital. It may be noted that the long term profitability of a
firm, undoubtedly, depends upon the investment decisions of
a firm. The investment decisions determine the pattern of
sales growth and sales in turn, determine the profitability.
However, the investment decisions and other decisions have
two important implications for working capital management.
First, the sales forecast of goods and services being produced
by the firm allow the financial manager to estimate the
working capital needs and level of different current assets.
Second, the working capital management helps maximizing
the shareholders wealth by providing and maintaining firm’s
liquidity. The working capital management need not neces-
sarily have a target of increasing the wealth of the share-
holders, nevertheless it helps attaining the objective by provid-
ing sufficient liquidity to the firm.
The importance of working capital management, thus, can be
expressed in terms of the following points :
(i) The level of current assets changes constantly and regu-
larly depending upon the level of actual and forecasted
sales. This requires that the decisions to bring a level of
current assets to the desired levels of current assets
should be made at the earliest opportunity and as fre-
quently as required.
(ii) The changing levels of current assets may also require
review of the financing pattern. How much working
capital needs to be financed by different sources of
financing must be periodically reviewed.
(iii) Inefficient working capital management may result in
loss of sales and consequently decline in profits of the
firm.
(iv) Inefficient working capital management may also lead to
insolvency of the firm if it is not in a position to meet its
liabilities and commitments.
(v) Current assets usually represent a substantial portion of
the total assets of the firm, resulting in investment of a
larger chunk of funds in the current assets.
 CH. 12 : WORKING CAPITAL : PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT
(vi) There is an obvious and inevitable relationship between
the sales growth and the level of current assets. The target
sales level can be achieved only if supported by adequate
working capital. The increase in sales level requires in-
crease in working capital and thus the financial manager
must be able to respond quickly in providing and arrang-
ing additional working capital.
Thus, the efficient working capital management is important
from the point of view of both the liquidity and the profitabil-
ity. Poor and inefficient working capital management means
that funds are unnecessarily tied up in idle assets. This
reduces the liquidity as well as the ability to invest funds in
productive assets, so affecting the profitability. Keeping in
view the importance of working capital management, the
financial manager should look into the framing of a suitable
working capital policy for the firm. Following are some of the
important aspects of a working capital policy.
Determining the Ratio of Current Assets to Sales : As already
said that there is an inevitable relationship, between the sales
and the current assets. The actual and the forecasted sales
have a major impact on the amount of current assets which
the firm must maintain. So, depending upon the sale forecast,
the financial manager should also estimate the requirement
of current assets. However, as the sales forecast cannot be
certain, so is the case with the forecast of current assets also.
This uncertainty may result in spontaneous increase in cur-
rent assets in line with the increase in sales level, and may
bring the firm to face tight working capital position. In order
to overcome this uncertainty, the financial manager may
establish a minimum level as well as a safety component for
each of the current assets for different levels of sales. But how
much should be this safety component? It may be noted that
in fact, this safety component determines the type of working
capital policy a firm is pursuing. There are three types of
working capital policies which a firm may adopt i.e., moderate
working capital policy, conservative working capital policy
and aggressive working capital policy. These policies describe
the relationship between sales level and the level of current
assets and have been shown in Figure 12.2.
Current
Assets
Conservative
Moderate
Aggressive
Sales Level
FIG.12.2 : DIFFERENT TYPES OF WORKING CAPITAL
POLICIES.
Figure 12.2 shows that in case of moderate working capital
policy, the increase in sales level will be coupled with propor-
251
tionate increase in level of current assets also e.g., if the sales
increase or are expected to increase by 10%, then the level of
current assets will also be increased by 10%. In case of
conservative working capital policy, the firm does not like to
take risk. For every increase in sales, the level of current assets
will be increased more than proportionately. Such a policy
tends to reduce the risk of shortage of working capital by
increasing the safety component of current assets. The con-
servative working capital policy also reduces the risk of non-
payment to liabilities.
On the other hand, a firm is said to have adopted an aggressive
working capital policy if the increase in sales does not result
in proportionate increase in current assets. For example, for
10% increase in sales the level of current assets is increased by
7% only. This type of aggressive policy has many implications.
First, the risk of insolvency of the firm increases as the firm
maintains lower liquidity. Second, the firm is exposed to
greater risk as it may not be able to face unexpected change
market and, third, reduced investment in current assets will
result in increase in profitability of the firm.
LIQUIDITY v. PROFITABILITY - A RISK-RETURN TRADE-OFF
Another important aspect of a working capital policy is to
maintain and provide sufficient liquidity to the firm. Like
most corporate financial decisions, the decision on how much
working capital be maintained involves a trade-off because
having a large net working capital may reduce the liquidity-
risk faced by the firm, but it can have a negative effect on the
cash flows. Therefore, the net effect on the value of the firm
should be used to determine the optimal amount of working
capital. A firm must maintain enough cash balance or other
liquid assets so that it never faces problems of payment to
liabilities. Does it mean that a firm should maintain unneces-
sarily large liquidity to pay the creditors? Can a firm adopt
such a policy? Certainly not. There is also another side of the
coin. Greater liquidity makes the firm meeting easily its
payment commitments, but simultaneously greater liquidity
involves cost also.
The risk-return trade-off involved in managing the firm’s
working capital is a trade-off between the firm’s liquidity and
its profitability. By maintaining a large investment in current
assets like cash, inventory, etc., the firm reduces the chances
of (i) production stoppages and the lost sales from the inven-
tory shortages, and (ii) the inability to pay the creditors on
time. However, as the firm increases its investment in working
capital, there is not a corresponding increase in its expected
returns. This means that the firm’s return on investment
drops because the profit are unchanged while the investment
in current assets increases.
In addition to the above, the firm’s use of current liability
versus long term debt also involves a risk-return trade-off.
Other things being equal, the greater the firm’s reliance on the
short term debts or current liabilities in financing its current
assets, the greater the risk of illiquidity. On the other hand, the
use of current liability can be advantageous as it is less costly
and flexible means of financing. A firm can reduce its risk of
illiquidity through the use of long term debts at the cost of
reduction in its return on investment. The risk-return trade-
252 PART V : MANAGEMENT OF CURRENT ASSETS

off thus involves an increased risk of illiquidity and the
profitability.
In order to discuss the risk-return trade-off, the following
assumptions are made :
(a) That the current assets are less profitable than the fixed
assets,
(b) Short term funds are cheaper than long term funds, and
(c) The firm has a fixed level of total funds inclusive of long
term funds and short term funds; and a fixed level of total
assets inclusive of current assets and fixed assets.
The effect of changing levels of current assets on the risk-
return trade-off can be demonstrated as follows :
For a given firm, if the level of current assets is increased (it
impliedly means that the fixed assets will reduce by the same
amount) then the liquidity position of the firm will also
increase and it will be easily meeting its payment commit-
ments. But simultaneously its profit will decrease as the level
of fixed assets has gone down. In other words, when the level
of current assets is increased, the liquidity of the firm in-
creases but there is always a cost associated with the in-
creased liquidity. More and more funds will be blocked in
current assets which are less profitable and therefore, the
profitability of the firm will suffer.
Now, in order to increase the profitability, the firm reduces
the current assets (and thereby increasing the fixed assets).
Consequently, the profitability of the firm will increase but
the liquidity will be reduced. The firm is now exposed to a
greater risk of insolvency. The risk return syndrome can be
summed up as follows : When liquidity increases, the risk of
insolvency is reduced but the profitability is also reduced.
However, when the liquidity is reduced, the profitability
increases but the risk of insolvency also increases. So, the
profitability and risk move in the same direction. What is
required on the part of the financial manager is to maintain a
balance between risk and profitability. Neither too much of
risk nor too much of profitability is good. Example 12.2
explains the risk-return syndrome.

