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Inquiries into Truth and Interpretation
Inquiries into Truth and
Interpretation
DONALD DAVIDSON
\\
Introduction XlII
A pplications 77
Radical Interpretation 12 3
Index 289
Provenance of the Essays
and Acknowledgements
What is it for words to mean what they do? In the essays collected
here I explore the idea that we would have an answer to this question
if we knew how to construct a theory satisfying two demands: it
would provide an interpretation of all utterances, actual and
potential, of a speaker or group of speakers; and it would be
verifiable without knowledge of the detailed propositional attitudes
of the speaker. The first condition acknowledges the holistic nature
of linguistic understanding. The second condition aims to prevent
smuggling into the foundations of the theory concepts too closely
allied to the concept of meaning. A theory that does not satisfy both
conditions cannot be said to answer our opening question in a
philosophically instructive way.
The first five essays are mainly concerned with the question what
sort of a theory would satisfy the first condition.
Essay 1, 'Theories of Meaning and Learnable Languages', urges
that a satisfactory theory must discover a finite basic vocabulary in
the verbal phenomena to be interpreted if it is to prove useful to a
creature with finite powers. If this is so, there is no escape from the
need to treat the semantic features of the potential infinity of
sentences as owed to the semantic features of the items in a finite
vocabulary. It turns out that a number of familiar theories fail to
meet this condition: Frege's analysis of oblique contexts, Church's
logic of sense and denotation, Tarski's informal treatment of
quotation are examples. Standard theories of adverbial modification
might well be added to the list.
Essay 2, 'Truth and Meaning', argues that a theory of truth along
the lines of Tarski's truth definitions, but modified in various ways
to ap ply to a natural language, would be enough for an interpreter
XlV Introduction
to go on. Such theories have clear virtues. They make no use of
.
meanings as entities; no objects are introduced to correspond to
predicates or sentences; and from a finite set of axioms it is possible
to prove, for each sentence of the language to be interpreted, a
theorem that states truth conditions for that sentence. Further, the
proof of such a theorem amounts to an analysis of how the truth or
falsity of the sentence depends on how it is composed from elements
drawn from the basic vocabulary. If such theories really do satisfy
the two conditions listed in the first paragraph, we can take the word
'theory' in 'theory of meaning' seriously.
Many objections have been made to the claim that truth theories
can do duty as theories of meaning. Some of the objections I have
tried to meet or deflect in other essays in this book. But whether or
not the claim can be made good, some of the arguments for it in
'Truth and Meaning' are faulty. The reader will find that I shifted
ground more than once as I tried to improve or clarify this central
thesis. One thing that only gradually dawned on me was that while
Tarski intended to analyse the concept of truth by appealing (in
Convention T) to the concept of meaning (in the guise of sameness
of meaning, or translation), I have the reverse in mind. I considered
truth to be the central primitive concept, and hoped, by detailing
truth's structure, to get at meaning. These are remarks about
theories of truth, of course, not remarks to be found in them.
Something else that was slow coming to me was that since I was
treating theories of truth as empirical theories, the axioms and
theorems had to be viewed as laws. So a theorem like' "Schnee ist
weiss" is true in the mouth of a German speaker if and only if snow
is white' has to be taken not merely as true, but as capable of
supporting counterfactual claims. Indeed, given that the evidence
for this law, if it is one, depends ultimately on certain causal
relations between speakers and the world, one can say that it is no
accident that 'Schnee ist weiss' is true if and only if snow is white; it
is the whiteness of snow that makes 'Schnee ist weiss' true. How
much of a concession this is to intensionality depends, I suppose, on
one's analysis of the concept of law. What seems clear is that
whatever the concession comes to, it is one that must be made for
any empirical science. These matters are discussed in Essay 12.
Essay 3, 'True to the Facts', asks whether a theory of truth in
Tarski's style should be called a correspondence theory. Such
theories do not, like most correspondence theories, explain truth by
Introduction xv
finding entities such as facts for true sentences to correspond to. And
there are good reasons, which can be traced back to Frege, for
rejecting facts as entities that could play this role. On the other hand,
theories of tr uth of the kind considered here do require that a
relation between entities and expressions be characterized ('satisfac
tion'). It is not easy to see how a satisfactory route to truth can
escape this step if the language the theory treats has the usual
quantificational resources.
'Semantics for Natural Languages', Essay 4, urges that truth
theories could provide a formal semantics for natural languages to
match the sort of formal syntax linguists from Chomsky on have
favoured. When this essay was written, the deep structures of syntax
were thought to be the vehicles for semantic interpretation. Essay 4
suggested that the deep structure of a sentence should correspond to
the logical form a theory of truth assigned to that sentence.
Tarski's Convention T, which is defended in Essay 5, is an
informal, but powerful, instrument for testing theories of truth
against one's prior grasp of the concept. In the most direct
application, the test merely calls on us to recognize the disquo
tational feature of truth predicates; sentences like "'Snow is white"
is true in English if and only if snow is white' are trivially true. Since
the totality of such sentences uniquely determines the extension of a
truth predicate for English. a theory that entails all such sentences
must be extensionally correct. Critics have often made the error of
thinking that since the theorems that show a theory to be correct are
trivial, the theory or the concept of truth it characterizes, must also
be trivial.
A theory of truth would serve to interpret a speaker only if the
theory were up to accounting for all the linguistic resources of the
speaker. But is a theory that satisfies Convention T adequate to a
natural language? Here there are two questions. One is what devices
to make or consider available in the language of the theory; the
other is how to apply these devices to the language of the speaker.
My working assumption has been that nothing more than standard
first-order quantification theory is available. Indeed, I was long
convinced that many alternative approaches to semantics, employ
ing, for example, modal logics, possible world semantics, or
substitutional quantification, could not be accommodated in a
theory that met the demands of Convention T. I now know this was
hasty. Convention T does not settle as much as I thought, and more
XVI Introduction
possibilities for interesting theorizing are open than I had realized.
The well-known virtues of first-order quantification theory still
provide plenty of motivation, however, to see how much we can do
with it. In the next three essays, collected under the head of
application, I attempt the semantic taming of three related but
recalcitrant idioms: quotation, indirect discourse, and mood
operators.
Essay 6 points out that no current theory of quotation is entirely
satisfactory, and it proposes an explicitly demonstrative approach
which makes quotation a special case of the demonstrative reference
of words to other words in the verbal neighbourhood.
Essay 7, 'On Saying That', concentrates on one of the many kinds
of sentence used to attribute attitudes; the paratactic solution
suggested has obvious affinities with the treatment of quotation in
Essay 6. In Essay 3 there are hints (which I think could be developed)
on how the analysis could be extended to belief sentences. If the
strategy were to be pursued, it might serve to give a semantics
(though not a logic) for the modalities, for counterfactuals, and
further sentences about 'propositional' attitudes.
Essay 8, 'Moods and Performances', stresses the often neglected
distinction between grammatical moods on the one hand and
various sorts of illocutionary force on the other. Only the first is of
concern to a theory of what words mean. Here a paratactic analysis
of imperatives is suggested which is intended to accommodate our
natural feeling that imperatives don't have a truth value while
remaining within the resources of a theory of truth.
In the companion volume to this one, Essays on A ctions and
Events, I show how a theory of truth can be applied to a number of
further problem cases: sentences about actions and other events,
adverbial modification, and singular causal statements.
The third section of the present book is addressed to the question
whether a theory of truth for a speaker can be verified without
assuming tuo much of what it sets out to describe.
In 'Radical Interpretation', Essay 9, as in the rest of the essays, I
follow Quine in supposing that even if we narrow attention to verbal
behaviour that reveals when, and under what conditions, a speaker
gives credence to a sentence, there is no direct way of sorting out the
roles of belief and meaning in explaining that credence. Eliciting
separate accounts of belief and meaning requires a theory that can
bring to bear on the interpretation of each sentence and its
Introduction XVII
II
b W. V.
Quine, Word and Object, 102.
7
In Individuals Strawson agai n attacks w ha t he takes to be Quine's el i minabili ty
the sis, but does not use the argument from l earning which I am criticizing.
8 Thi s theme is take n up again in Essay II. In Essay 8 of Ess ays on Action and
Events I discu ss the question w hether objects are conceptually prior to eve n ts.
8 Truth and Meaning
person who has learned to speak a language. One natural condition
to impose is that we must be able to define a predicate of
expressions, based solely on their formal properties, that picks out
the class of meaningful expressions (sentences), on the assumption
that various psychological variables are held constant. This predi
cate gives the grammar of the language. Another, and more
interesting, condition is that we must be able to specify, in a way that
depends effectively and solely on formal considerations, what every
sentence means. With the right psychological trappings, our theory
should equip us to say, for an arbitrary sentence, what a speaker of
the language means by that sentence (or takes it to mean). Guided
by an adequate theory, we see how the actions and dispositions of
speakers induce on the sentences of the language a semantic
structure . Though no doubt relativized to times, places, and
circumstances, the kind of structure required seems either identical
with or closely related to the kind given by a definition of truth along
the lines first expounded by Tarski, for such a definition provides an
effective method for determining what every sentence means (i . e.
gives the conditions under which it is true) . 9 I do not mean to argue
here that it is necessary that we be able to extract a truth definition
from an adequate theory (though something much like this is
needed), but a theory meets the condition I have in mind if we can
extract a truth definition; in particular, no stronger notion of
meaning is called for. 1 0
These matters appear to be connected in the following informal
way with the possibility of learning a language. When we can regard
the meaning of each sentence as a function of a finite number of
features of the sentence, we have an insight not only into what there
is to be learned; we also understand how an infinite aptitude can be
encompassed by finite accomplishments . For suppose that a lan
guage lacks this feature; then no matter how many sentences a
would-be speaker learns to produce and understand, there will
remain others whose meanings are not given by the rules already
mastered. It is natural to say such a language is unlearnable. This
argument depends, of course, on a number of empirical assump-
does not explicitly rule out others, nor does he openly endorse the
alter native he does not reject. And indeed he seems to hint that
quotations do have significant structure when he says, 'It is clear
that we can correlate a structural-descriptive name with every
quotation-mark name, one which is free from quotation marks and
posse sses the same extension (i.e. denotes the same expression) and
vice versa' ( 157). It is difficult to see how the correlation could be
established if we replaced each quotation by some other arbitrary
symbol, as we could do if quotation-mark names were like the
proper names of men.
Quine takes matters a bit further by asserting that although
quotations are 'logically unstructured' ( 190), and of course expres
sions have non-referential occurrences inside quotation marks, still
the latter feature is 'dispelled by an easy change in notation' ( 144)
which leaves us with the logically structured devices of spelling and
concatenation. The formula for the 'easy change' can apparently be
given by a definition ( 189, 190). If this suggestion can be carried out,
then the most recalcitrant aspect of quotation yields to theory, for
the truth conditions for sentences containing quotations can be
equated with the truth conditions for the sentences got from them by
substituting for the quotations their definitional equivalents in the
idiom of spelling. On such a theory, there is no longer an infinite
number of semantical primitives, in spite of the fact that quotations
cannot be shown to contain parts with independent semantical roles.
If we accept a theory of this kind, we are forced to allow a species of
structure that may not deserve to be called 'logical', but certainly is
directly and indissolubly linked with the logical, a kind of structure
missing in ordinary proper names. 15
15
Pete r Geac h has i nsisted, in Mental Acts and elsewhere, that a quotation 'must
be take n as describing the expression i n terms of its parts' (Mental Acts, 83). But he
do es no t explaitl ho w a quota tion can be assigned the structure of a description.
Fo r a m ore extended discussion of quota tion, see Essay 6 .
1 6 I . Sche ffler, ' A n Inscripti onal Approach to Ind i rect Discou rse' a n d The Anatomy
of" Inquiry.
17 R. Carnap, Meaning and Necessity.
12 Truth and Meaning
Church objected that Carnap's analysis carried an implicit reference
to a language which was lacking in the sentences to be analysed, and
added that he believed any correct analysis would interpret the that
clause as referring to a proposition. I 8 Scheffler set out to show that a
correct analysis could manage with less by demonstrating what
could be done with an ontology of inscriptions (and utterances).
Scheffler suggests we analyse 'Tonkin said that snow is white' as
'Tonkin spoke a that-snow-is-white utterance'. Since an utterance or
inscription belongs eternally to the language of its ephemeral
producer, Church 's reproach to Carnap has no force here. The
essential part of the story, from the point of view of present
concerns, is that the expression 'that-snow-is-white' is to be treated
as a unitary predicate (of utterances or inscriptions). Scheffler calls
the 'that' an operator which applies to a sentence to form a
composite general term. 'Composite' cannot, in this use, mean
'logically complex' ; not, at least, until more theory is forthcoming.
As in the case of quotations, the syntax is clear enough (as it is in
indirect discourse generally , give or take some rewriting of verbs and
pronouns on principles easier to master than to describe). But there
is no hint as to how the meaning of these predicates depends on their
structure . Failing a theory, we must view each new predicate as a
semantical primiti ve. Given their syntax, though (put any sentence
after 'that' and spice with hyphens), it is obvious there are infinitely
many such predicates, so languages with no more structure than
Scheffler allows are , on my account, unlearnable. Even the claim
that 'that ' is a predicate-forming operator must be recognized as a
purely syntac tical comment that has no echo in the theory of
meaning.
The possibility remain s ope n , it may be countered, that a theory
will yet be produced to reveal more structure. True. But if Scheffler
wants the benefit of this possibility, he must pay for it be renouncing
the claim to have shown 'the logical form and ontological character'
of sentences in indirect discourse ; 19 more theory may mean more
ontology. If logical form tells us about ontology, then Quine's trick
with quotat ions won 't work , for the logical form of a quotation is
that of a sin gular term without parts, and its manifest ontology is
just the expression it names. But the definit ion that takes advantage
18
A . Church, ' O n Ca rnap's Ana lysis of St a teme n t s of Asse rtion a nd Belie f '.
19 I. Scheffler, The Anatomy of Inquiry, 10 I . His i talics.
Theories of Meaning and Learnable Languages 13
and complex 'F'. The verb ' believes' here ceases to be a term and becomes
part of an operator 'believes that' . which, applied to a sentence, pro
. _
In one respect, this goes a step beyond Scheffler, for even the main
verb (' believes' in this case) is made inaccessible to logical analysis.
Tal k of constituents and operators must of course be tak en as purely
syntactical, without basis in semantical theory. If there is any
ele ment beyond syntax common to belief sentences as a class,
Q Uine's account does not say what it is. And, of course, a language
20
For fu rther work o n i ndirect discourse , see Essay 7.
2 1 W. V. Quine. Word and Ob;ecl, 2 1 5, 2 1 6.
14 Truth and Meaning
for which no more theory can be given is, by my reckoning,
unlearnable. Quine does not, however, rule out hope of further
theory, perhaps something like what he offers for quotations. But in
the case of belief sentences it is not easy to imagine the theory that
could yield the required structure without adding to the ontology.
22
See G. F re ge, ' On Sense a nd Re ference '.
Theories of Meaning and Learnable Languages 15
problem is rather to state the rule that gives each the meaning it does
have.
To return to our speculations concerning the form Frege might
have given a language notationally superior to ordinary language,
but like it in its capacity to deal with belief sentences and their kin :
the features I attributed above to this language are to be found in a
language proposed by Alonzo Church. 2 3 In Church's notation, the
fact that the new expressions brought into play as we scale the
semantic ladder are no t logically complex is superficially obscured
by their being syntac tically composed from the expressions for the
next level below, plus change of subscript. Things are so devised that
'if, in a well-formed formula wi thout free variables, all the subscripts
in all the type symbols appearing are increased by I, the resulting
well-formed formula denotes the sense of the first one' ( 1 7). But this
rule cannot, of course, be exploited as part of a theory of meaning
for the language ; expression and subscript cannot be viewed as
having independent meanings. Relative to the expression on any
gi ven level, the expressions for the level above are seman tical
primiti ves , as Church clearly indicates (8). I don't suggest any error
on Church's part ; he never hints tha t the case is other than I say. But
I do submit that Church's language of Sense and Denotation i�, even
in principle, unlearnable.
I See Essay I .
18 Truth and Meaning
meaning of t he whole depend on the meaning of the parts ? The
answer would seem to be that the meaning of ' t he fat her of ' is such
that when this exp ression is prefixed to a singular term t he resul t
refers to the fathe r of the person to whom the singular term refers.
What pa rt is played, in this account, by the unsaturated or
incomplete entity for which 'the father of ' stand s ? All we can think
to say is that this entity 'yields' or 'gives' the father of x as value
when the argument is x, or perhaps that this entity maps people on
to t heir fathers. It may not be clear whether the entity for w hich 'the
father o f ' i s said to stand performs any genuine explanatory
function as l ong as we stick to individual expressions ; so think
instead of the infinite class of expressions formed by writing ' the
father of ' zero or more times in fron t of 'A nnette'. I t is easy to
suppl y a theory t hat tells, for an arbitra ry one of these singular
terms, what it refers to : if the te rm is 'Annette' it refers to Annette,
while if the term is complex, consisting of 'the father of ' prefixed to a
singular term t, t hen it refers to the father of the person to whom t
refers . I t is obvious that no entity corresponding to 'the father of ' IS,
or needs to be, mentioned in stating this theory.
It would be inappropriate to complain that this little t heory uses
the words 'the father of ' in giving the reference of expressions
containi ng t hose words. For the task was to give the meaning of all
expressions in a ce rtain infinite set on the basi s of the meaning of t he
parts ; it was not in the ba rgain also to give the mea nings of t he
atomic parts. On t he other hand, it is now evident that a sa tisfactory
theory of t he meanings of complex expressi ons may not requi re
entities as meani ngs of all t he parts. I t be hoves us then to rephrase
our demand on a satisfactory t heory of meaning so as not to suggest
t hat individual words must have meanings at all , in any sense that
transcends the fact t hat they have a systematic effect on the
meanings of t he sentences in which t hey occu r. Actuall y, for the case
at hand we can do better still in stating t he criterion of success : what
we wanted, and what we got, is a theory that entail s every sentence
of the form ' t refers to x ' where " t' is replaced by a structu ral
descri ption 2 of a singular term , and 'x ' is replaced by t hat term itsel f.
Further, our t heory accomplishes this without appeal to any
semantical concepts beyond the basic ' refers to' . Final ly, t he theory
Fo r ( I ) and (2) are logically equivalent, as are (3) and (4), while (3)
differs from (2) only in containing the singular term ' x(x = x . S )'
where (2) contains ' x(x = x . R)' and these refer to the same t hing if S
and R a re alike in truth value. Hence any two sentences have the
same reference if they have the same truth value. 3 And if the
meaning of a sentence is what it refers to, al l sentences alike in truth
value must be synonym ous-an intolerable result .
Apparen tly we must abandon the present app roach a s leading t o a
theory of meaning. This is t he natural point at which to turn fo r help
to the distinction between meaning and reference . The trouble, we
are told , is t hat questions of reference are, in gene ral, settled by
extra-li nguistic facts, questions of meaning not, and the facts can
conftate t he references of expressions t hat are not synonymous. If we
want a t heo ry t hat gives t he meaning (as distinct from reference) of
each sentence, we must start with t he meaning (as distinct from
refe rence ) of t he parts.