Example 12.2
The following is the balance sheet of ABC Ltd. as on 31st Dec. 2022.
BALANCE SHEET AS ON 31ST DEC. 2022

Liabilities Amount Assets Amount

Share Capital ` 6,00,000 Fixed Assets ` 10,00,000
Debentures 5,00,000 Current Assets 2,00,000
Current liabilities 1,00,000
12,00,000 12,00,000

The firm is earning 12% return on fixed assets and 2% return 12% return on fixed assets ` 1,20,000
on current assets. Find out the effect on liquidity and profit- 2% return on current assets 4,000
ability of the firm of the following:
Total Return 1,24,000
1. Increase in current assets by 25%.
2. Decrease in current assets by 25%. Total Assets ` 12,00,000

Solution : Rate of return (Earnings/Total assets) 10.33%

The present earnings of the firm may be ascertained as Ratio of current assets to total assets
follows : (2,00,000/12,00,000) 16.7%

EVALUATION OF EFFECT ON LIQUIDITY AND PROFITABILITY :

Present CA Increase In CA Decrease In CA

Current assets ` 2,00,000 ` 2,50,000 ` 1,50,000
Fixed assets 10,00,000 9,50,000 10,50,000
Return on fixed assets @ 12% 1,20,000 1,14,000 1,26,000
Return on current assets @ 2% 4,000 5,000 3,000
Total return 1,24,000 1,19,000 1,29,000
Ratio of CA to TA 16.7% 20.8% 12.5%
Current liabilities 1,00,000 1,00,000 1,00,000
Ratio of CA to CL 2 2.5 1.5
Return as a % of TA 10.33% 9.91% 10.75%
 CH. 12 : WORKING CAPITAL : PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT
Example 12.2 shows that as the current assets are increased
by 25% (from ` 2,00,000 to ` 2,50,000), the ratio of current
assets to total assets also increases from 16.7% to 20.8%. The
ratio of current assets to current liabilities also increases from
2 to 2.5 times indicating lesser risk of insolvency. However,
with this increase, the overall earnings of the firm have
reduced from ` 1,24,000 to ` 1,19,000 or from 10.33% to 9.91%
of the total assets. Thus, if the firm opts to increase the current
assets in order to increase the liquidity, the profitability of the
firm also goes down.
In case, the firm opts to reduce the level of current assets by
25% from ` 2,00,000 to ` 1,50,000, the ratio of current assets to
total assets will go down from 16.7% to 12.5% and the ratio of
current assets to current liability will also go down to 1.5 times
only. However, the profitability will increase from 10.33% to
10.75%.
Thus, Example 12.2 shows that the risk and return are oppo-
site forces and the financial manager will have to find out a
level of current assets where the risk as well as the return,
both are optimum. The firm just cannot decrease the current
assets to increase the profitability because it will result in
increase of risk also. The firm should maintain the current
assets at such a level at which both the risk and profitability
are optimum.
Example 12.2 shows the effect of change in current assets on
the risk and profitability of the firm. In the same way, the
effect of change in current liabilities on the risk-return posi-
tion of the firm can also be demonstrated. If the ratio of short
term (current) liabilities to total liabilities increases, the firm’s
profitability will increase but the risk will also increase. The
profitability will increase as a result of decrease in costs
associated with using more of short term funds and less of
long term funds. As the short term funds (current liabilities)
are cheaper than the long term funds, the total cost will
decrease resulting in higher profits. However, as the current
liabilities increases, then the net working capital will also
decrease (assuming current assets to be constant). The de-
crease in net working capital increases the overall risk.
Similarly, decrease in current liabilities will decrease the
profitability of the firm as larger amount of financing will be
raised using more and more of expensive long term sources
of funds. However, there will be a corresponding decrease in
risk also as the net working capital will increase as a result of
decrease in current liabilities.
The combined effects of changes in current assets and in
current liabilities can also be measured by considering them
simultaneously. The effects of a decrease in ratio of current
assets to total assets and the effects of increase in ratio of
current liabilities to total liabilities can be measured simulta-
neously in the same way as shown in Example 12.2.
Moreover, the different elements of current assets should
also be appropriately balanced. Each element and its position
in the total working capital should be analyzed in the light of
its characteristics. For example, the total current assets may
be sufficient to cover the current liabilities but when the
composition of current assets is analyzed, it may be found
253
that it is consisting mainly of the obsolete and slow moving
stock. This stock may not provide desired level of liquidity to
pay off the current liabilities. Similarly, higher level of cash
and bank balance may provide liquidity but affect the profit-
ability because keeping cash and bank balance is not a
profitable use of the resources.
Therefore, it can be said that the levels of the current assets
and current liabilities have a bearing on the risk and profit-
ability composition of the firm. A financial manager should
balanced these effects and try to achieve a sound working
capital structure of the firm.
TYPES OF WORKING CAPITAL NEEDS : Another important
aspect of working capital management is to analyze the total
working capital needs of the firm in order to find out the
permanent and temporary working capital. It has already
been discussed that the working capital is required because of
existence of operating cycle. Moreover, the lengthier the
operating cycle, greater would be the need for working
capital. The operating cycle is a continuous process and
therefore, the working capital is needed constantly and regu-
larly. However, the magnitude and quantum of working
capital required will not be same all the times, rather it will
fluctuate.
The need for current assets tends to shift over time. Some of
these changes reflect permanent changes in the firm as is the
case when the inventory and receivables increase as the firm
grows and the sales becomes higher and higher. Other changes
are seasonal as is the case with increased inventory required
for a particular festival season. Still others are random,
reflecting the uncertainty associated with growth in sales due
to firm specific or general economic factors. The working
capital need therefore, can be bifurcated into permanent
working capital and temporary working capital as follows :
1. Permanent Working Capital: There is always a minimum
level of working capital which is continuously required
by a firm in order to maintain its activities. Every firm
must have a minimum of cash, stock and other current
assets in order to meet its business requirements irre-
spective of the level of operations. Even during slack
season, every firm maintains some current assets. This
minimum level of current assets which must be main-
tained by any firm all the times, is known as permanent
working capital for that firm. This amount of working
capital is constantly and regularly required in the same
way as fixed assets are required. So, it may also be called
fixed working capital.
2. Temporary Working Capital : Over and above the perma-
nent working capital, the firm may also require additional
working capital in order to meet the requirements arising
out of fluctuations in sales volume. This extra working
capital needed to support the increased volume of sales
is known as temporary or fluctuations working capital.
For example, in case of spurt in sales, more stock must be
maintained in order to meet the demand. This additional
inventory may become excess when the normal sales
level reappears after some time.
254 PART V : MANAGEMENT OF CURRENT ASSETS
It may be noted that both the permanent working capital and
temporary working capital are necessary for every firm and
the financial manager must make a distinction between the
two. The permanent working capital, once decided and ar-
ranged may not require regular attention or management as
such. But care must be taken of the temporary working
Amount
of working
capital
C C
W ry W
ry
po
ra
m ane
Te
Total WC
Permanent WC
Time
FIGURE 12.3 : PERMANENT AND TEMPORARY WORKING CAPITAL.
Figure 12.3 shows that the permanent working capital may
either be constant over a period of time or may be increasing
over a period of time. Further, that the permanent working
capital is constant or increasing regularly while the tempo-
rary working capital is fluctuating from time to time. The
bifurcation of total working capital into permanent and
temporary components is relevant for the working capital
policy decisions relating to financing of working capital needs.
As discussed later, a financial manager has to decide about the
financing of permanent and temporary working capital from
different sources. Moreover, he is to arrange funds for invest-
ment in temporary working capital needs without loss of time.
He is in fact, required to manage the total working capital
needs in such a way as to keep available sufficient working
capital to the firm as and when required.
FINANCING OF CURRENT ASSETS
Another important aspect of working capital management is
to decide the pattern of financing the current assets and one
of the major problem in working capital management is the
decision whether to finance the working capital with one
source or the other. The firm has to decide about the sources
of funds which can be availed to make investment in current
assets. Breaking down working capital needs into permanent
and temporary components over time provides a useful by-
product in terms of financing choice. The permanent compo-
nent is predictable insofar as it is linked up to expected change
in sales or cost of goods sales over time. The temporary
component is also predictable in general as it follows the same
pattern every year. So, the two components of working
capital need to be financed accordingly for which the differ-
ent sources of funds can be grouped as follows :
capital. The firm must be able to arrange additional working
capital immediately whenever need arises. The temporary
working capital is needed to meet the temporary liquidity
requirements only. The distinction between permanent work-
ing capital and temporary working capital has been depicted
in Figure 12.3.
Amount
of working
capital
C
pora lW
Tem Tota C
nt W
Pe rm
Time
(i) Long-Term Sources which provide funds for a relatively
longer period. Under this category the main sources are
the share capital, retained earnings, debentures and long
term borrowing.
(ii) Short-Term Sources which usually provide funds for a
short period say up to one year or so. In this category, the
main sources are bank credit, public deposit, commercial
papers, factoring etc.
(iii) Transactionary Sources which provide funds to a busi-
ness through the normal business operations e.g., credit
allowed by suppliers and outstanding labour and other
expenses. To the extent the firm delays or postpones the
payments, the funds are available to it and that too
generally at no cost. These are also called spontaneous
sources of finance.
For example, as the firm acquires its inventories, the trade
credit is often made available spontaneously or on demand,
by the supplier. The trade credit varies directly with the firm’s
purchases of inventory items. In turn, the inventory pur-
chases are related to the anticipated sales. Thus, a part of the
financing needed by the firm is spontaneously provided in the
form of trade credit. In addition, wages and salaries payable,
accrued expenses, accrued interest and taxes also provide
valuable sources of spontaneous financing.
It has been noted earlier that the net working capital is the
excess of total current assets over total current liabilities.
Thus, a part of total current assets is funded by current
liabilities and only the remaining portion of current assets,
known as net working capital, is to be arranged for. Therefore,
the financial manager has to arrange funds for making invest-
ment in net working capital only. Different long term and
 CH. 12 : WORKING CAPITAL : PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT
short term sources of funds are available to a firm and all
these sources are different from one another with respect to
their nature and characteristics. The working capital require-
ments of a firm can be financed by all or any combination of
these sources.
It may be noted that both the permanent and temporary
components are predictable yet they differ on at least one
dimension i.e., the permanent component of working capital
is similar to an investment in fixed assets because it has to be
replenished over time and thus requires financing for the long
term. Consequently, it can be argued that this component
should be financed with long term sources: either debt or
equity or a combination of the two, depending upon the
financing mix the firm chooses to use for financing long term
assets. A part of permanent working capital may be financed
by current liability also depending upon the trade-off bet-
ween risk of having current liabilities and the cost associated
with long term financing. The temporary component of work-
ing capital should be financed with pre-arranged lines of short
term credit and the current liabilities. There are different
approaches to take this decision relating to financing mix of
the working capital as follows :
I-Hedging Approach (also known as Matching Approach) :
The Hedging Approach to working capital financing is based
upon the concept of bifurcation of total working capital needs
into permanent working capital and temporary working capi-
tal. As the name itself suggests, the life duration of current
assets and the maturity period of the sources of funds are
matched. The general rule is that the length of the finance
should match with the life duration of the assets. That is why
the fixed assets are always financed by long term sources
only. So, the permanent working capital needs are financed
by long term sources. On the other hand, the temporary
working capital needs are financed by short term sources
only. In other words, the core or fixed working capital is
financed by long term sources of funds while the additional
or fluctuating working capital needs are financed by the short
term sources. The hedging approach to working capital fi-
nancing has been shown in Figure 12.4.
Amount
of WC Total WC
Short Term
Financing
Long term sources
Time
FIG.12.4 : THE HEDGING APPROACH TO WORKING
CAPITAL FINANCING.
255
For example, a seasonal expansion in inventories should be
financed with short term loan or liabilities. The rationale of
the hedging principle is straight forward. Funds are needed
for a limited period say for purchase of additional inventory,
and when that period is over, the cash needed to repay the
loan will be generated by the sale of extra inventory items.
Obtaining the needed funds from a long term source would
mean that the firm would still have the fund after the inven-
tories had already been sold. In this case, the firm would have
excess liquidity, which it either holds in cash or marketable
securities until the seasonal increase in inventories occurs
again. The result of all this would be to lower the profits of the
firm.
The financing mix as suggested by the hedging approach is a
desirable financing pattern. However, it may be noted that the
exact matching of maturity period of current assets and
sources of finance is always not possible because of uncer-
tainty involved.
II- Conservative Approach : As the name itself suggests, under
this approach the finance manager does not undertake risk.
As a result, all the working capital needs are primarily fi-
nanced by long term sources and the use of short term
sources may be restricted to unexpected and emergency
situation only. The working capital policy of a firm is called a
conservative policy when all or most of the working capital
needs are met by the long term sources and thus the firm
avoids the risk of insolvency. The conservative approach to
financing of working capital has been shown in Figure 12.5
and Figure 12.6.
Amount
of WC
Total WC
Long term Long term
sources sources
Time
FIGURE 12.5 : FINANCING OF WORKING CAPITAL
(CONSERVATIVE APPROACH)
So, under the conservative approach, the working capital is
primarily financed by long term sources. The larger the
portion of long term sources used for financing the working
capital, the more conservative is said to be the working capital
policy of the firm. In case, the firm has no temporary working
256 PART V : MANAGEMENT OF CURRENT ASSETS