Up to here we have been fol lowing in Frege's footsteps ; thanks to
J The argumen t derives from Frege . See A . Chu rch, introduction / 0 Ma thematical
L ogi C', 24- 5 . It is perhaps worth mentioning that the argument d oes not depend on
any pa rticular iden tification of the entities to which sen tences are supposed to refer .
20 Truth and Meaning
hi m, the path is well known and even well worn . But now , I would
like to suggest, we have reached an impasse : the switch from
reference to meaning leads to no useful account of how the meanings
of sentences depend upon the meanings of the words (o r other
structural features) that compose them. Ask, for exa mple, for the
m eani ng of 'Theaetetus flies' . A Fregean answer might go something
like this : given the meaning of 'Theaetetus' as a rgument, the
meaning of 'flies' yields the meaning of 'Theaetetus flies' as value.
The vacuity of this answer is obvious . We wanted to know what the
meaning of 'Theaetetus flies' is ; it is no progress to be told tha t it is
the meaning of 'Theaetetus flies' . This much we knew before any
theory was in sight. In the bogus account just given, talk of the
structure of the sentence and of the meanings of words was idl e, fo r
it played no role in producing the given description of the meaning
of the sentence.
The contra st here between a real and pretended account will be
plainer still if we ask fo r a theory, analogous to the miniature theory
of reference of singul ar term s just sketched , but different in dealing
with meanings in place of references. What anal ogy demands is a
theory that has as consequences all sentences of the form 's means m '
where 's' i s replaced b y a structural description of a sentence and Om'
is replaced by a singul ar term that refers to the meaning of that
sentence ; a theo ry, moreover, tha t provides an effective method for
arriving at the meaning of an arbit ra ry sen tence structurall y
descri bed. Clearly som e more articulate w a y of referring t o mea n
ings than any we have seen is essential if these criteria a re to be met. 4
Meanings as entities, o r the related concept of synonymy, allow us to
formulate the following rul e relating sentences and their pa rts :
sentences are synonym ous whose corresponding parts are synony
mous ('corresponding' here needs spelling out of cou rse). And
meanings as entities may, in theories such a s Frege's, do duty, on
occasion, as references, thus losing thei r status as entities distinct
from references. Pa radoxically, the one thing mea nings do not seem
to do is oil the wheels of a theo ry of meani ng-at least as long as we
require of such a theo ry that it non-t rivially give the meaning of
4 J t may be though t that Ch urch, in 'A Formul ation of the Log ic of Se nse and
Denotation ' , h as given a th eory of meaning that m akes esse n tial use of meanings as
entities. But this is not the case : C h urch's l ogics of se nse and de notation are
interpreted as being about meani ngs, but they do not mention ex pressions and so
cannot of course be theories of meaning in the sense now under d i scussion .
Truth and Meaning 21
5 For a recent statement of the role of semantics in l i n gu i stics, see Noam C homsky,
( T) s is T if and only if p .
What we req uire of a t heory of meaning for a langu age L is t hat
withou t appeal to any (fu rt her) semantical notio ns it place enough
restrictions on t he predicate 'is T' to entail all sentences got from
schema T when 's' is replaced by a structu ral description of a
sente nce of L and 'p' by that sente nce .
A ny two p redicates satisfying t his condition have t he same
extension, 6 so if t he metalangu age is rich enough, nothing stands i n
the way o f pu tting what I am calli ng a theory o f meaning i n t o the
form of an explicit definition of a predicate 'is T' . But whether
explicitly defined or recursively cha racte rized, it is clear that the
sente nces to which the predicate 'is T' applies will be j u st t he true
sentences of L, fo r t he condition we have placed o n satisfactory
theories of meaning is i n essence Tarski's Convention T that tests the
adequacy of a fo rmal semantical defi nition of truth. 7
The pat h to t hi s point has been tortuous, but the conclusion may
be sta ted simply : a theory of mea ning fo r a langu age L shows 'how
the mea ni ngs of sente nces depend upon the mea nings of words' if i t
conta i ns a ( recu rsive) defi nition o f truth-in-L. A nd, so fa r at least,
we ha ve no other idea how to turn the trick. It is worth emphasizing
tha t the co ncept of tru t h played no ostensible role in stating ou r
original pro blem . That pro blem , upon refi nement, led to t he view
that an adeq uate theory of mea ning must characte rize a predicate
meet i ng certa i n cond itions . It was in t he natu re of a discove ry t hat
b A ssu ming, o f course , t ha t the extension of these pred icates is l i mited to the
se nt ences of L .
, A . T a rski , 'The Concept of Truth in Formal ized Languages .
24 Tru th and Meaning
such a predicate would apply exactly to the true sentences. I hope
that what I am saying may be desc ribed in part as defending the
phil osophical importance of Tarski's seman tical concept of truth.
But my defence is onl y distantly related, if at al l , to the question
whether the concept Tarski has shown how to define is the (or a)
philosophicall y interesting conception of truth, or the question
whether Tarski has cast any l ight on the ordinary use of such words
as 'true' and 'truth' . It is a misfortune that dust fro m futile and
confused battles ove r these questions has preven ted those with a
theoretical interest in langu age-philosophers, l ogicians, psychol o
gists, and linguists alike-from seeing in the seman tical concept of
truth (under whatever name) the sophisticated and powerful
foundation of a competent theory of meaning.
There is no need to supp ress, of cou rse, the obvious connection
between a definition of truth of the kind Tarski has shown how to
construct, and the concept of meaning. I t is this : the definition
works by .giving necessary and sufficient conditions for the truth of
every sentence, and to give truth conditions is a way of giving the
meaning of a sen tence. To know the seman tic concept of truth for a
l anguage is to know what i t is for a sen tence-any sentence-to be
true, and this amounts, in one good sense we can give to the ph rase,
to unde rstanding the language. This at any rate is my excuse for a
featu re of the presen t discussion that is apt to shock old hands ; m y
freewheeling u se o f the word 'meaning', for w h a t I call a theory of
meaning has after all tu rned out to make no use of meanings,
whether of sen tences or of words. I ndeed , si nce a Tarski-type tru th
definition supplies all we have asked so far of a theory of meaning, it
is clea r that such a theory fal ls comfortabl y within what Quine term s
the 'theory of refe rence' as distinguished from what he terms the
'theo ry of meaning' . So much to the good for what I call a theory of
meani ng, and so m uch, perhaps, against my so calling it. 8
A theo ry o f meaning (in m y mildly perve rse sense) is an empi rical
theory, and its am bition is to account for the workings of a natu ral
language. Like any theory, it may be tested by comparing some of its
consequences with the facts. In the present case this is easy, for the
8 But Quine may be quo ted i n support of my u sage : ' . . . i n point of meaning
. . a
.
word may be said to be determined to whatever extent the truth or fal seh ood of its
con texts is determined . ' (,Truth by Convention ', 82.) Since a truth definition
d etermines the truth value o f e very sentence in the object l anguage (rel ative to a
sen tence in the metalanguage), it determ ines the meaning of every word and sentence.
This would seem to justify the title Theory of Meaning.
Truth and Meaning 25
1 0 Cri tics have often failed to notice the essential proviso mentioned in t h i s
truth definit ion can be given for il na tural language . But in a more general vein ,
several people have u rged that t h e concepts of formal sema ntics be appl ied to natural
language. See, for e xample, the contributions of Yehoshua Bar- H i l lel a n d Evert Beth
to The Ph ilosophy of Rudolph Carnap, and Bar- H i l lel's ' Logical Syntax and
Semantics .
Truth and Meaning 29
as insufficient to yield an explicit defini tion o f ' t rue-i n-U rdu' or
' true-in-Wendish' . Or, to put the matter in ano the r, if not more
se rious way, there may in the nature of the case always be something
we grasp in understanding the language of another (the concept of
t ruth) that we cannot com municate to him . In any case, most of the
pro blem s of general philosophical interes t arise within a fragment of
the relevant natural language that may be conceived as containing
very little se t theory. Of cou rse these comments do not meet t he
cla im that natural l a nguages are universal . Bu t it seems to me that
th i s claim, now that we know such uni ve rsality leads to paradox, is
suspect.
Tarski's second point is that we would have to reform a natural
language out of all recogni tion before we could appl y formal
sem antical methods. I f this is true, it is fa tal to my project, fo r the
task of a theory of meaning as I conceive it is not to c ha nge,
improve, or reform a la nguage, bu t to desc ri be and understand it .
Le t us look at the positive side. Tarski has shown the way to giving a
theory for i n terpreted formal languages of various k i nds ; pick one
as much l i ke English as possible. Since this new language has been
expl ained in Engl ish and contains much English we not only may,
b u t I think must, view it as pa rt of English fo r those w ho u ndersta nd
it. For this fragment of Engl i s h we have, ex hypothesi, a theory of the
requi red sort. N o t o nl y that, but i n i nterpreting this adjunct of
English i n old Engl ish we necessaril y gave hints connecting old and
new . Wherever there a re sentences of old English with the same truth
cond i tions as sentences in the adjunct we may ex tend the theory to
cove r them . Much of what is called for is to mec ha nize a s far as
possible what we now do by art when we put ordinary English into
one or another canonical notation. The point is not that canonical
nota tion is be tter tha n the rough origi nal idiom , but rat her t hat i f we
know what idiom the canonical notation is canonical for, we have as
good a theory fo r the idiom as fo r i ts kept com panion.
Phi l osophe rs have long bee n at the ha rd work of applyi ng t heory
to ordinary l a nguage by the device of m a tching sentences in the
vernacular with sentences fo r which they have a theory. Frege's
massive contri bution was to show how 'all', ' some' , 'every', 'each',
' none ' , a nd a ssocia ted pronouns, in some of their uses, could be
tamed ; fo r the first time , it was possible to dream of a formal
sema ntics for a si gnificant part of a natu ral la ngua ge . This dream
came true in a sharp way w i th the work of Tars ki. It would be a
30 Truth and Meaning
s hame to miss the fact that as a result of these two ma gnificent
achieveme nts, Frege's and Tarsk i ' s, we have gained a deep insight
into the s tructu re of ou r mother tongues. Philosophers of a logical
bent have te nded to ' s tart where the theory was and work out
towards the complications of natu ral langu age. Contempo rary
linguists, with an aim that cannot easil y be seen to be diffe rent, start
wi th the ordinary and work toward a gene ral theory. If either party
is succe ssful, t here m ust be a meeting. Recent work by C homsky a nd
ot he rs is doing much to bring the complexities of natu ral language s
within t he scope o f se rious theo ry. To give an exam ple : suppose
success in givi ng t he truth conditions fo r some significant range of
sentences in the active voice . Then with a fo rmal p rocedu re for
transforming each such sen tence into a corresponding sentence i n
t h e passive voice, the theo ry of tru th could b e extended i n a n o bvious
way to thi s new set of sentences . 1 4
One pro blem touched o n in passing b y Tarski does not, a t least i n
all its manifestations, have to be solved to get ahead with theory : t he
existence in natu ral languages of 'am biguous te rms' . As l ong as
am biguity does not affect gramma tical form, and can be translated,
am biguity fo r am biguity, into the metalanguage, a truth defin ition
will not tell us any lies. The chief trou ble, for systematic semantics,
with t he phra se ' believes that' i n English lies not in its vagueness,
ambiguity, or unsuitability fo r inco rpo ration in a serious science : let
ou r metala nguage be English, and all these problems will be carried
without loss or gain into the metalangu age. Bu t the ce ntral pro blem
of the logical grammar of ' believes that ' will remain to haunt u s .
The example is suited t o illustrating a nother, and rela ted , poi nt,
fo r the d i scussion of belief sentences has been plagued by failu re to
l 4 The rapprochement I p rospectivel y imagine between transformational grammar
and a sound theory of mea n i ng has been much a d va n ced by a rece nt cha nge in the
conception of transformational grammar described by C homsky i n the article re ferred
to above (note 5 ) , Th e struct ures generated by the phrase-st ructure part of t h e
gra mmar, i t h a s been rea l ized for some t i m e , a r e th o se suited to se mantic
i n terpretatio n ; but this view is inconsistent with the idea, held by Chomsky until
recently , that recursive o perations a re i n trod uced only by the transformation rules.
Chomsky now believe s the ph rase-structure rules are recursi ve. Since lan guages to
which formal semantic methods d irectly and natura l l y a pply a re ones for which <J
(recursive) phrase-struc ture g rammar is appropriate, it is clear that Chomsky's
present picture o f the rel ation between the struct ures generated by the phrase
structure part of the grammar, and the sentences o f the l a nguage, is very much l i k e t he
picture many l ogicians a nd phil osophers have had of the rel a tion between the richer
fo rmal ized l a n guages and o rd i n a ry l a n guage . ( I n these rema rks I am inde bted to
Bruce Vermaze n . )
Truth and Meaning 31
observe a fu ndamental distinction between tasks : uncove ring t he
logical grammar or fo rm of sentences (which is in the p rovi nce of a
theory of meaning as I co nst rue it), and the analysi s of indi vidual
words or expressions (w hich are t reated as p rimitive by the t heory).
Thus Carnap, i n the first edition of Meaning and Necessity,
sugge sted we re nder 'John belie ves that the earth is round' a s 'John
responds affirmative ly to "the earth is rou nd" as an English
sentence' . He gave this up when M ates pointed out that John might
respond affirmative l y to one sentence and not to anothe r no m atter
how close i n meaning. 1 5 But the re is a confu sion here from t he sta rt.
The semantic struct u re of a belief sentence, accordi ng t o this idea of
Carnap's, is given by a three-place predicate with place s reserved fo r
expressi ons referring to a person, a sentence, and a language. I t is a
different sort of pro blem enti rely to attempt a n analysis of this
predicate, pe rha ps along behaviou ristic lines. Not lea st among the
merits of Tarski's conception of a theo ry of truth i s tha t the pu rity of
method it demands of us follows from the fo rmulation of the
pro blem itself, not from t he self-imposed restraint of some adventi
tious philosophical puritanism .
I thin k it i s ha rd to exagge rate t he advantages to philosophy of
language of bea ring in mind t his distinction between questions of
l ogical form or grammar, and the analysis of individual concepts.
Another e xa mple m a y help adve rtise the point.
I f we suppose q uestions of logical gram mar settled, sentences l i ke
'Ba rdot is go od' raise no special pro blem s fo r a truth definition. The
deep differences be tween desc riptive and evaluative (emotive, ex
pressive, etc . ) terms do not show he re. Even if we hold there is some
important sense in which m oral or evaluative sentences do not have
a truth val ue (fo r example, because they cannot be verified), we
ought not to boggle at " ' Bardot is good " is true if and only if Ba rdo t
is good ' ; in a theory of truth, this consequence shou l d fo llow with
the rest, keeping track, a s m u st be done, of the semantic location of
suc h sentences in t he language as a who le-of their rel ation to
genera l izations, their role in such compound sentences as ' B a rdot i s
g ood a n d Ba rdot is foolish' , a n d s o on. What is special to eva lua tive
words is simply not touched : the mystery is transferred from the
word ' good ' in the object language to its transl ation i n the
metalanguage .
I � B . M a te s. ' Sy n o n y m i ty
32 Truth and Meaning
But 'good' as it featu res in 'Bardot is a good actress' is another
matter. The p roblem is not that the tran slation of this sentence is not
i n the metalanguage-let us suppose it is. The problem is to frame a
truth definition such that ' " Bardot is a good actress" is true if and
only if Bardot is a good actress'-and all other se ntences like it-are
consequences. Obviousl y 'good actress' does not mean 'good and an
actress' . We might think of taking 'is a good actress' as an
unanal ysed predicate. This would obliterate all connection between
'is a good actress' and 'is a good mother', and it woul d give us no
excuse to think of ' good ', in these u ses, as a word or semantic
eleme nt. But worse, it would bar us from framing a truth defini tion
at alI , for there is no end to the predicates we would have to treat as
logical ly simple (and hence accommodate in sepa rate clauses in the
definition of satisfaction) : 'is a good companion to dogs', 'is a good
28-years old conversationalist', and so fo rth . The problem is not
peculiar to the case : it is the problem of attribu tive adjectives
general ly.
I t is consistent with the attitude taken he re to deem it usuaIly a
st rategic error to unde rtake phil osophical analysis of words or
expressions which is not preceded by or at any rate accompanied by
the at tempt to get the logical grammar st raight. For how can we
have any confidence in our analyses of wo rds like 'right', 'ought',
'can', and 'obliged ' , or t he phrases we use to tal k of actions, events,
and causes, when we do not k now what (logical, semantical ) parts of
speech we have to deal with ? I would say much the same a bout
studies of the 'l ogic' of these and other words, a nd the sentences
containing them . Whether the effort and i ngenuity that have gone
into the study of deontic logics, mod a l logics, impera tive and
erotetic logics have been largely futile or not can not be known u ntil
we have acceptable semantic analyses of the sentences such systems
purport to treat. Philosophers and logicians sometimes talk or work
as if they were free to choose between, say, the t ruth-fu nc tional
conditional a nd others, or free to int roduce non-truth-functional
sentential ope rators like ' Let it be the case that ' or ' I t ought to be the
case t ha t ' . But in fact the decision is crucial . When we depart from
idioms we can accommodate i n a truth defini tion, we lapse into (or
c reate) language for whic h we have no coherent semantical
account-that is, no account at all of how such talk can be
integrated into the lan guage as a whole.
To return to our main theme : we have recognized that a theory of
Truth and Meaning 33
the kind proposed leaves the whole matter o f what individual words
mean exactly where it was. Even when the metalanguage is different
from the object language, the theory exe rts no pressure for
improvement, clarification, or analysis of individual words, except
w hen, by accident of vocabulary, straightforward t ran slation fails.
Jus t as synonomy, as between expressions, goes generally untreated,
so also synonomy of sen tences, and an�lyticity. Even such sentences
as 'A vixen is a female fox ' bear no special tag u nless it is ou r
pleasu re to provide it. A truth definition does not distinguish
between analytic sentences and others, except for sentences t hat owe
their t ruth to the presence alone of the constants that give the t heory
its grip on structure : the theory en tail s not only that these sentences
are true but that they will remain true under all significant rewritings
of their non-logical parts. A notion of logical truth t hus given
limi ted application, related notions of logical equivalence and
entailment will tag along. It is hard to imagine how a theory of
mea ning could fail to read a logic into its objec t language to this
degree ; and to the exten t that it does, ou r intuitions of logical truth,
equivalence, and entailment may be called upon in con structing and
testing the theory.
1 turn now to one more, and ve ry large, fly in the ointmen t : t he
fact that the same sen tence may at one t ime or i n one mouth be true
and at another time or in another m outh be false. Both l ogicians and
those critical of formal methods here seem largely (thou gh by no
means universally) agreed that formal semantics and logic are
incompetent to deal with the distu rbances caused by demonst ratives.
L ogicians have often reacted by downgradi ng natural language and
t rying to show how to get along without demonstratives ; their c ritics
re act by downgrading logic and formal semantics. None of t h i s can
make me happy : clearly demonstratives cannot be eliminated from a
natural language without loss or radical change, so there is no choice
but to accom modate theory to them.