Amount Amount
of WC of WC

ncing Total WC
rm Fina
t te
Shor Permanent WC
Short term
g
ancin Financing
Marketable Securities
rt term fin
Sho

Long term Long term Long term

Financing sources Sources
Long term
Sources
Time

FIGURE 12.6 : FINANCING OF WORKING CAPITAL

FIGURE 12.7 : AGGRESSIVE APPROACH TO FINANCING
(CONSERVATIVE APPROACH)
OF WORKING CAPITAL

capital need then the idle long term funds can be invested in
marketable securities. This will help the firm to earn some
income. Figure 12.6 shows that the firm uses a small amount
of short term sources to meet its peak level working capital
needs. It also stores liquidity in the form of marketable
securities in slack season. The light shaded area in Figure 12.6
shows the use of short term financing for meeting the short
term needs while the dark shaded shows the investment of
excess funds in marketable securities.
III-Aggressive Approach : A working capital policy is called an
aggressive policy if the firm decides to finance a part of the
permanent working capital by short term sources. So, the
short term financing under aggressive policy is more than the
short term financing under the hedging approach. The ag-
gressive policy seeks to minimize excess liquidity while meet-
ing the short term requirements. The firm may accept even
greater risk of insolvency in order to save cost of long term
financing and thus in order to earn greater return. The
aggressive approach to financing of working capital has been
shown in Figure 12.7.
Hedging Approach (HA) versus Conservative Approach (CA) :
The HA and CA are the two extreme approaches and do not
help much the financial manager in managing the working
capital needs. The HA is more risky as the short term (current)
assets are financed by short term liabilities only and the firm
may not have sufficient liquidity with it. On the other hand,
the CA is more costly as the long term sources may remain idle
in slack period. But, the CA is definitely less risky as more or
less all the requirements of working capital needs are fi-
nanced by long term sources.
The CA provides liquidity in excess of expected needs and
thus minimizes the risk of (i) not being able to finance
spontaneous assets growth, and (ii) defaulting on maturing/
obligations. Excess liquidity in the firm results in holding
assets that are earning nil or an insignificant return. Thus, CA
is a low risk-low return approach to working capital manage-
ment. The comparative position of HA and CA with respect to
working capital financing mix has been presented in Table
12.1.

TABLE 12.1 HEDGING VERSUS CONSERVATIVE APPROACH

Hedging Approach Conservative Approach

Advantages 1. The cost of financing is reduced 1. It is less risky and the firm is able to absorb shocks
2. The investment in net working 2. The firm does not face frequent financing problems.
capital is nil or minimum.
Disadvantages 1. Frequent efforts are required to 1. The cost of financing is definitely higher.
arrange funds.
2. The risk is increased as the firm 2. Large investment is blocked in
is vulnerable to sudden shocks. temporary working capital.

Thus, the hedging approach suggests a low cost-high risk
situation while the conservative approach attempts at high
cost-low risk situation. Neither the hedging approach nor the
conservative approach can be used by any firm in the strict
sense. Therefore, the financial manager should try to have a
trade-off between the hedging and conservative approach.
Though, the trade-off between risk and profitability depends
largely on the financial manager’s attitude towards risk, yet
while doing so he must take care of the following factors :
 CH. 12 : WORKING CAPITAL : PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT
(a) Flexibility of the Mix : The financing mix of the working
capital must be flexible enough. If the working capital
needs are expected to be arising for a short period only
then short-term sources should be used so that whenever
the funds are released, they can be refunded. In such a
situation, if the firm opts for long term sources, then the
firm may not be able to refund even if it desires to refund
and the pre-payment penalties may be prohibitory.
(b) Cost of Financing : The financial manager should also
take into account the respective cost of financing from
short term sources and long term sources. It is worth
noting that it is not the rate of interest which is material,
but the total cost of financing over a period of say one
year, is relevant. For example, a firm has opportunity of
raising funds by the issue of 14% debentures (7 years) or
by taking a working capital term loan @ 18%. In this case,
the rate of interest on long term source (i.e., 14% on 7
years debentures) is lower but it does not mean that the
firm should go only for long term sources. The financial
manager should also find out the annual cost of financ-
ing. In case of debenture issue, interest for full year would
be payable while in case of short term bank loan, interest
at the rate of 18% would be payable only for the period for
which the bank loan facility is availed. It is quite likely that
the total interest payable on bank loan in a year may be
much lower than the annual cost of interest on deben-
ture.
(c) Risk Attached with Financing Mix : It is already noted
that the short term financing is more risky. If the firm opts
for short term sources to finance the current assets, then
it may have to renew the borrowing at the end of each
maturity. Moreover, the total cost of financing may fluc-
tuate from one period to another depending upon the
short term interest rates. But in case of long term financ-
ing, there is no risk regarding the cost of financing and
renewals.
Conservative Approach versus Aggressive Approach : Unlike
the aggressive approach, the conservative approach requires
the firm to pay interest on unneeded funds. The lower cost of
the aggressive approach, therefore, makes it more profitable
than the conservative approach, but the former is much more
risky. The contrast between these two approaches should
clearly indicate the trade-off between profitability and risk.
The aggressive approach provides high points but also high
risk, while the conservative approach provides low profits and
low risk. A trade-off between these two extremes should
result in an acceptable financing strategy for most of the
firms.
Risk-Return Trade-off : The financing of current assets in-
volves a trade off between risk and return. A firm can choose
from short or long-term sources of finance. Short-term fi-
nancing is less expensive than long-term financing but at the
same time, short-term financing involves greater risk than
long-term financing. Depending on the mix of short-term and
long-term financing, the approach followed by a company
may be referred as matching approach, conservative ap-
proach and aggressive approach. It matching approach, long-
257
term finance is used to finance fixed assets and permanent
current assets, and short-term financing is used to finance
temporary or variable current assets. Under the conservative
plan, the firm finances its permanent assets and also a part of
temporary current assets with long-term financing and hence
less risk of facing the problem of shortage of funds.
An aggressive policy is said to be followed by the firm when
it uses more short-term financing than warranted by the
matching plan and finances a part of its permanent current
assets with short-term financing. The discussion regarding
the financing pattern of current assets point out a conflict
between the short term and long term sources of finance. This
conflict between the two arises because of fact that these
sources have (i) different cost of financing, and (ii) different
risk associated with them. A financial manager should there-
fore, strive for a trade-off between the risk and return asso-
ciated with the financing mix. Such risk-return trade-off has
been shown in Figure 12.8.
Amount
Low
Profit • Õ Conservative
➤
Cost of Funds
• Õ Trade off
• Õ Hedging
➤
High
Profit
Amount
High Low
➤ Net Working Capital ➤
Risk Risk
FIG. 12.8 : THE RISK-RETURN TRADE-OFF AND
FINANCING MIX.
Figure 12.8 shows that the hedging approach results in a low
costs-high risk situation while the conservative approach
results in a high cost-low risk situation. The trade a off
between risk and return give a financing mix that lies between
these two extremes. For this purposes, the risk and return
associated with different financing mix can be analyzed and
accordingly a decision can be taken up. One way of achieving
a trade-off is to find out, in the first instance, the average
working capital required (on the basis of minimum and
maximum during a period). Then this average working capital
may be financed by long term sources and other require-
ments if any, arising from time to time may be met from short
term sources. For example, a firm may require a minimum
and maximum working capital of ` 10,000 and ` 18,000
respectively during a particular year. The firm have long term
sources of ` 14,000 (i.e., average of ` 10,000 and ` 18,000) and
additional requirements over and above ` 14,000 may be met
out of short term sources as and when the need arises.
OPTIMAL WORKING CAPITAL POLICY : Given the trade-off
between the effects of increasing working capital and the
258 PART V : MANAGEMENT OF CURRENT ASSETS
effects of reducing liquidity risk, it can be argued that work-
ing capital should be increased if and only if the benefits
exceeds the costs. To put it differently, there is correlation
between the firm value and the level of working capital
investment. At least initially, increase in working capital may
lead to increase in firms value, because the marginal benefits
are likely to exceed the costs. At some level of working capital,
holding all other factors constant, the firm’s value should be
maximized. This is the optimum level of working capital for
the firm. In general, the working capital as a measure of
liquidity risk suggests that increasing working capital will
generally, reduce the liquidity risk faced by the firm, whereas
decreasing the working capital will generally increase the
liquidity risk. The effects of working capital changes on the
liquidity risk depend on a number of factor such as :
(a) Stand-by sources : A firm with stand-by sources of exter-
nal financing is less exposed to liquidity risk than the firm
which does not have such access, because the former can
tap these sources if it needs to cover the increasing
current liabilities.
(b) Economic Conditions : Holding other factors constant,
firms typically experience larger changes in liquidity risk
as a consequence of working capital change when the
economy is in recession than when it is in boom.
(c) Future Uncertainty : To the extent that future operations
of the firm are predictable and stable, the firm can
survive with lower investment in working capital than
could, otherwise similar firms which have more uncer-
tainty about the future operations.
Therefore, the working capital policy adopted by a firm
should be framed after due consideration of a host of factors.
It would be better if the working capital policy is viewed and
framed in terms of separate assets and liabilities policies. A
conservative firm will tend to have conservative policies for
both the current assets and the current liabilities, while an
aggressive firm will tend to have aggressive policy for both the
current assets and the current liabilities. In fact, a firm should
strive for an overall optimal working capital policy for which
the following points are worth noting:
(i) Individual current assets and current liabilities policies
should be framed so as to reduce or avoid larger degree
of risk in any such policy,
(ii) One aggressive policy may be off-set by an other conserva-
tive policy. For example, a firm may have a conservative
policy for current assets but aggressive policy for current
liabilities. The overall result will tend to be moderate
working capital policy for the firm. Such a moderate
policy will be optimal working capital policy for the firm.
This will help in maximizing the value of the firm for the
level of risk assumed by the firm.
WORKING CAPITAL :
MONITORING AND CONTROL
It goes without saying that the working capital quantum as
well as its financing pattern are subject to constant monitor-
ing and review by the financial manager, care must be taken
that the working capital structure remains as intended to be.
There are different analytical tools which can help a financial
manager in monitoring, reviewing and controlling the work-
ing capital, some of which are as follows :
1. Monitoring the Operating Cycle : It is already noted that
the total working capital need depends upon the length of
the operating cycle. The lengthier the operating cycle, the
greater would be the working capital need. The operating
cycle of a firm is consisting of different cycles for differ-
ent elements of working capital. Therefore, the financial
manager must monitor the duration of all these indi-
vidual operating cycles for different elements in order to
effectively control the working capital. The following
points are worth noting here :
(a) The actual operating cycle period should be ascer-
tained for each element i.e., the raw materials, the
work-in-progress, the finished goods, the receivables
etc. over a period of time and should be compared
with the standard operating cycle period set for the
same firm or for the industry as a whole. Efforts
should also be made to point out the reasons for
differences in the actual operating cycle period and
the standard operating cycle period.
(b) There should always be an attempt to reduce the
length of the operating cycle, total as well as for each
element. The standard operating cycle period need
not be lowered but the actual operating cycle period
must be kept as low as possible. This makes the firm
have comfortable liquidity.
(c) Efforts in particular, are needed to control the
Receivables Conversion Period. If the firm relaxes in
collection, the customer will always like to take
liberty.
2. Working Capital Ratios : Another analytical tool that can
be used to monitor the working capital is the accounting
ratios, particularly the working capital ratios. For this
purpose, the following working capital ratios may be
noted.
(i) Current Ratio i.e., Current Assets to Current Liabili-
ties Ratio,
(ii) Liquid Ratio i.e., Quick Assets to Current Liabilities
Ratio,
(iii) Current Assets to Total Assets Ratio,
(iv) Current Assets to Total Sales Ratio.
These ratios may be ascertained for a number of years to find
out the emerging working capital position of the firm. It may
be noted that the Current Ratio is the most important one and
it indicates the position of net working capital also. If the
Current Ratio is more than 1, then the net working capital is
positive. If the Current Ratio is 1, then the current assets are
just equal to current liability and there is no net working
capital. Further, if the Current Ratio is less than 1, then the
current assets are less than the current liabilities and the firm
has negative net working capital.
The Current Ratio as well as the Quick Ratio, both indicate the
liquidity position of the firm vis-a-vis the current liabilities.
 CH. 12 : WORKING CAPITAL : PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT 259

However, the Quick Ratio is supposed to give a better indica-
tion of the liquidity since it excludes the stock which may not
be immediately realizable. The standard form of Current
Ratio and Quick Ratio is taken as 2:1 and 1:1 respectively.
3. Monitoring the Liquidity : Although, profitability and
selection of goods investment are the keys to the prosper-
ity of the firm in the long run, yet it is the liquidity which
ensures the short term survival of the firm. Sufficient
liquidity can be obtained by efficient management of
different elements of working capital. If a firm faces
liquidity problems, then it must be realized that this
liquidity problem arises from lack of finance. The liquid-
ity problem can be overcome in two ways (i) to raise
additional funds from different sources. But this may not
always be possible for the firm, and (ii) the following steps
may be taken by the firm to ease the liquidity problem :
(a) Reduce the safety stock, resulting in reduction of
order size. This reduction in order size however, will
have many repercussions such as more frequent and
costly orders, loss of quantity discount, probability of
stock-out etc., and therefore, must be decided very
carefully.
(b) Another way of improving the liquidity may be to
delay the payments to the creditors but this is not
possible without impairing the goodwill of the firm.
(c) Liquidity can also be improved by concentrating
more on collections of receivables. More effective
control system should be introduced and the cus-
tomers may be offered incentive for prompt pay-
ments. An improvement in collections definitely im-
proves liquidity but it has a cost in terms of a possi-
bility of a loss of customer. This aspect has been
discussed in detail in Chapter 14.

u The term working capital may be used to denote either
the gross working capital which refers to total current
assets or net working capital which refers to excess of
current assets over current liabilities.
u The working capital requirement for a firm depends
upon several factors such as operating cycle, nature of
business, business cycle fluctuations, seasonally of
operations, market competitiveness, credit policy, supply
conditions etc.
u The operating cycle of a firm may be defined as the period
from the procurement of raw materials goods to the
realization of sales proceeds. It is consisting of the Inven-
tory Conversion Period (ICT) and the Receivables Con-
version Period (RCP). If the firm is receiving credit from
the supplier of raw material/goods, then the Deferral
Period (DP) may be deducted to find out the Net Operat-
ing Cycle (NOC).
NOC = ICP + RCP – DP
POINTS TO REMEMBER
u Working capital management requires a trade off be-
tween liquidity and profitability. It may also be described
as Risk-Return trade off.
u The working capital need of the firm may be bifurcated
into Permanent and Temporary working capital.
u The Hedging Approach says that permanent require-
ment should be financed by long term sources while the
temporary requirement should be financed by short
term sources of finance.
u The Conservative Approach, on the other hand, says that
the working capital requirement be financed primerly
from the long term sources.
u The Aggressive Approach says that even a part of perma-
nent requirement may be financed out of short term
funds.
u Every firm must monitor the working capital position
and for this purpose certain accounting ratios may be
calculated.