No logical e rrors resu l t if we simply treat dem onst ratives as
constants ; 1 6 neither do any problems arise for giving a semantic
t ru th defin ition. " ' I am wise" is true if a nd only if I am wise' , with its
bla nd ignoring of the demonst rative element i n ' I ' comes off the
as sem bly line along with ' "Socrates is wise" is true if a nd only if
Soc rates is wise' with its bl and indifference to the demonst rative
element i n 'is wi se' (the tense).
I� S e e W . V . Quine. Methods of Logic, 8 .
34 Truth and Meaning
W hat suffers in this treatment of demon stratives is not the
definition of a truth predicate, but the plausibility of the claim tha t
what has been defined is trut h. For this claim is acceptable only i f the
speaker and circumstances of utte rance of each sentence mentioned
in the definition is matched by the speaker and circum stances of
utterance of the truth definition itself. I t could also be fairly pointed
out that pa rt of understanding demon stratives is knowing the rules
by which t hey adjust t heir reference to circumstance ; assimilating
demonstrati ves to constant terms obliterates this featu re. These
complaints can be met, 1 think, though only by a fairly fa r-reaching
revision in t he t heory of truth. 1 shall barely suggest how this could
be done, but bare suggestion is all t hat is needed : t he idea is
technically tri vial, and in line with work being done on the logic of
the tenses. 1 7
We could take truth to be a prope rty, not of sentences, but of
utte rances, o r speech acts, o r ordered triples of sen tences, times, and
persons ; but it is simplest just to view t ruth as a rel ation between a
sen tence, a person , and a time. Under such treatment, ordinary logic
as now read applies as usual, but only to sets of sentences rel ativ ized
to the same speaker and time ; further l ogical relations between
sentences spo ken at different times and by different speakers may be
articul ated by new axioms. Such is not my concern . The t heory of
meaning unde rgoes a systematic but not puzzling chan ge ; cor
responding to each expression with a demonst rative element there
must i n the theory be a ph rase t hat relates t he t ruth c onditions of
sentences in which the expression occu rs to changing times and
speakers. Thus the theory will entail sentences like the following :
' I am tired ' is true as (potentially) spoken by p at t i f and only i f p
is ti red at t.
'That book was stolen' is true as (potentially) spoken by p at t if
and only if the book demonst rated by p at t is stolen prior to t . 1 8
to t he sum of the squ a res on the other two sides' we can infer 'The
sta tement tha t the sq uare on the hypotenuse is equal to t he sum of
the sq u a res on t he other two sides is true'.
I t is tem p ting to thin k that t he dou ble-negation t heory can
somehow be extended to cover sentences l ike (2) and (3). The
reasoning might go this way : t he double-negation theory tells us that
fo r each statement there is a sentence that expresses it. But then (2)
holds j u st in case there is a true sentence that expresses the
Pythagorean theo rem , and (3) holds in case no t rue sentence
expresses something A ristotle said. The seeming need, in this
expl a nation, to use the word 'true' will be shown to be harmless by
renderi ng (2) and (3) thu s :
(2 ' ) (p) (the sta tement that p = the Pythagorean theorem --. p)
(3 ' ) '" ( 3p ) (Aristotle said t hat p ' p )
We are now pursuing a line that diverges from t he sim ple dou ble
negation t heory by accepting an ontology of statements, and by
int roducing qua ntifica tion into positions that can be occupied by
sentences. Not t hat the variables in (2') and (3') range over
statements ; it is ra ther exp ressions of the sort flanking t he identity
sign in ( 2') t ha t refer to statements. I n t he dou ble-negation theory,
putative reference to statements and putative predication of truth
were absorbed into a gramm atically complex , but logic ally simple,
expression, a tru th-fu nctional sentential co nnective . By c o ntrast, the
present theo ry allows us to view 'is true' as a genuine predicate. It
p rovides a principle, namely
I think we must assume that Ramsey wants the variables 'a' and 'b'
to ra nge over individuals of some sort, and 'R' over ( two-pl ace)
relations. So his version of 'He is always right' would be more fully
expressed by ' F or all a, R, b, if he asserts that a has R to b, then a has
R to b Clearly , if 'all forms of proposition ' are incl uded , the
' .
the fact that Red Bluff i s farther sout h than Naples (perhaps these
are the same fact) . Also to the fact that Red Bluff is farther south
t han the largest I talian city wi thin thirty miles of I schia. When we
reflect that Naples i s the city that satisfies the following descriptio n :
it is the largest city withi n t hirty miles of Ischi a, a nd such that
London is in England, then we begin to suspect that if a statement
corresponds t o one fact , it corresponds to all. ('Co rresponds to t he
facIs' may be right in the end). I ndeed, employi ng pri nciples implicit
in our examples, it is easy to confirm the suspicion. The principles
are t hese : if a statement co rrespo nds to the fact descri bed by an
expressio n o f the fo rm 'the fact that p', the n it corre sponds to the
fact descri bed by 'the fact that q ' provided either ( I ) the sente nces
that replace 'p' a nd 'q' are logically equi valent, or (2) 'p' diffe rs from
'q' only in that a singular term has bee n replaced by a coextensive
singular term . The confirming argument is this. Let 's' abbreviate
some true se ntence . Then sure l y t he statement that s corresponds to
the fact that s. But we may substitute for the seco nd 's' the l ogical l y
equivalent ' ( t h e x s u c h that x is identical wi th Di oge nes and s ) is
identical with (the x such that x is ide ntical wi th Di oge nes)'.
Applying the pri nciple that we may su bstitute coextensi ve singular
terms, we can su bstitute 'I' for 's' in t he last quoted sente nce ,
provided ' I ' is true . Final l y, re versing the first step we concl ude that
the state ment t hat s corresponds to t he fact t hat I, where 's' and ' ( '
are any true sentences. 6
Since a side from matters o f corre spo nde nce no way o f distinguish
i ng facts has bee n proposed, and this test fai l s to uncove r a single
diffe rence , we may read the resu lt of our a rgu ment as showing that
there is exact l y one fact. Descriptions like 'the fact that there are
stupas i n Nepal ' , if they descri be at all, descri be t he same thi ng : The
Great Fact. No poi nt remains in distinguishin g among various
name s of The G reat Fact when written after 'corresponds to' ; we
may as we ll settle fo r the si ngle phra se 'correspon d s to T!1e Great
Fact ' . This unalterable predicate ca rries wi th it a redu ndant whi ff of
ontol ogy, but beyond this the re is apparently no telling it apart from
'is true ' .
The a rgument that led t o this concl usion cou ld be t hwarted by
refusing to accept the pri nciples on which it was based . And one can
1 0 The e� pression t h a t replaces 'p' must contai n 'u' and ' f ' as rree vari a bl es unl ess
th ere a re no ind e�ical elements in s.
46 Truth and Meaning
(An alternative schema apparently attributing t ruth to statements
could be substituted .) Even if we rest rict the descriptions we
su bstitute for 's' to some stylized voca bulary of syntax, we may
assume that there is a true sentence of the form of (7 ) for each
English sentence. The totality of such sentences uniquely determines
the exten sion of the three-place predicate of (7) (the rel a tivi zed truth
predicate). We seem here on the verge of a theory of truth ; yet
nothing like correspondence is in sight. The reason may be, howeve r,
that we a re only on the ve rge of a theory. Schema (7) tells us what a
theory of truth should encompass, but it is not such a theory itself,
and does not suggest how such a theory can be contrived . Schema
(7) is meant to pl ay for English a role analogous to that played for
an artificial langu age by a simil ar schem a in Tarski' s convention
T. 1 1 The role i s that of providing a test of the adequacy of a theory
of truth : an acceptable theory must entail a true sentence with the
form of (7) no matter what sentence of English is described by the
canonical expression that replaces 's' .
Sc hema ( 7) lacks an elegant feature of its analogue in the work of
Ta rski . Tarski, not concerned with languages with indexical ele
ments, ca n u se this sim ple formula : 's is true (in L) if and only if p'
where the se nte nce su bst i tuted for 'p' is the sentence descri bed by t he
expression that replaces 's' if the metalanguage contains the object
language ; otherwise it t ranslates that sentence in som e straight
forward sense. This uncomplicated formul a cannot be o u rs ; for when
there are indexical terms (dem onstratives, tenses), what goes for 'p'
cannot i n general be what 's' names or a translation of it, as witness
the example i n the first se nte nce of t he preceding paragraph. The
elabo ration called for to state (7) in expl icit syn tactic te rms would be
considerable , but there is no reason to think it i mpossible si nce what
replaces 'p' m u st be systematically related to the sentence descri bed
by the replacement of 's' by the rules that govern the u se of indexical
terms i n English.
I f the i ndicative sentences of English comprised just a finite
number of elemen tary se ntences and tru th-fu nctional compou nds of
t hem , it would be easy to gi ve a recu rsive characterizati on of truth
by pr ovid i ng a sentence with the form of (7) for eac h elementary
sentence, a nd giving a rule correspondi ng to each sente ntial
con nective. This st rategy breaks down, however, as soon as we allow
1 2 Ta rsk i ' s sa t isfie rs a re i n fi n i t e sequences, not functions. The read e r in sea rch of
precision and d eepe r unde rsta n d i n g ca n n o t be too strongl y urged t o study The
Concept of T r u t h i n Formal ized L a n g uage s ' .
48 Truth and Meaning
sentences w hich are satisfied by al l fu nctions are true ; those which
are satisfied by none are false . (I assume throu ghout that satisfac
tion, l ike truth, is rel ativized in t he style of (7). )
The semantic concept of truth as devel oped by Tarski deserves to
be called a correspondence theory because of the part played by t he
concept of satisfaction ; for clearly what has been done is that the
property of being true has been explained, and non-triviaIly, in terms
of a relation between language and somet hing else. The rel ation,
satisfaction, is not , it must be allowed, exactly what intuition
expected of correspondence ; and t he functions or seq uences t hat
satisfy may not seem much like facts. In part t he contrast is due to a
special fea ture of varia bles : just becau se they refer to no pa rticular
individu al, satisfaction must consider arbitrary assignments of
entities to variables (ou r fu nctions). If we t hought of proper names
instead , satisfiers could be more nearly the ordinary o bjects of ou r
tal k-namely, ordered n-tuples of such. Thus 'Dolores loves Dagmar'
would be satisfied by Dolores and Dagmar (in that order), provided
Dolores loved Dagmar. I suppose Dolores and Dagmar (in that
order) is not a fact either-the fact t hat verifies 'Dolores loves
Dagmar' should somehow incl ude the loving. This 'somehow' has
always been the nemesis of t heories of truth based on facts. So the
present point isn't that 's is satisfied by all fu nctions' means exactly
what we thought 's co rresponds to t he facts' meant, only that t he
two phrases have this in common : bot h intend to express a relation
between language and the world, and both are equivalent t o 's is
true' when s is a (closed) sentence .
The comparison between correspondence t heories t hat exploit the
concept of satisfaction a nd t hose which rest on correspondence to
facts is at its best with sentences without free va ria bles . The pa rallel
e ven extends, if we accept Frege's argument a bout the extensions of
sen tences, to the concl usion that true sentences cannot be told apart
in point of what t hey correspond to (the facts, The G reat Fact) or
are sati sfied by ( a ll functions, seq uences). But Ta rski's st rategy can
affo rd this sameness in t he finished product where t he stra tegy of
facts cannot, because satisfaction of closed sentences is explained in
terms of sa tisfaction of sentences bot h open and closed, whereas it is
only closed sentences t hat traditionally have co rresponding facts.
Since differe n t assignments of entities to variables satisfy different
open sentences a nd since closed sentences a re constructed from
open, tru t h is reached, in the semantic approac h, by different routes
True to the Facts 49
for different sentences . All true sentences end up in the same pl ace,
but there are different stories a bout how they got there ; a semantic
theory of truth tells the story for a particular sentence by running
through the steps of the recu rsive account of satisfaction appro
priate to the sentence . And the story constitutes a proof of a
theorem in t he form of an instance of schema (7).
The strategy of facts can provide no such instructive variety. Since
all true sentences have the same relation to the facts, an expl anation
of the truth of a sentence on the basis of its relations to other (closed)
se ntences must, if it sticks to t he facts , begin w here it ends.
Seen in ret rospect, the fail u re of correspondence theories of tru th
based on the notion of fact traces back to a common sou rce : t he
desire to incl u de in the entity to which a true sentence corresponds
not only t he objects the sentence is 'about' (another idea full of
trou ble) but also whatever it is t he sentence says a bout them . One
well -exp lored consequence is that it becomes difficul t to descri be t he
fact that verifies a sentence except by using t hat sentence itself. The
other consequence is t hat the rel ation of correspondence (or
'pictu ring') seems to have direct application to only t he sim plest
sentences (,Dolores loves Dagmar'). This prompts fact-theorists to
try to explain the truth of all sentences in te rms of t he truth of t he
simplest and hence in particul ar to interpret quantification as mere
shorthand fo r conjunctions or alternations (perhaps infinite in
lengt h) of t he simplest sentences. The irony is t hat, in so far as we
can see quan tification in this light, there is no real need for anyt hing
like correspondence . It is only when we are forced to take general ity
as an essential addition to t he conceptual resou rces of predication
and t he compou nding of sentences, and not reduci ble to t hem, that
we appreciate t he uses of a sop histicated correspondence t heory.
Theo ry of truth based on satisfaction is instructive partly because it
i s le ss am bitious about what it packs into t he entities to which
se ntences co rrespond : in such a t heory, t hese entities are no more
than arbitrary pairings of the objects over which t he varia bles of the
language range with those variables . Relative simplicity in the
objects is offset by t he trouble it takes to expl ain the relation
between t hem and sentences, for eve ry tru th-relevant feature of
every sentence must be t aken into account in descri bi ng satisfaction.
The pay-ofT is clear : in expl aining tru t h in terms of satisfaction, all
the co nceptual resou rces of t he l angu age in relation to its ontology
a re brought to bear.
50 Truth and Meaning
Talk of sente nces', or bet te r, stateme nts', being true to, or
cor responding to, the facts is of cou rse as harmless as talk of truth.
Even the su ggestio n in these phrase s that truth is owed to a re lation
between language and the world can, I have argued, be j u stified. The
st rategy of facts, against which I have just bee n inveighing, is
something else : a ph ilosophical theory, and a bad one . I t would be a
shame to discredit all corresponde nce theories, and in particular
Tarski 's seman tical approach, th rough thinking the y m ust share the
inade quacies of the usual attempts to explain truth on the basis of
facts.
The assu mption that all co rrespondence theories m u st use the
strategy of facts is a t least understandable and, given the vaga ries of
philosophical usage, cou ld be considered true by fiat. There is less
excuse for the widespread misunderstanding of the role of form ulas
like (7 ) in the semantical approach. The following example is no
worse than many tha t could be quoted :
. . . u n less there is more to t he 'cor respo nde nce ' i nsi sted on by cla ssica l
co r responde nce t heories of t ru t h t h a n is capt u red by t he formulations of
cu rrent sema n t ic t heory and unle ss t his more ca n be show n to be a n esse n tial
propert y of truth (or, at least, of a significa n t variet y of t ru t hs), t he n t he
ba t tle ove r correspo nde nce, i nstead of bei ng won by correspondence
theorists, has show n i t se l f t o be a Scheins treit . For , as has ofte n been noted,
the form u l a
(8 ) I t i s t r ue that i t is r a i n i ng.
( 9 ) The stateme nt that i t is raining is true .
52 Truth and Meaning
Here is how we might try to meet the case of (8). We have, we a re
su pposing, a theory of truth-in-English with truth treated as a
relation between a sen tence, a speaker, and a time. (The alternati ve
version in terms of statements would apply to (9) . ) The problem is to
find natu ral cou nterparts of these elements in (8). A speake r of (8)
speaks the words 'it is raining', thus performing an act that em bodies
a particu lar sen tence, has its speaker, and its time. A reference to this
act can therefore serve as a reference to the th ree items needed to
appl y the theory of tru th . The reference we can think of as having
been boiled down into the demon st rative ' that' of ( 8) an d (9). A
long-winded ve rsion of (8) might, then, go l ike this. First (reve rsing
the order for clarity) I say 'It's raining' . Then I say ' That speech act
embodied a sentence which, spoken by me now, is true' . On this
analysis, an utte rance of (8) or (9) consists of two logical ly
(semantically) independent speech acts, one of which contains a
demonstrat ive reference to the other. A n in teresting featu re of these
utte rances is that one is true if the other is ; perhaps this confirms an
insight of the redu ndancy theory.
A fu rthe r p roblem is raised by
( 1 0) Pete r's statement that Paul is hirsute is true.
Following the su ggestion made fo r (8) and (9), the anal ysis of ( 1 0)
should be 'Paul is hirsu te. That is true, and Peter said (stated) it'. The
'that' , as befo re, refers to an act of speaking, and now the 'it' picks
up the same reference . What is needed to com plete the account is a
pa ratactic analysis of indirect discou rse that interprets an utterance
by a speaker u of 'Peter said that Paul is hi rsute' as composed of an
utterance of ' Pau l is hi rsu te' and another utte rance ('Pete r said that')
that relates Peter in a certain way to u's utte rance of 'Paul is hirsute'.
The relation in question can, perhaps, be made intelligible by appeal
to the notion of samesaying : if u says what is true when he says 'Peter
said that' , it is because, by saying 'Paul is hirsute', he has made Peter
and himself samesayers. 1 4
One may, o f cou rse , insist that the rel ation of samesayi ng (which
holds between speech acts) can be understood only by reference to a
third entity : a sta tement, meaning, or proposition. N othing I have
written he re bea rs on this question, except ind i rectly, by showing
that, with respect to the p roblems at hand , no need a ri ses for such
Let someone say, 'There are a million s tars out toni ght' and another
repl y, 'That's true ', then nothi n g cou ld be pl ai ner than that what the
first has said is true i f and onl y i f what the other has said is true. This
familiar effect i s due to the reciprocity of two devices, one a way of
referring to expressions (work done here by the demonstrative
'that'), the other the concept of tru th. The first device takes u s from
tal k of the w orld to tal k of l an gua ge ; the second bri ngs u s back
again.
We have learned to represent these facts by se nte nces of the form
The sentence "There are a mil\i on s tars out toni ght" is true i f and
onl y if there a re a million stars out toni ght ' . Because T-se nte nces (as
we may cal \ them) are so obviou s l y true, some phi l os ophers have
thou ght that the concept of truth, at least as applied to se n te nces,
w as trivial. Bu t of cou rse this is wrong, as Ramsey was perh aps the
first to poi nt out, si nce T -sentences provide an al ternati ve to tal k of
truth for some contexts only. T-sentences are no hel p if we want
equivalents of ' E very se ntence Ari stotle spoke was fal se' or ' W h at
you said l ast Tuesday was true' . !
T-sentences d o n ' t, then, show how to live witho u t a tru th
predicate ; but taken together, they d o tel l what i t would be l i ke to
ha ve one . For si nce there is a T-sen tence correspondi ng to each
se n te nce of the language for which truth is in question, the totality of
T-se ntences exactl y fixes the exte nsi on, among the sentences, of any
p red icate that plays the role of the words 'is true '. From this it i s
clea r that although T- sentences do not define truth, the y can be u sed
t o define truth pred icatehood : any predicate i s a truth predicate that
makes all T-se nte nces true.
1 F . P . Ramsey , 'Facts a n d Propositions', 1 43 .
66 Truth and Mean ing
T- sentences shed what light they do on tru th by exhau sting the
cases, bu t since fo r an y i n teres ti ng langu age the number of cases is
i nfi n ite, it is instruc tive to ask what properties tru th must have if i t i s
to ac t as the T-sen tences say i t does . To spell ou t the pr oper ties i n an
instructive, i.e. finite way, is to provide a theory of truth. We may
thi n k of a theory of tru th for a la nguage L simpl y as a sen tence T
containin g a predicate t such that T has as logical consequences all
sentences of the form 's is true if and only if p ' with 's' repl aced by a
canonical description of a sen tence of L, 'p' repl aced by that
sentence (or its translation), and 'is tru e' replaced , if necessar y, by t.
I n essence this is, of cou rse, Tarski's Con ventio n T. 2 It differs in
one si gnifican t respec t on l y : it d oes not requ ire tha t the cond i tions
on the tru th pred icate suffice for an expl ici t definition. ( I shall retu r n
to this poi n t . ) Throu ghout Tars ki's writings on tr u th, C onven tion T
provides the transi tion from informal intu itions concerning the
concept of tru th to sharp s ta temen t of problem . We first c ome across
Conven ti on T in 'The Concept of Tru th in Formal ized La nguages'
(pu blished i n Pol ish i n 1 933, i n German i n 1 936, and i n Engl ish i n
1 956). I n a su bsequen t a r ticle aimed mainly at phil os ophers , Ta rski
appeals to T-sen tences to relate classical phi losophical issues to his
work i n sema ntics . 3 In a later popular piece he takes the same l i n e . 4
F o r alI i t s familiarity, I think a central poi n t abou t Convention T
has been la rgely lost on philosophers . I t is this : Con venti on T and T
sentences provide the sole link between i n tu i ti vel y obvi ous tru ths
abou t tru th and formal seman tics. Withou t Conventi on T, we
shou ld have no reas on to believe that truth i s what Tarski has shown
us how to characterize.
The weight Tarski pu ts on Con ven tion T is i n teresting in another
way, for it sets up a mi ld terminological strai n . Accord i ng to Ta rski,
tru e of; and definition , which rela tes an eq uation and a number it
u niquel y determines . He conti nues,
While the words 'designates', 'satisfies', a nd 'defines' express relations . . . ,
th e word 'true' is of a d iffere n t logical nature : i t expresses a property ( o r
d enotes a class) o f certain expressions, viz. , of sen tences. 6
H e goes on to remark that ' the simples t and most natu ral way' of
defining tru th goes by way of satisfac ti on , and this explains hi s
c alling truth a seman tic concept. But we cannot help noticing that
tru th is n ot, by Tarski's own accoun t, a semantic concept. A glance
at the l ogical grammar of T-sentences shows that it is essential that
the truth predicate n ot expres s a relation : i f it did, there cou ld not be
the crucial disappearance, from the right branch of the T-sentence
biconditional, of all seman tic concepts, and i nd eed of ever ythi ng
except the very sentence whose tru th condi tions i t states (or a
translation of that sentence). 7
I t wou ld d o much to jus tify Tarski's termi nol ogy i f i t cou ld be
shown that any theory that meets the cri terion of Convention T has
resou rces ad equate to characterizing the satisfaction rela tio n.
Clea r l y there are languages for which thi s does not hold, b u t it
wou ld be i nteresti ng i f for sufficientl y r ich languages it did. Recent
work sugges t s a posi tive answer. 8 The feeling that truth bel ongs with
the other semantic concepts is also enha nced by the fact tha t i n each
case there is a pa radigm that both u ses and mentions the same
expression : 'Plato' designates Plato ; y satisfies 'x is white' if and
onl y if y is w hi te ; ' snow i s whi te' is true i f and onl y i f snow is whi te ;
the equation '2x = l ' defines the number y if and only if 2y = 1 , etc .
The existence of such a parad igm can n ot, however, be taken as a
sign of the semantical , for there is no appropriate a na l ogous
parad igm for relati vized seman tic concepts like truth i n a model .
My present pu rpose is to defend , on grou nds of philosophical
inte rest and importa nce, concepts tha t meet the criteri on of
C onventi on T (and for which, then , there is a familiar paradigm).
b I b id . , 34 5 .
7 This claim is modified below.
8 Se e J. W a l l a ce, ' O n the Frame of R e ference' and 'Convention T and
S u bs tit u t i o n a l Q u a n t i fi c a t i on ' ; also L Th a rp , Truth, Quan tification, a n d A bstract
Objec t s ' . A l t h o u g h K r i p ke c r i ticizes Some of W a l l ace's a n d Tharp ' s a r g u m e n t s , he
concurs w i t h the c o n c l u sion t h a t i n a l a ng u a ge with normal expressive power, some of
the q u a n t i fi e r s a t l e a st m u st be provided with t h e k i n d of sem a n tics for which Tarski 's
sa t isfa c t i o n i s designed. See S . K r i p k e, 'Is There a Problem about S u b s t i t u t i onal
Q u a n t ifi c a t i o n ? ' . (Footn ote a d ded in 1 9 82.]
68 Truth and Meaning
One reason Tarski appealed to Convention T was tha t he hoped to
persuade phi l os ophers that fo rmal work in sema n tics was relevant to
their concerns. It is a scandal that this cause sti ll needs suppor t in
some quarters ; but this is not my worry in this paper. I now add ress
those who thoroughl y appreciate the relevance of formal semantics
to philosophica l issues , but see no significant difference be tween
theories tha t are i n accord with Conven tion T, a nd theories that are
n o t. (There is even a danger that the know-n othi ngs a nd the experts
wil l j oin forces ; the former , hearing mu tteri ngs of possi ble worlds ,
trans-world heir lines, counterparts, and the like, are apt to
think, now semantics is getting somewhere-out of this world,
anyway.)
Before giving my reasons for thinki ng Convention T captures a
concept worth a ttending to, I wan t to register some d i sclaimers .
First, to seek a theory tha t accords with Convention T is not, i n
i tself a t least, to settle for M odel T logic o r semantics. Convention T,
in the skeletal form I have given i t, makes no mention of
extensionality, truth fu nctionali ty, or first-order l ogic. I t i nvites u s to
use whatever devices we can con trive appropriatel y to bridge the gap
between sentence men tioned and sentence used . Res trictions on
ontol ogy, ideology, or inferential power find favou r , from the
present poi n t of view, only i f they resul t from ad opti n g Convention
T as a touchstone. Wha t I want to defend is the Co nvention as a
cri terion of theories, not any particular theories tha t have been
shown to satisfy the Conven ti o n in particul a r cases , or the resou rces
to which they ma y have been limi ted .
Convention T defines a goa l i rrelevant to much contemporary
work in sema ntics. Theories that cha racterize or define a rel a ti vized
concept of truth ( tru th in a model , truth in an i n terpretation,
val uation, o r possible world) se t out from the start i n a directi o n
differen t from that pr oposed b y Convention T. Beca use the y
substi tu te a relational concept for the si ngle-place truth predica te of
T-sentences, such theories cannot carry through the last s tep of the
recursion on truth o r satisfaction which i s essential to the quota tion
lifti ng featu re of T-se n tences. There i s a tradition, ini tiated by Ta rski
himself, of cal l i n g a re1ati vized theory of tru th the ge nera l theory of
which the abso l u te theory ( which satis fi es C onve ntion T) is a specia l
case. Ta rs ki says tha t ' the concept of correct or true sen tence in an
individual domain [is] a co ncept of a rela tive cha rac ter [that] pl a ys a
much greater part than the absolute concept of truth and includes it
In Defence of Con ven tion T 69
as a special case' . 9 The sense i n which this is c orrect is, of c ou r se,
pe rfect l y clear . O n the other hand , i t is important to remember tha t
T-sente nces d o not fa ll out as the orems of a relativized theor y of
truth, and therefore such a theory d oes not necessar i l y have the same
phil os ophical i n teres t as a theory tha t sa tisfies Convention T.
The poi n t of these remarks is not, I hope i t is plain, to su gges t tha t
there is somethin g wrong, defective, or misleadin g a bout sema ntic
th e ories that do not yie ld T-sente nces as theorems . On the contrary,
i t is obvi ous tha t s uch theories i l luminate important concepts ( such
a s comple te ness and l ogical consequence) ; I hardl y need to expa nd
on this theme i n the present context. My thesis is onl y that there a re
important differe nces betwee n theories of rel ative , and of a bs o l u te,
tru th, a nd the d ifferences make the ories of the two sorts appropriate
as a nswers to different questions. I n pa rticula r , phi l os ophers of
la nguage ha ve rea son to be conce r ned with theories tha t satisfy
Conventi on T.
The ories of truth based on the substitutional i n te rpreta tion of
quantifica tion d o not i n genera l yield the T-sentences dema nded by
Conve n tion T. The re a re exceptions i n the case of object l a n guages
wh ose true atomic sentences can be effec tive l y given, but the
exceptions ca nnot incl ude l a ngua ges inte resti ngl y simil ar to natu ral
la nguages i n expressive power . U n l i ke theories of rela tive truth,
substi tuti ona l the ories have no evident virtue to set a gainst their
fail u re to sa ti sfy C onve n tion T. 1 0
Fina lly, it is n ot my thesis that all we should demand of a semantic
theor y is tha t it meet the standard of Convention T. I shall suggest
tha t the ories s a t isfyi ng C onve nti on T a re capable of expl a i n i n g more
tha n is often thou ght. But there ma y be ch oosing among such
theories on the basis of further criteria ; a nd of c ou r se there is much
we want to k now that l ies outside.
N ow for a catal ogue of some of the fea tures of theories tha t
ac co rd with Conve n t i on T a nd wh ich should recommend such
the ories to ph i l o s ophers of l a ngu a ge.
The central me rit of Convention T is t h a t it substitutes for a n
i m porta n t but murky pr oblem a tas k whose a im is clea r . A fter the
s u bs titution o ne appreciates be tte r wha t wa s wanted in the first
) ) See Essa y 3.
In Defen ce of Con ven tion T 71
meaning t o refere nce, or a notion that assu mes tha t meani ngs are
en ti ties . The s l ogan reflects an importan t tru th, one on which, I
suggest, a theory of tru th confers a clear con tent. Tha t i t d oes so
withou t in trod uci ng mea ni ngs as enti ties is one of its rew arding
q ual i ties .
Theories of absolu te tru th necessarily provide a n analysis of
structu re relevant to truth and to i n fe rence . Such theories therefore
yield a non-tri vial a nswer to the ques ti on what is to count as the
log ical form of a sentence . A theory of truth does n ot yield a
definition of l ogical co nsequence or l ogical truth, but i t wi l l be
eviden t from a theory of tru th that ce rtai n sentences are true solely
o n the basis of the properties assigned to the l ogical constants . The
l ogical constants may be identified as those iterative features of the
lan guage that req uire a recu rsi ve clause in the characteriza ti on of
truth or satisfacti on. Logical form, in this accou n t, wi l l of cou rse be
rel ative to the choice of a metalanguage (wi th its l ogic) and a theory
of tru th.
All tha t I have said so fa r in defence of C onve n tion T i s that i t may
be taken as clearl y formulati ng some trou bles ome issues i n the
phi los ophy of language, a nd that if it is taken in this way, i t i n vi tes
solutions that have conspicu ou s merits . But why shou ld we take it
this way ? M ay not some ri val convention formulate the issues
better ? What fol l ows is desi gned t o bear on these ques tions .
The main, if not the only, ul timate concern of phi l os ophy of
language is the u nderstand i n g of natu ral l an guages . There is much
to be said for res tricti ng the word ' l anguage' to s ystems of signs tha t
are or have been i n actu al use : uninterpreted forma l sys tems are
n ot languages through lack of meaning, while i n terpreted formal
sys tems are best seen as extensions or fragments of the natu ral
langu ages fr om which they b orrow life .
The inevi table goal o f seman tic theory i s a theory o f a natural
l anguage couched i n a n atu ral lan guage (the same or another). B u t
as Tarski poi n ted out, o n some obvi ous assumptions pu rsuit o f this
goa l leads to parad ox . He w rote :
Once al l this is all owed into the language, semantic a nti nomies
resu lt. The ideal o f a theo ry of truth for a natu ral language in a
natu ral language is the refore u nattainable if we restrict ourse lves to
Tarski's methods . The question then arises, how to gi ve u p as l ittle
as possible, and here theories all owed by C onventi o n T seem i n
i mpo r tant respects optimal. Such theories can bes tow the requi red
properties on a truth predicate while d rawi n g on no conceptual
resou rces not i n the language to which the predicate applies. It is
only the tru th predicate itsel f (and the satisfacti on predicate) that
cannot be in the object language . Here it is essential to require no
more than a theory of truth ; to go beyond to an expl icit defi nition
does widen the gap betwee n the resou rces of the o bject l anguage a nd
of the me talangu age. ] 3 B u t i f we ask for no mo re than a theory of
the kind we have been discussi ng, then the ontol o gy of the
metalanguage can be the same as that of the object lan guage, and the
i ncrease in i de ol ogy can be l i m i ted to the semantical concepts.
Tarski is right, I think, i n proposing that we thi nk of natu ral
l anguages as essenti al l y i n tertranslatable (although I don't see why
this req uires word- by-w ord translatio n) . The proposal i dealizes the
flex i bi l i ty and expandabi l i ty o f natu ral l a n guages, but can be
j u s tified by a transcendental argument ( which I shall n o t give
here) . 1 4 Conventio n T demands that each sente nce of the object
language have a t ranslation in the metalanguage. The pressure from
the opposite di recti on derives from the desire to give an account, as
fa r as pos sible, of the l i n gu i s tic resou rces we comman d .
The re are theories s tated in a whol l y extensional metalanguage
that attempt to i l l u minate the sema ntic featu res of an inte nsional
object language. The i nteres t of such the ories depends on the
assumption that the objec t language reflects important featu res o f a
natu ral lan guage . Bu t then the re is a questi on how we u nderstand
the metalanguage. For the re is a clear sense i n which the meta
language exceeds the exp ressi ve power of the object language. For
1 2
A. T a r s k i , 'The C o n cept of T r u t h in Forma l ized L a n gu a ges ' , 1 64 .
For a n i n s t r u c t i ve exa m pl e , see W . V. Qu i n e , ' O n an A ppl i c a t i o n of T a r s k i ' s
13
each ' i ntensi o na l ' sente nce of the obj ect l anguage there i s a
c orrespo ndi ng extensional sente nce (a bout possi ble worlds, c ou nter
parts, etc . ) with the same truth conditions in the metal a nguage ; but
the re must be metali nguistic sentences with i n tuitivel y the same
s u bject matter that have no correspo nding sente nces in the object
language . I nten sionality is treated by such theo ries as a lack of
expressive power-a l ack we are taught how to make up for by the
theory i tself. 1 5 But if we u nderstand our metalanguage, we are usin g
a s ystem of concepts and a language which i s the one for which we
really want a theory, for it is this riche r system that i s our nat ural
on e. And fortu na tel y the richer system does n ot raise any difficul ties
for a truth theo ry satisfyi ng C onventi on T, for it is extensi onal . (I d o
not conside r here w hether we real l y do u nderstand such
metal anguage s . )
I f a semantic theory claims t o appl y, however schematica l l y , to a
nat u ral langu age, then i t m u s t be empi rical in character, a nd open to
tes t. In these concluding pages I should l i ke to s ketch m y reas ons for
thinking that a theory that satisfies Conventi on T is ve rifiable in an
i n teres ting way.
Of course, a theory of truth i s not treated as empirical if i ts
adequacy i s j udged o n l y i n te rms of the T-se n tences i t entails, and T
sen tences are verified only b y their form : this happens if we assume
the object l a nguage is contai ned in the metal a nguage . When this
assumption is rel axed, the theory can go empi rical . This it d oes the
momen t it is claimed that the theory appl ies to the speech of a
pa rticular person or group. The fac t tha t the object lan guage i s
contai ned i n the metal anguage d oes n o t keep the theory from having
empi rical content : rather this fact " ca n qualify as the fact to be
verified .
I n the cases that cou n t, the n , w e cannot assume that descri bed and
describing languages coincide. I ndeed, we cannot use a formal
c riterion of transl ati o n ei the r w i thout beggi ng the questi on of
e mpir ical a p p l icati on. B u t then what becomes of Convention T ?
H o w i s a T-sentence t o be recognized , l e t al one recognized for true?
I suggest tha t i t may be e n ough to req ui re that the T-sentences be
t r ue. C lea r l y this su ffices u n i quely and cor rectl y to determi ne the
e x te nsi on of the truth p redicate . I f we consider any one T-sentence,
th is p roposa l req ui res on l y that if a true sen tence i s descri bed as tr ue,
lb
Fo r el a bo r a t i o n s a n d q u a l i fi c a t i o n s see Essa ys 9- 1 2 .
1 7 This po i n t i s fu rther p u rsued in Essays 1 5 and 1 6 .
In Defence of Con vention T 75
Quine says that qu otati on ' . . . has a certai n an omal ous feature' .
The l ast phrase 'the same name' cannot mean the same name as
the mou ntai n, for the mou ntai n has many names. Rather it means
the same name of the mou ntain as the one used earlier i n the
sentence . I would cal l this a genu i ne case of qu otati on, for the
sen te nce refers to an expression by ex h i bi ti n g a token of t h at
expression ; but i t i s a case that manages wi th ou t quotation marks.
Or cons ider this case :
le tter ' a ' ( ,Atla nta', 'Alabama' , 'Al ta', 'Athe na', etc.). O n this view,
the re is no relati on, beyond an accident of spelli ng, betwee n an
ex pression and the qu otati on-mark name of that expression . If we
ac cept this theory, nothing w ou ld be l ost if for each q u otati on-ma rk
name we were t o substitu te some u n related name, for tha t is the
c hara cter of proper names. And so no ech o remains , as far as this
theory of q u otation goes, of the informal rules g overning q u otation
that seem so clear : i f you want to form a qu otati on-mark na me of an
expressio n, flank that expression with q u otati on mar ks ; and, a
quo tati o n-ma r k name refers to ' i ts interi or' (as Quine pu ts i t).
Nothi n g left, ei ther, of the i ntuitive l y attractive notio n that a
quotati on somehow pictu res what i t i s about .
These objecti ons are i n themselves enough to thr ow d ou bt on
Ta rski's claim that this i n terpretati on of qu ota ti on i s ' . . . the most
natu ral one a nd c ompletely i n accordance with the customary way
of using q u o tation marks . 8 But there is a further and, I thi n k ,
. . ' .
ale"sw
This tiny exercise is meant to emphasize the fact that nothing of the
idea of qu otation marks is captu red by this theory-nothi ng of the
idea that o ne can form the name of an arbi trary expression by
enclosing it in qu otation marks . On the spel l i ng theory, no articulate
item i n the v ocabulary corresponds to q u otation mar k s , a nd so the
theory cannot reflect a rule for this use . The machi ne s i mpl y k nows
by heart the name of each smal lest expressi o n . Clearl y, one esse ntial
ele ment i n the idea that qu otati ons pictu re what they a re a bou t has
been l os t .