GRADED ILLUSTRATIONS
Illustration 12.1 (` in ’000)
Using the following data, calculate the current working capi- Average Creditors 90
tal cycle for XYZ Ltd. Average Debtors 350
(` in ’000) Solution :
Sales 3,000 Operating cycle of XYZ Ltd.
Cost of Production 2,100
Average Raw Material 80
Purchases 600 1. Raw material: =
Total Raw Material
× 365 =
600
× 365 = 49 days
Average Raw material stock 80
Average Work in progress 85
Average Work-in-progress 85 2. Work-in-progress: = × 365= × 365=15 days
Total Cost of Production 2,100
Average Finished goods stock 180
260 PART V : MANAGEMENT OF CURRENT ASSETS

Avarage Stock 180 What is the length of Net Operating Cycle: Assume 365 days
3. Finished goods: = × 365 = 2,100 × 365 = 31 days
Total Cost of Production in a year. [B.Com. (H.) D.U., 2010]
Average Debtors 350
Solution :
4. Debtors: = × 365 = 3,000 × 365 = 43 Days
Total Credit Sales
Inventory Operating Cycle :
Avarage Creditors 90
5. Creditors: = × 365 = × 365 = 55 days
Total Purchases 600 Average Inventory -
= × 365
Net Operating Cycle = 49 days + 15 days + 31 days – 43 days – 55 days Average Cost of Goods Sold
= 138 days – 55 days = 83 days.
(9,000 + 12,000)/2
= × 365 = 68 days
56,000
Illustration 12.2
Average Receivables
Receivable Operating Cycle = × 365
The relevant information for XYZ Ltd. for the year is given Annual Credit Sales
below: (12,000+16,000)/2
= × 365 = 64 days
Sales : ` 80,000 80,000
Cost of Goods Sold : ` 56,000 Average Payables
Payables Operating Cycle = × 365
Total Purchases
Opening Closing (7,000+10,000)/2
= × 365 = 55 days
Inventory ` 9,000 ` 12,000 56,000
Accounts Receivables 12,000 16,000 Net Operating Cycle = 68 + 64 – 55 = 77 days
Accounts Payables 7,000 10,000

Illustration 12.3
Satyam Sundaram Ltd.’s Profit and Loss A/c and Balance Sheet for the year ended 31.12.2022 are given below. You are required
to calculate the working capital requirement under operating cycle method :
TRADING AND PROFIT AND LOSS ACCOUNT
for the year ended 31.12.2022

Particulars Amount Particulars Amount

To Opening Stock : By Credit Sales ` 1,00,000
Raw Materials ` 10,000 By Closing Stock:
Work-in-progress 30,000 Raw Materials 11,000
Finished Goods 5,000 Work-in-progress 30,500
To Credit Purchase 35,000 Finished Goods 8,500
To Wages & Manufacturing exp. 15,000
To Gross profit c/d 55,000
1,50,000 1,50,000
To Administrative exp. 15,000 By Gross profit b/d 55,000
To Selling and Dist. exp. 10,000
To Net Profit 30,000
55,000 55,000

BALANCE SHEET
as at 31.12.2022

Liabilities Amount Assets Amount

Share Capital (16,000 equity Fixed assets ` 1,00,000
share of ` 10 each) ` 1,60,000 Closing Stock:
Profit and Loss Account 30,000 Raw Materials 11,000
Creditors 10,000 Work in progress 30,500
Finished Goods 8,500
Debtors 30,500
Cash and Bank 19,500
2,00,000 2,00,000
 CH. 12 : WORKING CAPITAL : PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT 261

Opening debtors and Opening creditors were ` 6,500 and 5. Creditors

` 5,000, respectively.
Average Creditors 7,500
Solution : = × 365 = × 365 = 78 days
Credit Purchases 35,000
Calculation of Operating cycle: where, Average Creditors = (5,000 + 10,000)/2 = 7,500
1. Raw material Credit Purchases = ` 35,000 (Given)
Average Raw Material 10,500 Net Operating Cycle is:
= × 365 = × 365 = 113 days
Raw Material consumed 34,000 = Total Days – Credit allowed by Creditors
where, Average Raw Material = (10,000 + 11,000)/2 = 10,500 = 113 days + 228 days + 41 days + 67 days = 78 days
Raw material consumed = 10,000 + 35,000 – 11,000 = 34,000 = 371 Days
2. Work-in-progress Administrative expenses have not been considered for calcu-
lation of work in progress cycle but have been considered for
Average Work-in-progress 30,250
= × 365 = × 365 = 228 days finished goods cycle.
Total Cost of Production 48,500
where, Average Work-in-progress = (30,000 + 30,500)/2 = 30,250 Illustration 12.4
Total Cost of Production = 30,000 + 34,000 + 15,000 – 30,500 From the following data, compute the duration of the operat-
= 48,500 ing cycle for each of the two years and comment on the
increase/decrease :
3. Finished Goods
Year 1 Year 2
Average Stock 6,750
= × 365 = × 365 = 41 days Stock :
Total Cost of Goods Sold 60,000
Raw Materials 20,000 27,000
where, Average Stock = (5,000 + 8,500)/2 = 6,750 Work-in-progress 14,000 18,000
Total Cost of Goods Sold = 5,000+48,500 – 8,500 + 15,000 = 60,000 Finished Goods 21,000 24,000
Purchases 96,000 1,35,000
4. Debtors
Cost of Goods Sold 1,40,000 1,80,000
Average Debtors 18,500 Sales 1,60,000 2,00,000
= × 365 = × 365 = 67 days
Credit Sales 1,00,000 Debtors 32,000 50,000
where, Average Debtors = (6,500 + 30,500)/2 = 18,500 Creditors 16,000 18,000
Credit Sales = ` 1,00,000 (Given)
Assume 360 days per year for computational purposes.
[B.Com. (H.), D.U., 2014]
Solution :
(a) Calculation of Operating Cycle:
Year 1 Year 2
1. Raw Material Stock 20/96 × 360 = 75 days 27/135 × 360 = 72 days
(Average Raw material/Total Purchase) × 360
2. Creditors period 16/96 × 360 = – 60 days 18/135 × 360 = – 48 days
(Average Creditor/Total Purchase) × 360
3. Work-in-progress 14/140 × 360 = 36 days 18/180 × 360 = 36 days
(Average Work-in-progress/Total cost of goods sold) × 360
4. Finished Goods 21/140 × 360 = 54 days 24/180 × 360 = 48 days
(Average Finished goods/Total cost of goods sold) × 360
5. Debtors 32/160 × 360 = 72 days 50/200 × 360 = 90 days
(Average Debtors/Total Sales) × 360
Net operating cycle 177 days 198 days