A s t r i k i n g w a y to see wha t i s a nd what i s not releva nt to structure
is to try appl ying existe ntial ge neralizatio n a nd su bstitution of
ide ntity . A stand a rd way of demonstrati ng that q u otation as
norma lly used d oes not wear its s tructu re on its su rface is to observe
tha t from :
nor:
to:
'Alice""swooned' is a sentence
alc'''swooned' is a sentence
(3x}(alc"x is a sentence)
or:
(3x)(x"'swooned' is a sentence).
'Alice' is a word
to:
to:
we could write:
16
See Essay 2.
92 Applications
may serve as target for the arrows of quotation, so in particular a
quoting sentence may after all by chance contain a token with the
shape needed for the purposes of quotation. Such tokens then do
double duty, once as meaningful cogs in the machine of the sentence,
once as semantically neutral objects with a useful form. Thus:
Quine says that quotation ' . . . has a certain anoma lous feature'.
Quine says, using words of which these are a token, that quotation
has a certain anomalous feature.
Finally:
'1 wish I had said that ' , said Oscar Wilde in applauding one of
Whistler's witticisms. Whistler, who took a dim view of Wilde's
originality, retorted, ' You will, Oscar; you will'. 1 This tale reminds
us that an expression like ' Whistler said that' may on occasion serve
as a grammatically complete sentence. Here we have, I suggest, the
key to a correct analysis of indirect discourse, an analysis that opens
a lead to an analysis of psychological sentences generally (sentences
about propositional attitudes, so-called), and even, though this
looks beyond anything to be discussed in the present paper, a clue to
what distinguishes psychological concepts from others.
But let us begin with sentences usually deemed more represent a
tive of oralio obliqua, for example 'Galileo said that the earth moves'
or 'Scott said that Venus is an inferior planet'. One trouble with such
sentences is that we do not know their logical form. And to admit
this is to admit that, whatever else we may know about them, we do
not know the first thing. If we accept surface grammar as guide to
logical form, we will see 'Galileo said that the earth moves' as
containing the sentence 'the earth moves', and this sentence in turn
as consisting of the singula} term 'the earth', and a predicate,
'moves'. But if 'the earth' is, in this context, a singular term, it can be
replaced, so far as the truth or falsity of the containing sentence is
concerne d, by any other singular term that refers to the Same thing.
Yet what seem like appropriate replacements can alter the truth of
the original sentence.
The notorious apparent invalidity of this move can only be
apparent, for the rule on which it is based no more than spells out
J For further defence of a concept of logical form based on a theory of truth, see
and (with the premise 'r = the 18th letter in the alphabet'):
and B elief'.
On Saying That 99
8 G. Frege, 'On Sense and Referen ce'; A. Church. 'A Formulation of the Logic of
Sense and Denotation'. See Essay 1.
9 The idea of an essentially Fregean approach limited to two semantic levels has
14 Strictly speaking, the verb 'said' is here analysed as a three-place predicate which
holds of a speaker (Galileo), an utterance of the speaker ('Eppur si muove'), and an
utterance of the attributer ('The earth moves'). This predicate is from a semantic
point of view a primitive. The, fact that an informal paraphrase of the predicate
appeals to a relation of sameness of content as between utterances introduces no
intentional entities or semantics. Some have regarded this as a form of cheating, but
the policy is deliberate and principled. For a discussion of the distinction between
questions of logical form (which is the present concern) and the analysis of individual
predicates, see Essay 2. It is also worth observing that radical interpretation, if it
succeeds, yields an adequate concept of synonymy as between utterances. See the end
of Essay 12. [Footnote added in 1982.]
On Saying That 105
and my words refer in their usual way to the earth and to its
movement. If Galileo's utterance 'Eppur si muove' made us
samesayers, then some utterance or other of Galileo's made us
sa mesayers. The form '(3x) (Galileo's utterance x and my utterance
y makes us samesayers)' is thus a way of attributing any saying I
please to Galileo provided I find a way of replacing 'y' by a word or
phrase that refers to an appropriate utterance of mine. And surely
there is a way I can do this: I need only produce the required
utterance and replace 'y' by a reference to it. Here goes:
the truth of the first from change in the second. On the other hand, if
the second utterance had been different in any way at all, the first
utterance might have had a different truth value, for the reference of
the 'that' would have changed.
The paradox, that sentences (utterances) in oralio obliqua do not
have the logical consequences they should if tru th is to be defined, is
resolved. What follows the verb 'said' has only the structure of a
singular term, usually the demonstrative 'that'. Assuming the 'that'
refers, we can infer that Galileo said something from 'Galileo said
that'; but lhis is welcome. The familiar words coming in the train.of
the performative of indirect discourse do, on my account, have
structure, but it is familiar structure and poses no problem for
theory of truth not there before indirect discourse was the theme.
Since Frege. philosophers have become hardened to the idea
that content-sentences in talk about propositional attitudes may
strangely refer to such entities as intensions, propositions, sentences,
utterances, and inscriptions. What is strange is not the entities,
which are all right in their place (if they have one), but the notion
that ordinary words for planets, people, tables, and hippopotami in
indirect discourse may give up these pedestrain references for the
exotica. If we could recover our pre-Fregean semantic innocence, I
think it would seem to us plainly incredible that the words 'The earth
moves', uttered after the words 'Galileo said that', mean anything
different, or refer to anything else, than is their wont when they come
in other environments. No doubt their role in oratio obliqua is in
some sense special; but that is another story. Language is the
instrument it is because the same expression, with semantic features
(meaning) unchanged, can serve countless purposes. I have tried to
show how our understanding of indirect discourse does not strain
this basic insight.
8 Moods and Performances
1 See Essays 2 ,4, and 9-12 for support for, and doubts concerning, this claim.
1 The conference at which this paper was read was to have celebrated Bar-Hillel's
sixtieth birthday. A great loss to philosophy and to his many friends, he died before
the conference was held.
110 Applications
The judgment-stroke is the sign of assertion proper, that which carries the
assertive force. It is therefore not a functional expression, or part of one: we
cannot enquire of it what its Sense is, or what its reference is; it contributes
to the meaning of the complex sentential symbol in quite a different way ...
it is only the sentence to which the judgment-stroke is prefixed which may be
said to express a sense or to stand for a truth-value: the whole expression
with the judgment-stroke neither expresses anything nor stands for
anything-it asserts something: it asserts,
namely, that the thought
expressed by what follows the judgment-stroke is true.3
7 Ibid., 302.
8 For further discussion of Dummett"s views on convention see Essay 18.
Moods and Performances 113
meaning, his theory simply denies that mood has any conventional
significance.
An analysis with the same consequence was proposed many years
ago by Herbert Bohnert. 11 Bohnert's proposal was that imperatives
have the structure of disjunctions of a certain kind. Thus 'Fry that
egg' would be rendered, 'Either you fry that egg, or X will happen',
where X is something presumed unwanted by the person addressed.
These theories draw their strength from the fact that we can, and
often do, use indicatives to do the work Dummett believes is
conventionally assigned to the other moods. And in fact if we want
to move in this direction, there is an even simpler and, I think, better,
theory available, which is to assign to imperatives the same semantic
analysis as is assigned to the most directly corresponding indicative
12
(treat 'Fry that egg' just.as 'You will fry that egg' is treated).
It is a virtue of these theories that they make evident the fact that
having a truth value is no obstacle to a sentence's being used to issue
a command or ask a question. But this merit of reductive theories
also accounts for their failure, for simply reducing imperatives or
interrogatives to indicatives leaves us with no account at all of the
differences among the moods. If any of the reductive theories is
right, mood is as irrelevant to meaning as voice is often said to be. If
mood does not affect meaning, how can we hope to explain the
connection between mood and use, whatever the connection comes
to? Reductive analyses abandon rather than solve the problem with
which we began.
We are now in a position to list the characteristics a satisfactory
theory of mood should have.
(I ) It must show or preserve the relations between indicatives and
corresponding sentences in the other moods; it must, for example,
articulate the sense in which 'Y ou will take off your shoes', 'Take off
your shoes', and 'Will you take off your shoes?' have a common
element.
the rest of the sentence is to be made true. But this proposal wipes
out the distinction between assertion and command. Geach says
instead that the mood indicator (understood as Frege understood it)
' . . . shows that the proposition is being asserted'. 15 This proposal
preserves the needed distinction.
I have argued against both Geach and Dummett that no mood
indicator can show or assert or in any other way conventionally
determine what force its utterance has. But if this is so, we are left
with no clear account of what mood contributes to meaning. Indeed,
we seem to have a paradox. Mood must somehow contribute to
meaning (point 2 above), since mood is clearly a conventional
feature of sentences. Yet it cannot combine with or modify the
meaning of the rest of the sentence in any known way.
Let us turn for help to what Austin called the 'explicit performa
tives'. We have rejected the idea put forward by David Lewis that
imperatives be reduced to explicit performatives, but it remains open
to exploit analogies. Austin drew attention to the fact that ' . . . we
can on occasion use the utterance "Go" to achieve practically the
same as we achieve by the utterance "I order you to go" '.16 But how
are explicit performatives to be analysed?
Austin held that performatives have no truth value on the ground
that uttering a sentence like 'I order you to go' is not typically to
describe one's own speech act but rather to issue an order. This is
perhaps an accurate account of how we would characterize many
speech acts that consist in uttering explicit performatives. But as a
description of what the words that are uttered mean, this view
introduces an intolerable discrepancy between the semantics of
certain first-person present-tense verbs and their other-person other
tense variants. And the problem is adventitious, since what is special
about explicit performatives is better explained as due to a special
use of words with an ordinary meaning than as due to a special
meaning.
If we accept any of the usual semantics for explicit performativ es,
however, the difficulty recurs in a form that is hard to avoid.
According to standard accounts of the matter, in a sentence like
'Jones ordered Smith to go' the final words ('Smith to go') serve to
name or describe a sentence, or a proposition, or the sense of a
17 See Essay 7.
Moods and Performances I19
Kurt utters the words 'Es regnet' and under the right conditions we
know that he has said that it is raining. Having identified his
utterance as intentional and linguistic, we are able to go on to
interpret his words: we can say what his words, on that occasion,
meant. What could we know that would enable us to do this? How
could we come to know it? The first of these questions is not the
same as the question what we do know that enables us to interpret
the words of others. For there may easily be something we could
know and don't, knowledge of which would suffice for interpre
tation, while on the other hand it is not altogether obvious that there
is anything we actually know which plays an essential role in
interpretation. The second question, how we could come to have
knowledge that would serve to yield interpretations, does not, of
course, concern the actual history of language acquisition. It is thus
a doubly hypothetical question: given a theory that would make
interpretation possible, what evidence plausibly available to a
potential interpreter would support the theory to a reasonable
degree? In what follows I shall try to sharpen these questions and
suggest answers.
The problem of interpretation is domestic as well as foreign: it
surfaces for speakers of the same language in the form of the
question, how can it be deter mined that the language is the same?
Speakers of the same language can go on the assumption that for
them the same expressions are to be interpreted in the same way, but
this does not indicate what justifies the assumption. All understand
ing of the speech of another involves radical interpretation. But it
will help keep assumptions from going unnoticed to focus on cases
126 Radical lnterpreta (jon
1 The term 'radical interpretation' is meant to suggest strong kinship with Quine' s
2 See Essay I.
Radical Interpretation 129
the objec t la nguage. Thi s does not mean that anything whatever can be
read into the o bjec t language simply by assuming it to be in the
metalanguage ; for example, the presence of modal operators in the
metalanguage does not necessarily lead to a theory of tru th for a modal
o bjec t language.
A sati sfac tory theory cannot depart m uch, it seem s, from standard
quantificational structures or their u sual semantics. We must expect
the theory to rely on something very like Tar ski's sort of recursive
characterization of satisfaction, and to descri be sentences of the o bject
language in terms of fami liar patterns created by qua ntification and
cross-reference, predic ation , tru th-fu nctional connectio ns, and so o n.
The relation between these semantically tractable patterns and the
surface gram mar of sentences may, of course, be very complicated .
The result o f applying the formal constraints i s, the n, to fit the o bject
la nguage as a whole to the procrustean bed of quantification theory.
Although thi s can no doubt be d one in many ways if any, it i s u nlikely
that the differences between acceptable theories will, in matters of
logical form, be great. The identification of the sem antic features of a
sentence will then be essentially invariant : correc t theories will agree
on the whole about the q uantificational structu re to be assigned to a
given sentence.
Questions of logical fo rm being settled , the logical constants of
qua ntification theory (including identity) will have been perforce
di scovere<.: in the o bjec t la nguage (wel l concealed, probably, beneath
the surface). There remain the fu rther primitive expre ssions to be
interpreted . The main pro blem is to find a sy stematic way of matching
predicates of the metalanguage to the primitive pred icates of the object
language so as to prod uce acceptable T -sentences. If the meta
language predicates tran slate the object language predicates, things
will obviously come out right ; if they have the same extensions, this
might be enough. But it would be foreign to our programme to u se
these c o ncepts i n stati ng the co nstraints : the constraints mu st deal
o nly with sentences and truth. Still, it i s easy to see how T - sentences for
sente nce s with indexic al featu res sharply limit the choice of i nterpret
ing pred icates ; for example the T-sentence for 'Das ist wei ss' must
have something like thi s form : ' For all speakers of German x and all
times t "Das i st wei ss" is true spoken by x at t if and only if the o bject
demonstrated by x at t is white'. There may, as Qui ne has pointed o ut
in hi s discu ssions of ontological relativity, remai n room for alterna
tive ontologie s , and so for alternative systems for interpreting the
1 52 Radical in terpretation
pred icates of the object langu age . I believe the range of acceptable
theories of truth can be red uced to the point where all acceptable
theorie s will yield T-sentences that we can treat as giving correct
interpretations, by applicati on of further rea sonable and non
q uestion-beggi ng con strai nts. But the detai ls m u st be reserved for
another occa si on .
M uch more, obviou sly, must be said about the empirical constraints
on the theory-the conditions u nder which a T-sentence may be
accepted as correct. We have agreed that the evidentia l base for the
theory will co nsist of facts about the circumstances u nder which
speakers hold se ntences of their language to be true. Such evide nce, I
have urged, i s neu tral as between meaning and belief and assumes
neither. It now need s to be shown that such data can provide a test for
the acceptability of T-sentences.
I propose that we take the fact that speakers of a language hold a
sentence to be true (u nder observed circumstances) as prima-facie
evidence tha t the sente nce is true u nder those circumstance s. For
example, positive instances of 'Speakers (of Germa n) hold "Es
schneit" true when, and only when, it is snowing' shou ld be taken to
confirm not only the generalization, but also the T - sentence, ' ' 'Es
schnei t" is true (in Germa n) for a speaker x a t time t ifa nd only if i t is
snowing at t (and near x)' .
Not all the evidence c a n be expected to poi n t the same way. There
will be differences from speaker to speaker, and from time to time for
the same speaker, with respect to the circum s tances u nder which a
sentence is held true. The general policy, however, i s to choose truth
conditions that do as wel l as possible in making speakers hold
sentences true when (according to the theory a nd the theory
builder's view of the fac ts) those sentence s are true. Tha t i s the general
policy, to be modified in a host of obvious ways. Speakers can be
aIlowed to differ more often and more radically with re spect to some
sente nces tha n o t hers, and there is no reason not to take into account
the ob served o r i nferred individ ual differences that may be thought to
have cau sed anomalie s (as seen by the theory). 7
B uilding the theory cannot be a matter of dec iding on an
appropriate T- sentence for o ne sentence of the o bjec t language a t a
time ; a pattern m ust be built up tha t pre se rves the formal constraints
discussed above while suiting the evidence as well as may be. A nd of
7 For more o n s uch modifica ti o n s , see Essay I I , a nd particularly D , Le wis, ' R a dical
I n terpretatio n ' ,
Belief and the Basis of Meaning 1 53
course the fact that a theory does not make speakers u niversal holders
of truths is not an inadequacy of the theory ; the aim is not the ab surd
o ne of making di sagreement and error di sappear. The point i s rather
that wide spread agreeme nt is the only possible backgrou nd agai nst
which disputes and mi stakes can be interpreted . M aking sense of the
u t terances and behavi our of others, even their most aberrant
behaviou r, req uires us to find a grea t deal of reason and truth in them .
To see too much u n reason on the part of others i s simply to u ndermine
ou r ability to u ndersta nd wha t it is they are so unreasona ble abou t. I f
the va s t amount o f agreeme n t o n plai n matters that i s assu med in
commu nicati on escapes notice, it' s becau se the shared truths are too
many and too d u l l to bear mentioning. What we want to tal k about is
what's new, surprising, or disputed .
A theory for interpreti ng the u tterances ofa si ngle speaker, ba sed on
nothing bu t his a ttitudes towards se nte nces, would, we may be sure,
have many equally eligible rivals, for differences i n interpretation could
be offset by appropriate differe nces in the beliefs attri bu ted . Given a
comm u ni ty of speakers with apparently the same li nguistic repertoire,
however, the theorist will strive for a single theory of i n terpretation :
this wiII greatly narrow hi s practical choice of preliminary theorie s for
each individual speaker. (I n a prolonged dialogue, one starts perforce
with a socially applica ble theory, and refines it as evidence peculiar to
the other speaker accu m u lates.)
What makes a social theory of interpretation possible i s that we can
construct a plurality of private belief structures : belief i s built to take
up the slack betwee n sentences held true by individ uals and se nte nces
true (or false) by pu blic standard s. What is priva te about belief i s not
tha t it is accessible to only one person, but t hat it may be idiosyncratic .
A t tribu tions of belief are as publicly verifiable as i n terpretations,
bei ng based on the same evide nce : if we can u nderstand what a person
says, we can know what he believes.
I f in terpretation is approached in the st yle I have been d i sc u ssing,
it is not likely that only one theory will be fou nd sati sfactory. The re
sulting i ndetermi nacy of interpretation i s the semantic c ou nterpart of
Quine's indetermi nacy of tra n slation. On my approach, the degree of
inde terminacy will, I think, be less tha n Quine contem plate s : thi s is
partly because I advocate adoption of the p rinciple of charity on an
a cross-the-board basis, and partly because the u niqueness of
qua ntificational structure i s apparently assured if Co nvention T is
sa tis fied . But in any case the ques tion of i nde termi nacy i s not central to
1 54 Radical Interpretation
the concerns of this paper. I ndeterminacy of meaning or translation
does not represe nt a fail ure to capture significant distinctions ; it marks
the fact that certain apparent distinctions are not significant. If there is
indetermi nacy , it is becau se when all the evidence i s in, alternative
ways of stating the facts remain open . An anal ogy from deci sion
theory has al ready been noted : if the numbers 1 , 2, and 3 capture the
meaningful relations in su bjective val ue between three alternatives,
the n the numbers 1 7, 2, and + 1 3 d o as wel l . I ndeterminacy of this
- -
� See Essays 9 a nd 1 0 .