There is an increase in length of operating cycle by 21 days i.e., 12% increase approximately. Reasons for increase are as
follows :
Debtors taking longer time to pay (90 – 72) 18 days
Creditors receiving payment earlier (60 – 48) 12 days
30 days
–Finished Goods turnover lowered (54 – 48) 6 days
–Raw Material stock turnover lowered (75 – 72) 3 days
Increase in Operating Cycle 21 days
262 PART V : MANAGEMENT OF CURRENT ASSETS

Illustration 12.5 Average Finished Goods 40,000

Average Work-in-Process 30,000
Following Annexer information is collected from the record
Average Raw Material 50,000
of Sunder Manufacturing Ltd. :
Debtors collection period 45 days
Cost of Goods Sold ` 8,00,000 Creditors payment period 30 days
Cost of Production 500,000
Find out the Operating Cycle. How many operating cycles
Raw Material consumed during the year 6,00,000
does the firm have in a year (360 days)?
Solution :
Calculation of Net Operating Cycle :

Average Stock 40,000

1. Finished Goods : × 360 = × 360 = 18 days
Cost of Goods Sold 8,00,000
Average Work in Process 30,000
2. Work in Process : × 360 = × 360 = 22 days
Cost of Production 5,00,000
Average RM Stock 50,000
3. Raw Material : × 360 = × 360 = 30 days
RM Consumed 6,00,000
4. Debtors Collection Period 45 days
Gross Operating Cycle 115 days
–Creditors Payment Period : 30 days
Net Operating Cycle 85 days
No. of Operating Cycles in a year (360 ÷ 85) 4.2

There are 4.2 cycles of 85 days each in one year.

Illustration 12.6 Using the following data, calculate the current working capi-
tal cycle for XYZ Ltd. and briefly comment on it.
XYZ Ltd. has obtained the following data concerning the
average working capital cycle for other companies in the (` in ’000)
same industry : Sales (all credit) 6,000
Raw Material stock turnover 20 Days Cost of Production 4,200
Credit received –40 Days Purchases (all credit) 1,200
Work-in-progress turnover 15 Days Average Raw Material stock 190
Finished Goods stock turnover 40 Days Average Work-in-progress 170
Debtor’s collection period 60 Days Average Finished Goods stock 360
95 Days Average Creditors 150
Average Debtors 700
Solution :
Operating cycle of XYZ Ltd.
Average Raw Material 190
1. Raw Material = × 365 = × 365 = 58 Days
Total Raw Material 1,200
Average Work in progress 170
2. Work-in-progress = × 365 = × 365 = 15 Days
Total Cost of Production 4,200
Average Stock 360
3. Finished Goods = × 365 = × 365 = 31 Days
Total Cost of Production 4,200
Average Debtors 700
4. Debtors = × 365 = × 365 = 43 Days
Total Credit Sales 6,000
Average Creditors 150
5. Creditors = × 365 = × 365 = 46 Days
Total Purchases 1,200
Net Operating Cycle = 58 days + 15 days + 31 days + 43 days – 46 days
= 147 Days – 46 Days = 101 Days.
 CH. 12 : WORKING CAPITAL : PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT 263

Comments : For XYZ Ltd., the working capital cycle is below
the industry average, including a lower investment in net
current assets. However, the following points should be noted
about the individual elements of working capital.
(a) The stock of raw materials is considerably higher than
average. So there is a need for stock control procedures
to be reviewed.
(b) The value of creditors is also above average; this indicates
that XYZ Ltd. is delaying the payment of creditors be-
yond the credit period. Although this is an additional
source of finance, it may result in a higher cost of raw
materials or loss of goodwill among the suppliers.
(c) The finished goods stock is below average. This may be
due to a high demand for the firm’s goods or to efficient
stock control. A low finished goods stock can, however,
reduce sales since it can cause delivery delays.
(d) The debts are collected more quickly than average. The
company might have employed goods credit control
procedures or offer cash discounts for early payment.

OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS

State whether each of the following statements is True (T) or (vi) Deferral period refers to credit period allowed by a firm
False (F). to its customers.
(i) The level of working capital does not affect the smooth (vii) In working capital management, time value of money
working of a firm. has no relevance.
(ii) Same principles and considerations are involved in the (viii) Working capital management stresses the risk-return
management of fixed assets as well as current assets. trade off.
(iii) Management of working capital deals with the short (ix) In Hedging approach, the permanent working capital is
term liquidity position of the firm. financed partly from long term sources.
(iv) The operating cycle is equal to the total manufacturing (x) In Conservative approach, there is no long term financ-
period in a firm. ing of working capital.
(v) Receivables conversion period begins when cash sales [Answers : (i) F, (ii) F, (iii) T, (iv) T, (v) F, (vi) F, (vii) T, (viii)
are effected. T, (ix) F, (x) F]

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

1. Management of working capital implies trade-off bet- (c) Level of CA
ween : (d) Level of CL
(a) Cost and Revenue 5. In which of the following, the permanent working capital
(b) Assets and Liabilities is financed by long-term sources of funds?
(c) Debtors and Creditors (a) Hedging Approach
(d) Liquidity and Profitability (b) Aggressive Approach
2. Gross Working Capital is equal to : (c) Conservative Approach
(a) Total Assets (d) All of the above.
(b) Total Liabilities 6. Negative Net Working Capital implies that :
(c) Total Current Assets (a) Long-term funds have been used for long-term as-
(d) Total Current Liabilities sets

3. Permanent Working Capital is also known as : (b) Long-term funds have been used for current assets
(c) Short-term funds have been used for fixed assets
(a) Gross Working Capital
(d) Short-term funds have been used for current assets.
(b) Net Working Capital
7. Positive Net Working Capital implies that :
(c) Total Current Asset
(a) Liquidity position is not comfortable
(d) None of the above.
(b) Current Ratio is less than one
4. Hedging Approach to Working Capital deals with :
(c) Current Assets are partly financed out of long-term
(a) Financing of CA sources
(b) Financing of CL (d) All of the above.
264 PART V : MANAGEMENT OF CURRENT ASSETS

8. Operating cycle of a firm can be shortened by (b) Long-term Liquidity,

(a) Increasing credit period to customers (c) Cash Balance,
(b) Increasing stock of raw material (d) Issue of Share capital.
(c) Increasing working-in-progress period 17. Which of the following is not included in Operating
(d) Increasing credit period from suppliers. Cycle ?
9. Which of the following does not usually affect working (a) Fixed Assets Level,
capital requirement ? (b) Raw Materials Stock,
(a) Operating leverage (c) Finished Goods Stock,
(b) Financial leverage (d) Creditors Payment Period.
(c) Both of (a) and (b) 18. Working Capital is defined as excess of :
(d) None of (a) and (b) (a) Current Assets Over Capital,
10. Which of the following is not a feature of current assets? (b) Current Liabilities over Capital,
(a) Shorter liquidity (c) Current Assets over Current liabilities,
(b) Longer life (d) Share capital over Resources.
(c) Controllable 19. Deferral Period refers to the credit period allowed by :

(d) Relevant (a) Creditors,

(b) Debtors,
11. Net Operating Cycle is equal to :
(c) Bank holders,
(a) GOC – DP
(d) Shareholders.
(b) GOC + DP
20. Operating Cycle is a technique of :
(c) RMCP + RCP
(a) Working Capital Management,
(d) RMCP – RCP
(b) Receivables Management,
12. Net Operating Cycle increases if :
(c) Inventory Management,
(a) More raw materials are purchased (d) Creditors Management.
(b) Payment to creditors is made earlier 21. Operating Cycle is equal to Inventory Conversion Cycle
(c) Goods are sold in shorter period Plus :
(d) Both (a) and (b). (a) Receivable Conversion Period,

13. Find out the Cash Conversion Period if Receivable Con- (b) Creditors Deferral Period,
version Period is 40 days, Deferral Period in 30 days and (c) (a) Minus (b)
Inventory Holding Period in 25 days : (d) (a) Plus (b).
(a) 30 days 22. Permanent Working Capital :
(b) 25 days (a) Includes Fixed Assets,
(c) 35 days (b) Is minimum level of Current Assets,
(d) 45 days (c) Varies with seasonal pattern,
14. Which of the following is a determinant of working (d) Includes Equity Capital.
capital ? 23. Working Capital Management involves financing and
(a) Production Schedule management of

(b) Production Capacity (a) All Assets,

(b) All Current Assets,
(c) Depreciation Policy
(c) Cash and Bank Balance,
(d) Tax Policy
(d) Receivables and Payables.
15. Gross operating cycle is defined as :
24. Which of the following is classified as Current Liability ?
(a) Equal to accounting period
(a) Inventory,
(b) One calendar year
(b) Marketable Securities,
(c) Either of (a) or (b)
(c) Provision for Tax,
(d) None of (a) and (b)
(d) Investments.
16. Management of Working Capital deals with :
(a) Short-term Liquidity,
 CH. 12 : WORKING CAPITAL : PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT 265

25. Current liabilities are those obligations which are generally (c) 1 week,
to be discharged in : (d) 1 day.
(a) 1 month, [Answers : 1. (d), 2. (c), 3. (d), 4. (a), 5. (a), 6. (c), 7. (c), 8. (d),
(b) 1 year, 9. (d), 10. (b), 11. (a), 12. (d), 13. (c), 14. (a), 15. (d), 16(a), 17(a),
18(c), 19(a), 20(a), 21(c), 22(b), 23(b), 24(c), 25(b)]

ASSIGNMENTS
1. Write short notes on : 11. Explain the risk-return trade-off of current assets financ-
— Adequacy of working capital. ing. Do you recommend that current assets be financed
entirely from short-term financing ? Give reasons.
— Operating cycle concept.
[B.Com. (H.), D.U., 2014, 2022] 12. Distinguish between the permanent and temporary work-
ing capital.
— Depreciation as a source of working capital.
13. What are the different approaches to financing of work-
— 3 or ing capital requirements ? [B.Com. (H.), D.U., 2013, 2019]
2. State the areas which you consider would require the 14. What is “Conservative Approach” to working capital fi-
particular attention of the management for effective nancing ? How is it different from “Hedging Approach” ?
working capital management.
15. Is the “Aggressive approach” to working capital financing
3. What do you mean by working capital management ? a good proposition ? What may be the consequences ?
What are the elements of working capital management ?
16. “Liquidity and profitability are competing goals for the
4. Explain the importance of working capital management. finance manager”. Comment. [B.Com. (H.), D.U., 2013]
What are the techniques that are used for planning and
control of working capital ? 17. Explain the costs of liquidity and illiquidity.

5. How would you assess the working capital requirements 18. “Length of operating cycle is the major determinant of
for seasonal industries ? What are the special consider- working capital needs of a business firm.” Explain.
ations to be noted for? 19. “Merely increasing the working capital of the firm does
6. Explain how working capital management policies affect not necessarily reduce the riskiness of the firm, rather the
the profitability liquidity for the firm. composition of current assets is equally important. Com-
ment.
7. What is the significance of working capital for a manufac-
turing firm ? What will be the consequences of shortage 20. Working Capital Management deals with decisions
and excess of working capital ? regarding the appropriate mix of current assets and
current liabilities. Elucidate.
8. Explain and illustrate the profitability liquidity trade-off
in working capital management. 21. What is management of working capital? State briefly the
repercussions if a firm has :
9. Explain the factors having a bearing on working capital
needs. [B.Com.(H.), D.U., 2012, 2016] (i) Paucity of working capital.

10. Should a firm finance its working capital requirements (ii) Excess of working capital.
only with short term financing? If not, why? [B.Com. (H.), D.U., 2015]
22. Discuss various sources of working capital finance.
[B.Com. (H.), D.U., 2017]
Fundamentals of
Financial Management
AUTHOR : R.P. RUSTAGI
PUBLISHER : TAXMANN
DATE OF PUBLICATION : JUNE 2023
EDITION : 18TH EDITION
ISBN NO : 9789357780810
NO. OF PAGES : 436
BINDING TYPE : PAPERBACK Rs. 695 | USD 39

Description
This book has been designed to discuss the fundamental concepts, procedures and practices of
Financial Management.
This book aims to fulfil the requirement of students for undergraduate courses in commerce
and management, particularly the B.Com. (H) III/V Semester of Delhi University and other Central
Universities throughout India.
The Present Publication is the 18th Edition, authored by Dr R.P. Rustagi, with the following note-
worthy features:
u [Simple, Systematic & Comprehensive Explanation] The subject matter is presented in
a simple, systematic method and a comprehensive explanation of the concepts and theories
underlying financial management. The book tries to explain the subject matter in a non-math-
ematical and non-technical way
u [Student-Oriented Book] This book has been developed keeping in mind the following fac-
tors:
 Interaction of the author/teacher with their students in the classroom
 Shaped by the authors’/teachers’ experience of teaching the subject matter at different
levels
 Reactions and responses of students have also been incorporated at different places in
the book
u [MCQs & Theoretical Questions] have been added at the end of different chapters
u [Working Notes & Explanations] have been added at various places
u [Graded Illustrations] are added to explain the calculations and assumptions
u [Financial Decision Making through EXCEL] is presented with the help of several numerical
examples from different topics
u [Latest Question Papers] Questions that appeared in the Latest Question Paper of Delhi
University have been incorporated at appropriate places
u [New Chapter on Capital Budgeting: Techniques of Evaluation] has the following features:
o Basic principles of calculation of Cash Flows for capital budgeting proposals have been
summarised for quick reference
o A new section to deal with the Analysis of Risk in Capital Budgeting proposals has been
introduced
o Discussions on the Modified Internal Rate of Return have been inserted.

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