1 62 Radical In terpretation
When a que stion is asked , it generally indicates that the que stioner
does not know whether a certain sentence is true ; and so o n . I n order to
infer from such evidence that a speaker hold s a sentence true we need
to know m uch about his desires and beliefs, bu t we do no t have to
know what his word s mean.
On the other hand , knowledge of the circum stances under which
someone hold s sentences true i s central to interpretation. We saw in
the case o f thoughts that although most thoughts are not beliefs, it is
the pattern of belief that allows u s to identify any thought ;
analogously, in the case oflangu age, although most utterances are not
concerned with truth, it is the pattern of sentence s held true that gives
se nte nce s their meaning.
The attitude of holding a sentence to be true (u nder specified
conditions) relates belief and i nterpretatio n in a fu ndame ntal way . We
can know that a speaker holds a sentence to be true without knowing
what he means by it or what belief it expre sse s for him. But if we know
he holds the sentence true and we know how to interpret it, then we can
make a correc t attri butio n of belief. Symmetrically, if we know what
belief a sentence held true expresses, we know how to i nterpret it. The
methodological problem of interpretation is to see how, given the
sente nce s a man accepts as true u nder given circum stances, to work
out what his beliefs are and what hi s word s mean. The situ ation is
again similar to the situ ation in dec ision theory where, given a man' s
preferences between alternative courses of ac tion , we can discern both
his beliefs 2.nd his de sire s. Of course it should not be thought that a
theory of i nterpretation will stand alone, for as we noticed, there i s no
chance of telling when a sentence i s held true without being able to
attri bute desires and being able to describe actions as having complex
i ntentions. Thi s o b servation d oe s not deprive the theory of interpre
tatio n of interest, but assigns it a place within a more c omprehen sive
theory of ac tio n and thought. 5
I t is still u nc l�ar whether i nterpretation is required for a theory of
ac tion, which is the q uestion we set ou rselves to answer. What is
certai n is that all the stand ard way s of te sting theorie s o f decision or
preference u nder u ncertainty rely o n the u se oflanguage . It i s relatively
simple to eliminate the necessity for verbal responses o n the part of the
5 The i nte rlocking o f decisi o n theo ry a nd radical i nte rpreta t i o n i s explo red also in
Essay 1 0, i n Essay 1 2 of Essays on Thought and A c tion , and in 'Toward a U n i fied Theory
of M e a n i n g a nd Acti o n ' .
Though t and Talk 1 63
s ubjec t : he can be taken to have expressed a preference by taking
action, by moving direc tly to achieve his end, rather than by saying
what he wants. But this cannot settle the question o f what he has
chosen . A man who take s an apple rather than a pear when offered
b oth may be expressing a preference for what is on his left rather than
his right, what i s red rather t h an yellow, what i s seen first, or j udged
more expe nsive. Repeated te sts may make some read ings ofhi s actions
more plausible than others, but the problem will remai n how to
de termine when he j ud ges two o bjects of choice to be identical . Tests
that involve u ncertain events�hoices between gam bles-are even
harder to present without using word s. The psychol ogist, sceptical of
his ability to be certain how a su bjec t is interpreting his instructions,
mu st add a theory o f verbal i nterpretatio n to the theory to be te sted . I f
we think o f all choices a s revealing a preference that one sentence
rather than another be true, the resu lting to tal theory should provide
an i nterpretation o f sentences, and at the same time assign bel iefs and
desires, both of the latter conceived as relati ng the agent to sentences
or utterances. This compo site theory would explain all behaviour,
verbal and otherwi se.
All this strongly su ggests that the attribution of desires and beliefs
(and other tho u ght s) mu st go hand in hand with the i nterpretation of
speech, that neither the theory o f decision nor of interpretatio n can be
successfully developed without the other. But it remains to say, in
more convincing detail, why the attri bution of thought depend s on the
interpretation of speech. The general, and not very i nformative,
reason i s that without speech we cannot make the fine distinctions
between thou ghts that are essential to the explanations we can
sometimes c o nfidently supply. Ou r manne r of attri buting attitudes
ensu re s that all the expressive p ower of language can be u sed to make
such distinctio ns. One can believe that Scott is not the author of
Waverley while not doubting that Scott i s Scott ; o ne can want to be
the discoverer of a creature with a heart without wanting to be the
discoverer of a creature with a kidney . One can intend to bite into the
ap ple in the hand without i ntendi ng to bite into the o nly apple with a
Worm in it ; and so forth. The intensionality we make so m uch of in the
attribution of thoughts is very hard to make much of when speec h is
no t pre sent . The dog, we say , knows that its ma ster i s home. But does it
kn o w that M r Smith (who i s his master), or that the president of the
ba nk (who is that same master), is home ? We have no real idea how to
settle, or make se nse of, these questions. I t i s much harder to say, when
1 64 Radical interpretation
speech i s not p resent, how to d i stinguish universal tho u ghts from
conj u nctions of thoughts, or how to attribute conditional thoughts, or
thoughts with, so to speak, mixed q u antific atio n ('He hopes that
everyone is loved by someo ne').
These considerations will probably be less persu asive to dog lovers
than to others, b u t in any case they do not constitu te an argu ment. A t
best what we have shown, o r claimed , is that u nless there i s behaviour
that can be interpreted as speech, the evidence will not be adequ ate
to j u stify the fine distinctions we are used to making in the attribution
of thoughts. If we persist in attri buting desires, beliefs or other atti
tudes u nder these conditions, our attributions and consequent expla
nations of action s will be seriou sl y underdetermi ned i n that many
alternative systems of attribution, many alternative explanations, will
be equally j ustified by the available data. Perhaps this is all we can say
again st the attri bution of thoughts to dumb creatures ; but I do not
think so .
Before going on I want to consider a po ssible objection to the
general line I have been pursuing. S u ppose we grant, the o bjector says,
that very com plex behaviour not ob served in infants and elephants is
necessary if we are to find application for the full apparatu s available
for the attribution of thoughts. Still, it may be said , the sketc h of how
i nterpretation works does not show that this complexity m u st be
viewed as connected with language. The reason i s that the sketch
makes too much depend on the spec ial attitude of being thought true.
The most direct evidence for the existence o f this attitude is honest
assertion. But then it would seem that we could treat as speech the
behaviour of creatures that never did anything with language except
make honest assertions. Some philosophers do dream of such dreary
tribe s ; but would we be right to say they had a language ? What has
been lost to view is what may be called the autonomy ofmeaning. Once
a sentence is u nderstood, an utterance ofit may be u sed to serve almost
any extra-linguistic purpose. A n instrument that could be put to only
o ne u se would lack au tonomy of meaning ; thi s amounts to saying it
should not be counted as a language . So the com plexity of behavio ur
needed to give fu ll scope to attribution s of thought need not, after all,
have exactly the same complexity that allows, or requires, interpreta
tion as a language.
I agree wit h the hypothetical objector that autonomy of meaning i s
essential to l anguage ; i ndeed it is largely this that e xplains why
linguistic meaning cannot be defined or analy sed on the basis of extra-
Though t and Talk 1 65
lingui stic intentions and beliefs. But the objector fails to disti nguish
between a language that could be u sed for o nly o ne purpose and o ne
that is u sed for o nly o ne purpose. A n instrument that could be u sed for
only o ne purpose would not be language . But honest assertion alone
might yield a theory of i nterpretation, and so a langu age that, thou gh
capable of more, might never be pu t to fu rther uses. (A s a practical
matter, the event is u nthinkable. S omeone who k nows under what
conditio ns his se ntences are socially true cannot fail to grasp, and a vail
himself of, the possibilities for di shonest assertio n-or for joking.
story-telling, goad i ng, exaggerati ng, insulting, and all the rest of the
jolly c rew.)
A method o f interpretatio n tells us that for speakers of English an
u tterance of ' I t is raining' by a speaker x at time t is true if and o nly if it
i s raining (near x) at t. To be armed with this information, and to know
that other s know it, i s to know what an utterance means independently
of knowing the pu rposes that prompted it. The autonomy of meaning
also helps to explain how it i s possible, by the use of langu age, to
attri bute thoughts. Su ppose someone u tters assertively the se nte nce
' S now is white'. K nowing the conditions u nder whic h such an
utterance i s true I can add , if I please, ' I believe that too ' , thus
attributing a belief to myself. In this case we may both have asserted
that snow i s white, but sameness of force is not necessary to the self
attribution. The other may say with a sneer, expressing disbelief,
'Snow is white'-and I may again attribute a belief to myselfby saying,
'But I believe that'. I t can work as well in another way : If l can take
ad vantage of an u ttera nce of someone else' s to attri bute a belief to
my sel f, I can u se an utterance of my own to attrib ute a belief to
someone else. First I utter a sentence , perhaps ' S now is white', and
then I add 'He believes that' . The first utterance may or may not be an
assertion ; in any c ase, it does not attribute a belief to anyone (though if
it i s an assertion, then I d o represent myself as believi ng that snow is
white). But if my remark 'He believe s that' is an assertion, I have
attribu ted a belief to someo ne else. Finally, there is no bar to my
attributing a belief to m y self by sayi ng first, 'Snow is white' and the n
adding, ' I believe that'.
I n all these examples, I take the word 'that' to refer demonstratively
to an utterance, whether it i s an utterance by the speaker of the 'that' or
by another speaker. The 'that' cannot refer to a se nte nce, both
because, as Church has pointed out in similar cases, the reference
would then have to be reiativized to a language, since a sentence m ay
1 66 Radical In terpretation
have different meanings in different languages ; 6 b ut also, and more
obviously, because the same sentence may have different truth val ues
i n the same language.
What demon strative reference to u tterances does in the sort of case
just con sidered it can do as wel l when the surface structure is altere d to
something like ' I believe that snow i s white' or ' He believes that snow is
white'. I n these instances also I thi nk we should view the 'that' as a
demonstrative, now referring ahead to an utterance o n the verge of
prod uction . Th u s the logical form of standard attributions of attitude
is that of two utterances paratacticall y j oined . There is no connec tive,
though the first utterance contains a reference to the second . (Similar
remarks go, o f course , for inscriptions of sentences.)
1 have disc u s sed thi s analysis of verbal attributions of attitude
el sewhere, and there is no need to repeat the argu men ts and
explanations here . 7 It i s an analysis with its own difficulties, especially
when it comes to analysing quantification into the contained sentence,
but I think the se d ifficu lties can be overcome while preserving the
appealing features of the idea . Here I want to stress a point that
connects t he para tactic analysis of attributions of attitude with our
present theme. The proposed analysis d irectly relates the autonomous
feature of meaning with our abi lity to descri be and attri bute thoughts,
since it i s only becau se the interpretation of a sentence is independent
of its use that the utterance of a sentence can serve i n the description of
the attitudes of others. I f my analy sis is right, we c:'l.n d ispen se with the
u nlikely (but commo n) view that a sentence bracketed into a 'that'
clause needs an entirely different i nterpretation from the one that
works for it in other contexts. Since sentences are not names or
de scriptions in ordinary contexts, we can in particu lar reject the
assumption that the attitudes have o bjects such as proposition s which
'that'-clau ses might be held to name or descri be. There should be no
temptation to cal l the utterance to which reference i s made according
to the paratactic analysis the o bject of the attributed attitude .
Here a facile solution to our prob lem about the relation between
thoughts and speech suggests itself. One way to view the paratactic
analysis, a way proposed by Quine i n Word and Object, is thi s : when a
speaker a ttri butes an attitude to a person, what he d oes i s ape or mimic
an actual or possible speech act of that person. 8 I ndirect discourse is
8 a. m . on 26 August and it did rai n near Smith at that time. ' It would be
possible to gene rate a correct theory simply by considering sentences
to be true when held true, p rovided ( I ) there was a theory which
satisfied the fo rmal constraints and was consistent in this way with the
evidence, and (2) all speakers held a sentence to be true j u st whe n that
sentence was true-provided, that is, all beliefs, at least as far as they
c ould be expressed , we re correct.
But of cou rse it cannot be assu med that speakers never have false
beliefs . Error is what gives belief its point. We can, however, take it as
given that most beliefs a re co rrect. The reason fo r this i s that a belief i s
identified by its location in a pattern of beliefs ; i t is this pattern that
dete rmines the su bject matter of the belief, what the belief is about.
Before some object in, or aspect of, the world can become part of the
su bject matte r of a belief (true or false) there m u st be e ndless true
beliefs about the subject matte r. False beliefs tend to u nd ermine the
ide ntification of the su bject matter ; to u ndermine, therefore, the
validity of a desc ription of the belie f as being about that su bject . And
so, in tu rn, fal se beliefs u ndermine the c laim that a connected bel ief is
false . To take an example , how clear are we that the ancients-some
ancients-believed that the ea rth was flat ? This earth ? Well , this earth
of o u rs is part of the solar system, a sy stem partly identified by the fact
that it i s a gaggle of large , cool, solid bodies circling around a very
large, hot star: If someone believes none of this abou t the earth, is it
ce rtain that it is the earth that he i s thinking abou t ? A n an swer is not
called fo r. The point is made if this kind o f c onsideration of related
beliefs ca n shake one' s confidence that the ancients believed the earth
was flat. It isn't that any one fal se belief necessarily destroys ou r ability
to identify fu rthe r beliefs, but that the intelligibility of su ch
identifications mu st depend on a bac kground o f largely u nmentioned
and unq uestioned true beliefs. To put it anothe r way : the more things a
believer i s right about, the sharper his errors are. Too m uch mistake
simply blurs the foc u s .
What makes interpretation possible, then, is the fac t that we can
Thought and Talk 1 69
dismi ss a priori the chance of massive error. A theory o f interp retation
cannot be correct that makes a man assent to very many fal se
sentence s : it m u st ge neral ly be the case that a sentence i s true when a
speake r hold s it to be . So far as it goe s, it i s in favou r o f a method of
i nterpretation that it cou nts a sentence true j u st when speakers hold it
to be true. But of course, the speaker may be wrong ; and so may the
interprete r. So in the end what m u st be cou nted in favour of a method
of interpretation is that it puts the interpreter in general agreement
with the speaker : acc ording to the method , the speaker holds a
sentence true u nder specified cond itions, and these co nd itions obtain,
i n the opinion of the i nte rprete r, j u st when the speaker holds the
se ntence to /Je t rue.
No simple theory can put a speaker and inte rp rete r i n perfect
agreement, and so a wo rkable theory m ust from time to time assume
error on the part o f one or the other. The ba sic methodological precept
i s, the re fore, that a good theory of i nte rpretation maximizes
agreement . Or, given that se ntence s are infinite in nu m ber, and given
fu rther considerations to c ome, a better word might be optimize.
Some d i sagreements are m o re destructive of u nderstanding than
othe rs, and a sophisticated theory must nat u rally take this i nto
acc ou nt. Disagreement about theoretical matters may (in some cases)
be more tolera ble than di sagreement about what i s m o re evident ;
di sagreement about how t hings look or appear i s less tolerable than
disagreement about how they a re ; di sagreement abou t the t ru th of
attributions o f certai n attitudes t o a speaker by that same speaker may
not be tolera ble at al l , o r barely. It i s impossible to simplify the
considerations that are relevant, fo r everythin g we know or believe
about the way evidence supports beliefcan be pu t to wo rk i n decid i ng
whe re the theory can be st allow error, and what errors are least
destructive o f unde rstanding. The methodology of interpretation i s, in
thi s re spect, n othing but epistemol ogy seen in the mirro r of meaning.
The interpreter who assumes his met hod can be made to work fo r a
lang u age commu nity wi ll stri ve for a theory that optimizes agreement
thr oughout t he comm unity. Since easy comm u nication has survival
va lue , he m ay e xpect u sage within a community to favou r simple
Common theories of interpretatio n .
I f this accou nt of radical interpretat ion is right, a t least in b road
ou t l i ne, the n we should ac knowledge that t he concepts of objective
tr uth, and o f error, necessari ly emerge in the context of i nterpretatio n .
The distinction between a sentence bein g held true and being in fact
1 70 Radical Interpretation
true is essential to the exi ste nce of an interper sonal sy stem o f
commu nication, and when in individual case s there i s a difference, it
must be counted as error. Si nce the attitude of holding true is the same,
whether the sentence is true or not, it correspond s directly to belief.
The concep t of bel ief thu s s tands ready to take u p the slack between
objective truth and the held true, and we come to under stand it j u st in
this connection .
We have the idea of belief only from the role of belief in the
i nterpretation oflangu age , fo r as a private attitude it is not intelligible
except as an adjustme nt to the public norm provided by langu age. It
follows that a creature must be a member of a speech commu nity ifit is
to have the concept of belief. And given the depe ndence of other
attitudes on belief, we can say more generally that only a creature that
can interpret speech can have the concept of a thought.
Can a creatu re have a belief ifit d oe s not have the concept of belief?
I t seem s to me it cannot, and for this reason. Someone cannot have a
belief unless he understand s the possi bility of being mistaken, and this
requires grasping the contrast between truth and error-true belief
and fal se belief. But thi s contrast, I have argued , can emerge only in the
context of i nterpretation, which alone fo rces u s to the idea of an
objective , pu blic truth.
It i s often wrongl y thought that the semantical concept of truth is
red u ndant, that there is no difference between asse rting that a sentence
s i s true, and u sing s to make an assertion. What may be right is a
red undancy theory of belief, that to believe that p i s not to be
di stinguished from the belief that p i s true. Thi s notion of truth i s not
the semantical notion : language i s not directly in the picture. But it is
only j u st out of the pictu re ; it is part of the frame . For the notion of a
true belief depend s o n the notion of a true utterance, and this i n turn
there cannot be without shared langu age. As S hakespeare's Uly sses
puts it :
A theo ry that passes the empirica l tests is one that in fact can be
proj ected to uno bserved and coun terfactual cases, and this is apparent
to anyone who knows what the evidence is and how it is used to
support the theo ry . The trouble is, the theory does not s tate that it has
the cha racte r it does.
We get a precise parallel if we a sk what someone must know to be a
physicist. A quick answer might be : the laws of physics. But Foster
would say, and 1 agree, that this is not enough. The physicist must also
know (and he re 1 speak for mysel f ) that those laws are laws-i . e . that
they are confi rmed by their instances, and support counterfactual and
subj unctive claims. To get the pictu re, you are to imagine that a
budding scientist is to ld tha t the mass of a body has no influence on
how long it will take for it to fal l a given distance in a vacuum. Then he
is asked , 'Suppose Galileo had d ropped a feather and a cannon ball
from the top of the Empire S tate Building, and tha t the ea rth had no
atmosp here . Which would have reached the ground sooner, the
fea the r or the cannon ball ?' The wise child replies, 'I have no idea. You
told me only what does happen , things being as they are ; you did not
say what would happen if things were otherwise . '
Foster offers, as a thesis he thinks I may have 'tried to convey' but
failed to ge t right, the fo llowing : 'what we need to know, fo r the
maste ry of L, are both the facts which [a T- theo ryJ states, and that
those facts a s known by us, are T-theoretica l . ' He then puts it in a
nutshell : what someone needs to know is that some T- theo ry for L
states that . . . (and here the dots a re to be replaced by a T -theory). I am
happy to accep t this version, since it is equivalent to my own. ( So far as
I know , I never he ld the view he attri butes to me which leaves
unconnected the knowledge of what a theory of t ruth s ta tes and the
knowledge that the theo ry is T -'theore tical.)
Now le t us conside r the view which Foster thinks I should, and I
know I do , hol d . It canno t be said that on this view, knowledge of a
lan guage reduces to knowing how to translate i t into another. The
Reply to Foster 1 75
con sisting of the u tterance of two sentences, ' Galileo said that' and
'The Earth m oves' . The ' that' refers to the second utterance, and the
first u tterance is true if and onl y if an u tterance of Galileo's was the
same in con ten t as ( ' t ranslates') the utte rance to which the ' that'
refers. (Foste r wrongly says my analysis of 'Galileo said that' is
' Some u tte rance of Galileo and my last u tterance make Galileo and
me same-saye rs' . This is not an analysis, bu t a rephrasal designed to
give a reade r a feeling fo r the sem antics ; an exposi tory and heu ristic
device . )
Foste r tries to prove m y semantic analysis wrong b y sh owing that
it fails a tran slati on test. This test req u i res that the tran slation of an
utte rance (as analysed) must state the same fact or propositi on ( I am
u sing Foster's words) as the original u tterance. Then he points ou t that
a tran slation of 'Galileo said that' into F rench that p rese rved the
reference of ' that' (on my anal ysis) wou ld fail to convey to a F rench
a udie nce anything about the content of Galileo' s remark . He takes
this to show that on my analysis an ordinary utterance of a sentence
l ike ' Ga l ileo said that the Ea rth moves' fails to state what Galileo
said ; and so a paral le l analysis of the 'states that' which m y theory of
interpretation needs wil l suffer from the same fai l u re .
But what i s t h i s relation be tween utterances, of stating the same
fact or proposition, that Foste r has in mind ? A l l he tel ls us is that
refe rence must be preserved . This is su rely not enou gh, however,
since if an y two u tterances sta te the same fact when refe rence is
prese rved, it is ve ry difficult to block a familiar p roof that all true
u tterances state the same fact. The u se of the word ' p roposi tion'
su ggests that meaning must be prese rved as well as reference . Bu t if
both reference and meaning must be prese rved , it i s easy to see that
very fe w pai rs of utterances can state the same fact provided the
utterances contain indexical expressions. Leaving aside bilingu als,
no French u tte rance can state any fact I do by u sing ' I ' , and I cann ot
twice state the sa me fac t by saying ' I ' m warm ' twice. To j u d ge m y
analysis wrong b y these standards i s simply t o j u d ge i t wrong
because it supp oses that indirect di scou rse involves an indexical
el ement. Fai l ing fu rther argu ment, the concl usion throws doubt on
the standards, n ot the analysis.
Like Foster, I assume of cou rse that a translator wil l render
Eng lish indirect discou rse into F rench in the u sual wa y . I n m y vie w,
he wil l do this by referring to a new u tterance which he wi ll have to
supply. (The same thing goes on if I u tter 'Galileo said that the Earth
1 78 Radica l In terpre ta tion
1 B . L . Whorf, 'The Punctual and Segmen tative Aspects of Verbs i n H opi ' .
2 T. S. Kuhn , The Structure of Scientific Re volutions .
3 W. V. Qui n e , 'Speaking of Objects', 24.
On the Very Idea of a Conceptual Scheme 185
Alternativel y, there is the idea that any language disto rts rea lity,
which implies that it is only wordlessly if at al l that the mind comes
to grips with things as the y really are . This is to conceive langu age as
an inert ( though necessarily distorting) medium independent of the
human agencies that employ it ; a vie w of l anguage that s u rely
cannot be main tained . Yet if the mind can grapple without
distortion with the real , the mind itself must be withou t catego ries
and concepts. This featu reless sel f is familiar from theories in quite
differen t pa rts of the phil osophical l and scape . There a re , for
example, theories that make freedom consist in decisions taken
apart from all desires, habits, and disposi tions of the agent ; and
theories of knowledge that suggest tha t the m ind can observe the
totality of its own perceptions and ideas. In each case, the mind is
divorced from the traits that con stitu te i t ; an inescapa ble concl usion
from ce rtain l ines of reasoning, as I said , but one that should al ways
pe rsu ade us to reject the p remisses.
We may iden tify conceptual schemes with l anguages, then, or
better, a l l owing for the possi bility that mo re than one l angu age may
express the same scheme, se ts of inte rtranslatable l angu ages.
Languages we will not think of as separa ble from sou l s ; speaking a
langu age is not a trait a man can lose while retaining the power
of thou ght. So there is no chance tha t someone can take up a
vantage poin t for com pa ring conceptual schemes by temporarily
shedd ing his own. Can we then say tha t two people have different
conceptual schemes if they speak languages that fail of inte rtrans
latability ?
In what fo llows I consider two kinds of case that mig h t be
expected to a rise : complete, and pa rtial , failu res of transl ata bility.
There would be complete fa i l u re if no significant range of sen tences
i n one l anguage cou ld be transl ated into the othe r ; the re wou ld be
partial fai l u re if some range cou ld be trans l a ted and some range
cou ld not (I sha l l neglect possible asymmetries. ) My strategy wil l be
to argue that we cannot make sense of total fai l u re, and then to
examine more b riefly cases of partial fai l u re.
First, then, the pu rpo rted cases of com plete fai l u re . It is tempting
to take a very short l i ne indeed : nothing, it may be said , cou ld cou nt
as evide nce that some fo rm of activity cou ld not be inte rp reted in
ou r language that was not at the same time evidence that that fo rm
of activity was not speech behaviou r. I f this were right, we probably
ought to ho ld that a fo rm of activity that cannot be interpreted as
1 86 Language and Reali ty
concludes by showing that such a procedure will also lead to the elimination
of the old meanings.6
For all I know, the shiny new phrases, though stolen from the old
language in which they refe r to physiol ogica l stirrings, may in his
mou th play the role of the messy old mental concepts.
The key ph rase is: for all I know. What is clea r is that retention of
some or all of the old vocabulary in itself provides no basis for
judging the new scheme to be the same as, or different from, the old .
So what sou nded at fi rst like a thril ling discovery-that t ruth is
relative to a conceptu al scheme-has not so far been shown to be
anyth ing more than the pedestrian and familiar fact that the t ruth of
a sentence is relative to (am ong othe r things) the language to which
it belongs. Instead of living in diffe rent worlds, Kuhn's scientists
may, like those who need Webster's dictionary, be only words apart .
Giving up the analytic-synthetic distinction has not proven a help
in making sense of conceptual rel ativism . The analytic-synthetic
distinction is howeve r expl ained in te rms of something that may
serve to buttress conceptual relativism, namely the idea of empirical
content. The dualism of the synthetic and the analytic is a dualism of
sentences some of which are true (or false) both because of what they
mean and because of their empirical content, while others a re true
(or false) by virtue of meaning al one, having no empirical content. If
we give up the dualism , we aband on the conception of meaning that
goes with it, but we do not have to abandon the idea of empirical
c ontent: we can hold , if we want, that all sentences have empirical
content. Empirical content is in tu rn explained by refe rence to the
facts, the world, experience, sensation, the totality of sensory
stimu li, or something simil ar. Meanings gave us a way to talk about
categories, the organizing structu re of language, and so on; but it is
possible, as we have seen, to give up meanings and analyticity while
retaining the idea of language as embodying a conceptual scheme.
Thus in place of the dualism of the analytic-synthetic we get the
dualism of conceptual scheme and empirical c ontent. The new
dualism is the foundation of an empiricism shorn of the u ntenable
d ogmas of the analytic-synthetic distinction and reductionism
shorn, that is, o f the unworka ble idea t1u.lt we can uniq uely all ocate
empirical content sentence by sentence .
I want to u rge that this second dualism of scheme and content, of
organizing system and something waiting to be organized, cannot be
made intelligible and defensible. It is itsel f a dogma of empiricism ,
the third dogma. The third, and perhaps the last, for if we give it up
it is not clear that there is anything distinctive left to call empiricism .
190 Language and Reality
language does in a cruder but also in a broader and more versatile way the
same thing that science does ... We are thus introduced to a new principle
of relativity, which holds that all observers are not led by the same physical
evidence to the same picture of the universe, unless their linguistic
backgrounds are similar, or can in some way be calibrated. 7
get organized, or which the scheme must fit, I think again we may
detect two main ideas: either it is reality (the universe, the world,
nature), or it is experience (the passing show, surface irritations,
sensory promptings, sense-data, the given).
We cannot attach' a clear meaning to the notion of organizing a
single object (the world, nature etc.) unless that object is understood
to contain or consist in other objects. Someone who sets out to
organize a closet arranges the things in it. If you are told not to
organize the shoes and shirts, but the closet itself, you would be
bewildered. How would you organize the Pacific Ocean? Straighten
out its shores, perhaps, or relocate its islands, or destroy its fish.
A language may contain simple predicates whose extensions are
matched by nO simple predicates, or even by any predicates at all, in
some other language. What enables us to make this point in
particular cases is an ontology common to the two languages, with
concepts that individuate the same objects. We can be clear about
breakdowns in translation when they are local enough, for a
background of generally successful translation provides what is
needed to make the failures intelligible. But we were after larger
game: we wanted to make sense of there being a language we could
not translate at all. Or, to put the point differently, we were looking
for a criterion of languagehood that did not depend on, or entail,
translatability into a familiar idiom. I suggest that the image of
organizing the closet of nature will not supply such a criterion.
How about the other kind of object, experience? Can we think of
a language organizing it? Much the same difficulties recur. The
notion of organization applies only to pluralities. But whatever
plurality we take experience to consist in-events like losing a
button or stubbing a toe, having a sensation of warmth or hearing
an oboe-we will have to individuate according to familiar prin
ciples. A language that organizes such entities must be a language very
like our own.
Experience (and its classmates like surface irritations, sensations,
and sense-data) also makes another and more obvious trouble for
the organizing idea. For how could something count as a language
that organized only experiences, sensations, surface irritations, or
sense-data? Surely knives and forks, railroads and mountains,
cabbages and kingdoms also need organizing.
This last remark will no doubt sound inappropriate as a response
to the claim that a conceptual scheme is a way of coping with
On the Very Idea of a Conceptual Sch eme 1 93
sensory experience; and I agree that it is. But what was under
consideration was the idea of organizing experience. not the idea of
coping w ith (or fitting or facing) experience. The reply was apropos
of the former. not the latter, concept. So now let's see whether we
can do better with the second idea.
When we turn from talk of organization to talk of fitting we turn
our attention from the referential apparatus of language
predicates, quantifiers, variables, and singular terms-to whole
sentences. It is sentences that predict (or are used to predict),
sentences that cope or deal with things, that fit our sensory
promptings, that can be compared or confronted with the evidence.
It is sentences also that face the tribunal of experience, though of
course they must face it together.
The proposal is not that experiences, sense-data, surface irri
tations , or sensory promptings are the sole subject matter of
language. There is, it is true, the theory that talk about brick houses
on Elm Street is ultimately to be construed as being about sense data
or perceptions, but such reductionistic views are only extreme, and
implausible. versions of the general position we are considering. The
general position is that sensory experience provides all the eviden ce
for the acceptance of sentences (where sentences may include whole
theories). A sentence or theory fits our sensory promptings,
successfully faces the tribunal of experience, predicts future ex
perience. or copes with the pattern of ou r su rface irritations,
provided it is borne out by the evidence.
In the common course of affairs, a theory may be borne out by the
available evidence and yet be false. But what is in view here is not
just actually available evidence; it is the totality of possible sensory
evidence past, present, and future. We do not need to pause to
contemplate what this might mean. The point is that for a theory to
fit or face up to the totality of possible sensory evidence is for that
theory to be true. If a theory quantifies over physical objects,
numbers, or sets, what it says about these entities is true provided
the theory as a whole fits the sensory evidence. One can see how,
from this point of view, such entities might be called posits. It is
reasonable to call something a posit if it can be contrasted with
something that is not. Here the something that is not is sensory
experience-at least that is the idea.
The trouble is that the notion of fitting the totality of experience,
like the notion of fitting the facts, or of being true to the facts, adds
1 94 Language and Reality
II
III
others, to do the work of the simple original rule. But the poin t
remains : canonical notation is a convenience we can get along
without if need be. It is good, but not necessary, to bring logical
form to the surface.
Similarly, it would greatly ease the treatment of negation if we
could plausibly transform all sentences containing negation into
sentences, recognizably the same in truth value, in which the
negating phrase always governs a sentence (as with, 'it is not the case
that'). But if this were not possible, negation would still be a
sentential connective if the truth condition of a sentence like 'Coal is
not white' were given by adverting to the truth condition of 'Coal is
white'. (,Coal is not white' is true if and only if 'Coal is white' is not
true.)
The issue of ontology is forced into the open only where the
theory finds quantificational structure, and that is where the theory
best accounts for the pattern of truth dependencies by systematically
relating expressions to objects. It is striking how firmly the demand
for theory puts to rest one ancient source of aporia : the question
how to demonstrate the asymmetry, if any, of subject and predicate.
As long as our attention is focused on single, simple sentences, we
may wonder why an explanation of truth should involve predicates
in ontology any less than singular terms. The class of wise objects (or
the property of wisdom) offers itself as what might correspond to the
predicate 'wise' in 'Socrates is wise' in much the same way Socrates
corresponds to 'Socrates'. As pointed out above, no finite number of
such sentences requires a theory of truth to bring ontology into the
picture. When we get to mixed quantification and predicates of any
degree of complexity, however, the picture changes. With complex
quantificational structure, the theory will match up expressions with
objects. But there is no need, as long as the underlying logic is
assumed to be first order, to introduce entities to correspond to
predicates. Recognition of this fact will not, of course, settle the
question whether there are such things as universals or classes. But it
does demonstrate that there is a difference between singular term
and predicate ; for large stretches of language, anyway, variables,
quantifiers, and singular terms must be construed as referential in
function ; not so for predicates.
It is not always evident what the quantificational structure of a
sentence in natural language is ; what appear to be singular terms
sometimes melt into something less ontic in implication when their
The Method of Truth in Metaphysics 21 1
logical relations with other sentences are studied, while the require
ments of theory may suggest that a sentence plays a role which can
be explained only by treating it as having a quantificational
structure not apparent on the surface. Here is a familiar illustration.
What is the ontology of a sentence like :
'Jack feIl down before Jack broke his crown'?
Jack and his crown seem to be the only candidates for entities that
must exist if this sentence is to be true. And if, in place of 'before' , we
had 'and', this answer might satisfy us for the reason already
explored : namely, that we can state, in a way that will work for
endless similar cases, the truth conditions of the whole sentence
'Jack fell down and Jack broke his crown' On the basis just of the
truth of the component sentences, and we can hope to give the truth
conditions for the components without more ontology than Jack
and his crown. But 'Jack fell down before Jack broke his crown'
does not yield to this treatment, because 'before' cannot be viewed as
a truth-functional semantic connective: to see this, reflect that for
the sentence to be true, both component sentences must be true, but
this is not sufficient for its truth, since interchanging the components
will make it false.
Frege showed us how to cope with the case : we can formulate the
truth conditions for the sentence 'Jack fell down before Jack broke
his crown' as follows : it is true if and only if there exists a time t and
there exists a time t' such that Jack fell down at t, Jack broke his
crown at t' , and t is before t ' . So apparently we are committed to the
existence of times if we accept any such sentence as true. And
thinking of the holistic character of a truth definition, the discovery
of hidden intology in sentences containing 'before' must carry over
to other sentences : thus, 'Jack felI down' is true if and only if there
exists a time t such that Jack fell down at t .
Now for a more disturbing example. Consider first 'Jack's fall
caused the breaking of his crown.' Here it is natural to take 'Jack's
fall' and 'the breaking of his crown' as singular terms describing
events, and 'caused' as a two-place, or relational, predicate. But
then, what is the semantic relation between such general terms as
'fall' in 'Jack's fall' or 'the fall of Jack' and such verbs as 'fell' in
'Jack fell' ? For that matter, how does 'Jack's fall caused the
breaking of his crown' differ, in its truth conditions, from 'Jack fell,
which caused it to be the case that Jack broke his crown', where the
2 12 Language and Reality
phrase 'which caused it to be the case that' is, on the face of it, a
sentential connective ?
The correct theory of 'caused', as I have argued at more length
elsewhere, is parallel to Frege's theory for 'before'. s I suggest that
'Jack fell down, which caused a breaking of his crown' is true if
and only if there exist events e andJsuch that e is a fall Jack tookJis
a breaking his crown suffered, and e caused f. According to this
proposal, the predicate 'is a fall' , true of events, becomes primary,
and contexts containing the verb are derived. Thus 'Jack fell' is true
if and only if there is a fall such that Jack took it, 'Jack took a walk'
is true if and only if there is a walk that he took, and so on. On this
analysis, a noun phrase like 'Jack's fall' becomes a genuine
description, and what it describes is the one fall that Jack took.
One consideration that may help reconcile us to an ontology of
particular events is that we may then dispense with the abstract
ontology of times we just now tentatively accepted, for events are as
plausibly the relata of the before-relation as times. Another
consideration is that by recognizing our commitment to an ontology
of events we can see our way to a viable semantics of adverbs and
adverbial modification. Without events, there is the problem of
explaining the logical relations between sentences like 'Jones nicked
his cheek while shaving with a razor in the bathroom on Saturday',
and 'Jones nicked his cheek in the bathroom ', and 'Jones nicked his
cheek'. It seems that some iterative device is at work ; yet what, from
a semantic point of view, can the device be ? The books on logic do
not say : they analyse these sentences to require relations with
varying numbers of places depending on the number of adverbial
modifications, but this leads to the unacceptable conclusion that
there is an infinite basic vocabulary, and it fails to explain the
obvious inferences. By interpreting these sentences as being about
events, we can solve the problems. Then we can say that 'Jones
nicked his cheek in the bathroom on Saturday' is true if and only if
there exists an event that is a nicking of his cheek by Jones, and that
event took place in the bathroom, and it took place on Saturday.
The iterative device is now obvious : it is the familiar collaboration
of conjunction and quantification that enables us to deal with
'Someone fell down and broke his crown'.
This device works, but as we have seen, it takes an ontology to
make it work : an ontology including people for 'Someone fell down
8 See Essay 7 in Essays on A ctions and Even ts .
The Method of Truth in Metaphysics 213
and broke his crown', an ontology of events (in addition) for 'Jones
nicked his cheek in the bathroom on Saturday' . It is mildly ironic
that in recent philosophy it has become a popular manreuver to try
to avo id ontological problems by treating certain phrases as
adverbial. One such suggestion is that we can abjure sense-data if we
render a sentence like 'The mountain appears blue to Smith' as'The
mountain appears bluely to Smith' . Another similar idea is that we
can do without an ontology of intensional objects by thinking of
sentences about propositional attitudes as essentially adverbial :
'Galileo said that the earth moves' would then come out, 'Galileo
spoke in a-that-the-earth-moves-fashion'. There is little chance, I
think, that such adverbial clauses can be given a systematic
semantical analysis without ontological entanglements.
There is a further, rather different, way in which a theory of truth
may have metaphysical repercussions. In adjusting to the presence
of demonstratives, and of dem onstrative elements like tense, in a
natural language, a theory of truth must treat truth as an attribute of
u tterances that depends (perhaps among other things) on the
sentence uttered, the speaker, and the time. Alternatively, it may be
possible to treat truth as a relation between speakers, sentences, and
times. Thus an utterance of 'I am five feet tall' is true if spoken at
some times in the lives of most people, and true if spoken at any time
during a considerable span in the lives of a few. 'Your slip is
showing' may be true when uttered by a speaker at a time when he
faces west, though it might not have been true if he had faced north ;
and 'Hilary climbed Everest' was for a long time false, and is now
forever true. Sentences without demonstrative elements cannot do
the work of sentences with demonstrative elements, but if we are to
have a theory of truth, we must be able to state, without the use of
demonstratives, a rule that explains under what conditions sentences
with demonstratives are true. Such rules will give the truth condition
of sentences like 'Hilary climbed Everest' only by quantifying over
utterances, speakers, and times, or, perhaps, events.
If explicit appeal must be made to speakers and their circum
stances in giving a theory of truth, then on the assumption that the
general features of language reflect objective features of the world,
We must conclude that an intelligible metaphysics will assign a
central place to the idea of people ( = speakers) with a location in
public space and time.
It should be clear that 'the meth()d of truth' in metaphysics does
214 Language and Reality
not elimi nate recou rse to more standard , often essentially non
linguistic, argume nts or decisions. What it is possi ble to do i n a
theory of truth, for example, depends to a large extent on the logical
resou rces the theo ry i tself deploys, and the theory cannot decide this
fo r us. Nor, as we have seen, does the method suggest what truths,
beyond those it counts as logical, we must accept as a condition of
mutual unde rstanding. What a theory of truth does is describe the
pattern truth must make among the se ntences, withou t telling us
where the patte rn fal ls. So, for example, I a rgue that a very large
number of our ordi nary claims about the world cannot be true
unless there a re events. But a theory of truth, even if it took the form
I propose, wou ld not specify which events exist, nor even that any
do. However, i f I am right about the logical fo rm of sentences
concerning change, the n unless there are events, there are no true
sentences of very common kinds about change. And if there are no
true sentences about change, there are no true sentences about
objects that change. A metaphysician who is wi l ling to su ppose no
se ntences like 'Vesuvius erupted in March 1 944' or 'Caesar crossed
the Ru bicon' are true will not be forced by a theory of truth to admit
the existe nce of events or even, perhaps, of people or mountains. But
if he accepts that many such sentences are true (whichever they may
be) , then it is obvi ous that he must accept the existence of people and
volcanoes ; and, if I am right, the existence of events like eruptions
and crossi ngs.
The merit of the method of truth is not that it settles such matters
once and for all, or even that i t settles them without further
metaphysical reflection. But the method does serve to sharpen our
sense of viable alternatives. and gives a comprehensi ve idea of the
'
consequences of a decisi on. Metaphysics has general ity as an aim ;
the method of tru th exp resses that demand by requiring a theory
that touches all the bases. Thus the problems of metaphysics, while
nei ther solved nor replaced, come to be seen as the problems of all
good theory bui lding. We want a theory that is simple and clear ,
with a logical apparatus that is understood and justified, and that
accou nts fo r the facts about how our language works. What those
facts are may remain somewhat i n dispute, as wi l l certainly the
wisdom of various trade-offs as between si mplicity and clarity.
These questions will be, I do not doubt, the old questions of
metaphysics i n new dress. But the new dress is in many ways an
attractive one .
15 Reality without Reference
If nothing is said about the constituents, how does the theory handle
s uch cases ? Well, one way might be this : The basic vocabulary must
be finite . I n particular, then, there ca n be only a finite num ber of
simple predicates and a finite num ber of proper names (u nstructured
sin gular terms, not counting variables) . So it is possible to list every
sentence consisting of a proper name and a basic predicate. It
follows that a theory can entail every sentence like (T) by having
every such sentence as an axiom . Clearly this method avoids (so far)
any appeal to the concept of reference-and fails to throw any light
on it.
Predicates come in any degree of complexity, since they can be
built up from connectives and variables ; and constant singular terms
can be complex. So the method we were just exploring will fail to
work in general. I n the case of predicates, Tarski's method, as we
know, involves appeal to the concept of satisfaction, a relation
between predicates and n-tuples of entities of which the predicates
are true (actually, sequences of such). Satisfaction is obvi ously much
like reference for predicates-i n fact we might define the refere nce of
a predicate as the class of those entities that satisfy it. The trouble is,
an absolute theory of tru th doesn't really illuminate the relation of
satisfaction. When the theory comes to characterize satisfaction for
the predicate ' x flies' , for exam ple, it merely tells us that an entity
satisfies 'x flies' if and only if that entity flies. If we ask for a further
explanation or analysis of the relation, we will be disappointed .
The fact that an absolute definition of tru th fails to yield an
analysis of the concept of reference can be seen from this, that if one
imagi nes a new predicate added to the language�or a language just
like the old except for containing a single further predicate-the
acc ount of tru th and satisfaction already given don't suggest how to
go on to the new Case. (This remark doesn't apply to the recursive
cla uses : they say in general when a conju nction is true, no matter
what the conjuncts are.)
The fact that satisfaction, which we have been thinki ng of as
recursively characterized, can be given an explicit definition ( by the
Frege-Dedekind technique) should not lead us into thinking a
general co ncept has been captured . For the definition (like the
recursion that serves it) will explicitly limit the application of
satisfaction to a fixed finite list of predicates (and compounds of
218 Language and Reality
them) . So if a theory (or definition) of satisfaction applies to a give n
language and then a new predicate, say ' x flies', is added, it will
follow that 'x flies' is not satisfied by an object that flies�o r by
anything else.
Analogous remarks go for constant si ngular terms. I ndeed if there
are complex si ngular te rms, i t will be necessary to characteri ze a
relation like reference, usi ng recursive clauses such as : 'the father of '
concatenated with a name a refers t o the fathe r of what a refers to.
But for the underl ying prope r names, there wi ll agai n be si mply a
list . What it is fo r a proper name to refer to an object will not be
analysed.
The poi nt I have just been labouri ng, that there is a clea r sense in
which an absol ute theory of truth does not throw l ight on the
semantic featu res of the basic vocabulary of predicates and names, is
familiar. This complaint has often been conflated with another, that
a Tarski-style theory of truth gives no i nsight i nto the concept of
truth. It will do no harm if we accept the idea that i n a theory of
truth, the expression 'is true' (or whateve r takes i ts pl ace) is
understood i ndependently. The reason Convention T is acceptable
as a criterion of theories is that ( 1 ) T -sentences are clearly true (pre
analytical ly)-somethi ng we could recognize only if we already
(partly) unde rstood the predicate 'is true ' , and (2) the totality of T
sentences fixes the exte nsi on of the truth predicate uniquely. The
i nte rest of a theory of truth, viewed as an empirical theory of a
natural language, is not that it tells us what truth is i n ge neral, but
that it reveals how the truth of every sentence of a particu lar L
depends on i ts structure and consti tuents.
We do not need to worry, then, over the fact that a theory of truth
does not full y anal yse the pre-anal ytic concept of truth. The poi nt
may be g ranted without impugning the i nte rest of the theory . (I'll
come back to this.) There remai ns the claim, which I also grant, that
the theory does not explai n or analyse the concept of reference . A nd
that seems a grievous fai l u re, si nce it undermi nes the prete nsions of
the theory to give a complete account of the truth of se nte nces.
This property of a theory of truth has been poi nted out to me with
increasing persi stence by a number of cri tics. Gi l bert Harman makes
the poi nt i n o rder to question whether a theory of t ruth ca n, as I
have clai med , do duty for a theory of mea ni ng. t He says , in e ffect.
4 See Essays 9- 1 1 .
224 Language and Reality
ge neral concept of reference I n the construction of an adequate
theory.
We don't need the concept of refere nce ; neither do we need
refere nce itself, whatever that may be. For if there is one way of
assigning entities to expressio ns (a way of characterizing 'sati sfac
tion') that yields acceptable results with respect to the truth
condition s of se ntences, there wil l be e ndless other ways that do as
wel l . There is no reason , then, to call any one of these semantical
relations 'reference' or ' satisfaction ' . 5
How can a theory of absolute truth gi ve an accou nt of communi
cation, or be con side red a theory of meaning? It doesn't provide us
with the materials for defining or an alysing such phrases as 'means',
'means the same as', 'is a translation of', etc. It is wrong to think
that we can automatically co nstrue T -sen tences as 'giving the
meaning' of se ntences if we put no more con straint on them tha n
that they come out true.
The questio n to ask is whether someone who k nows a theory of
truth for a language L would have e nough information to interpret
what a speaker of L says. I think the right way to inve stigate this
question is to ask in turn whether the empirical and formal
constraints on a theory of truth sufficiently limit the range of
accepta ble theories. Su ppose, for example, that every theory that
satisfied the requirements gave the truth conditions of ' Socrates flies'
as suggested above . Then clearly to know the theory (and to k now
that it is a theory that sati sfies the constrai nts) is to know that the T
se ntence uniquely gives the truth condition s of 'Soc rates flies'. A nd
this is to k now enough about its role in the language.
I don't for a moment imagine such uniqueness would emerge. But
I do think that reaso nable empirical constraints on the interpre
tation of T-sentences (the conditions under which we find them
true), plus the formal con straints, wil l leave enough invaria nt as
between theo ries to allow us to say that a theory of truth captu res
the esse n tial role of each se nte nce. A rough compariso n may hel p
give the idea. A theory of measu reme nt fo r tem perature lead s to the
assignment to objects of numbe rs that measure their temperature.
Such theories put formal con straints on the assignments, and al so
must be tied empirically to qualitatively observable phenomena. The
nu m bers assigned are not uniquely determined by the constraints.
s See 1 . Wall ace , ' On l y i n the C o n text of a Sentence d o Words H ave A ny Meani ng' .
Reality Without Reference 225
1 For furthe r details , and answers to vari ous difficul ties, see J, Wallace, ' Only in the
Co n text of a Sen tence do Words H ave An y Meaning' , See also Hartry Fiel d's two
a rt icles, ' Q u i ne and the Correspo ndence Theory' and 'Conventionalism and
I ns t rumental i s m in Sem antics ' , The present paper has been m uch i nfluenced by the
a rt icles of Wallace and Fiel d ,
230 Language and Reality
yield identical truth conditions for all sentences if we add to the
theory the assumptions that led us to believe ¢ was a permutation of
the universe.
The earliest examples known to me of the use of permutations of
the uni verse to illustrate the slippery natu re of reference are in a
review by Richard Jeffrey. 2 His main target i s not reference,
however, and hi s examples do not exactly fill our bil l . Fu rther
examples can be fo u nd i n the works referred to above by John
Wall ace and Ha rtry Field. Here is a simple illustration : suppose
every object has one and only one shadow . 3 Then we may take ¢ to
be expressed by the words 'the shadow of '. On a first theory, we take
the name 'Wi l t ' to refer to Wilt and the predicate 'is tal l' to refer to
tall thi ngs ; on the second theory, we take 'Wilt' to refe r to the
shadow of Wilt and 'is tal l ' to refer to the shadows of tall things. The
first theory tel ls us that the se ntence 'Wilt is tall' is true if and only if
Wilt is tal l ; t he second theory tells that 'Wi l t is tall ' is true if and onl y
if the shadow of Wilt is the shadow of a tall thi ng. The truth
conditions are clearl y eq uivalent. If one does not mind speaking of
facts, one might say that the same fact makes the sentence true in
both cases.
I assume that the re are permutations of the requisite kind that
demand no fiction. Another assumption that is clearly needed if we
are to conclude to the i nscrutability of reference is tha t if some
theory of truth (or translation or i nterpretation) is satisfactory in the
light of all relevant evide nce (actual or potential) then any theory
that is generated from the first theory by a permutation will also be
satisfactory in the l ight of all relevant evidence . Of course many
phi losophers reject thi s assu mption, but si nce i t is a matter on which
I agree with Quine , I shall not argue for it he re. The crucial point on
which I am with Qui ne might be put : al l the evidence for or against a
theory of tru th (interpretation, translation) comes in the form of
facts a bout what events or situations in the world cause , or would
cause, speake rs to assent to, or dissent from, each se ntence i n the
speaker's repertoi re . We probably differ on some detai ls. Quine
de scri bes the events or situati ons i n terms of patte rns of stimulation,
whi le I prefer a description i n terms more like those of the se nten ce
being studied ; Quine wou ld give more weight to a gradi ng o f
sentences in terms of observationality than I woul d ; and where he
2 R . Jeffrey , re view of Logic, Merhodology, and rhe Philosophy of Science.
3 For the example to work properl y , e verything must be, as well as have, a shad o w.
The Inscrutability of Reference 23 1
likes asse nt and di ssent because they suggest a behavi ouristic test, I
despai r of behaviourism and accept frankly intensi onal atti tudes
toward se nte nces, such as holding true. So far as I can see, none of
these differe nces matters to the argume nt for the inscruta bility of
reference. What matters i s that what causes the response or attitude
of the speaker is an objective situation or eve nt, and that the
response or attitude is directed to a sentence or the uttera nce of a
sentence. As long as we hold to this, there can be no relevant
evidence on the basis of which to choose between theories and their
permuta tions.
Does the inscrutability of reference, unde rstood and defended as
just now, support the idea that reference should be relativized ? It
certainly suggests it. For we cannot rest with a concl usion that
allows us to accept both that 'Wilt' refers to Wilt and that 'Wi l t'
refers to the shadow of Wil t. We can without contradicti on accept
both only if both can be true, and clearl y this is not the case.
It is possi ble to solve the problem without relativizi ng. All we need
i s to make clear that 'refers' is being used in two ways, Su bscripts
would put thi ngs right. 'Wilt' refers1 to Wi lt, and 'Wi l t' refers 2 to the
shadow of Wil t ; this is a conjunction that can be true, and is under
ci rcumstances we have sketched. So far, no relativization, though
the use of the same word with different subscripts hints at a common
featu re that relativization might make explicit. A fu rther reason for
wanting to re lativize refere nce i s that we want to say something l ike
thi s : relative to our first way of doing thi ngs, the right answer to the
question, what 'Wilt' refers to is Wi l t ; relative to the second way, it
refers to the shadow of Wilt. Si nce ways of doing things are not
attractive entities to quantify over, Quine proposes that reference be
relativized to translation manuals. Hartry Field has pointed out that
this won't work . 4 For the natural way to state the conditions under
which 'x refers to y relative to TM' holds is this : TM translates x as
'y '. This suggesti on must be rejected becau se you ca nnot quantify
into quotation marks.
J think there i s a ge ne ral reason why reference cannot be
relativized i n the way that Quine wants, so it is fruitless to try to
improve on the formulation we just rejected . Whe n I say ' i n the way
that Quine wants', what J am really objecti ng to is not any way of
relativizing refere nce, for J shall i n the end propose a way. What J
I I
I try to make t he case in Essay 1 5. Also see J . Wallace, ' O n l y in t he C o n text of a
Sen tence do Words H ave A n y M e a n i n g ' .
The Inscrutability . of Reference 237
determining that a causal theory of reference is t rue for a speaker
must depend on evidence drawn from how sentences are viewed or
used as much as any other theory of language.
Let us assume that there are causal connections between words, or
thei r uses, and objects. Then a sentence like 'Wilt is tal l ' may be true
only i f, among other thi ngs, an utterance of the word 'Wil t' in this
verbal context is causally connected with Wi lt. Have we now, at least
partially, saved the schemer from a merely arbi trary choice of
schemes of reference for the speaker?
It seems not, for reasons explai ned by Wal lace and Field . For
suppose, as before, that ¢ is a permutation of the universe, and that
Cx,y is an appropriate cau sal relation between a word and object.
One good theory says that 'Wilt' refers to Wilt only if C 'Wilt', Wil t
(I'm fudgi ng on the difference between words and u tterances of
them), while another empirically indisti nguishable theory says that
'Wilt' refers to ¢ (Wilt) only if C 'Wil t ', ¢ (Wilt) . Of course, neither
'refers' nor ' C' can have the same i nterpre tation in both theories, bu t
thei r su bscripted cou nterparts are easy to specify. The two theories
are clearly distinct, for ' refers ] ' cannot have the same extension as
'refersl' and ' C/ cannot have the same extension as ' Cl '. Bu t given
that the first theo ry is sa tisfactory, we can define ' refers/ and ' Cl ' on
the basis of ' refers] ' and ' C] ' and '¢' to make the second theory
empi rical ly equivalent.
No causal theory, nor other 'physicalistic' analysis of reference,
wi l l affect our argument for the i nscrutability of reference, at least as
long as we allow that a satisfactory theory is one that yields an
acceptable expl anation of verbal behavi our and dispositions. For
the constraints on the relations between reference and cau sal i ty (or
whatever) can al ways be equivalently captured by alternative ways
of matching up words and objects. The i nterpreter of the schemer
w i l l , as before, be able to tel l that the schemer's schemes are different
from one another, but he wi ll not be able to pick out a unique
correct way of ma tching the schemer's words and objects . It follows
that the schemer cannot have used words that determi ned a unique
scheme . Reference remains i nscrutable.
Causal theories of naming or of reference more generall y are
p rovocative, and in some version may wel l be true. If so, earlier
concepts of nami ng and reference must be revised . But the question
whether a causal theory of refe rence is true is independent, if I am
right, of two issues with which it is often thought to be connected :
23 8 Language and Reality
the issue of whether or not a theory of truth is to be tested by the
reactions or attitudes of speakers to sentences and the issue of the
inscrutability of reference .
What we have shown, or tried to show, is not that reference is not
relative but that there is no i ntel l igi ble way of relati" izing it that
justifies the concept of ontological relativity . The relativization must
appear in the language i n which the relativized predicate occurs (and
hence cannot be to that l anguage or to a theory for that language),
and we cannot claim that it settles the question of reference in any
language . But there is something to settle, and relati vization is the
only attractive way to settle it. On the one hand, all 'schemes of
reference' that are acceptable for a speaker or community have
important elements i n common : they lead to equivalent truth
conditions for all sentences, and perhaps they connect reference with
causal or other matters in a specifiable pattern. On the other hand,
such schemes are di sti nguishable one from another, not, indeed , on
the basi s of evidence but because they utilize predicates that cannot
have the same extensi on. These two facts taken together strongly
suggest a relativized concept. Besides, there is the q uestion to which
we can gi ve an answer : 'What scheme are you using in givi ng that
interpretation of the speaker's words ?' If I interpret (transl ate) a
speaker's word 'Wilt' as referring to the shadow of Wil t, I wil l
probably need to expl ai n how I a m interpreti ng h i s predicate ' i s tal l '
i n accord with a scheme congenial t o m y interpretation o f 'Wilt'. I n
some sense o r other, my i nterpretation or translation is relative to,
or based on, a speci fic sc heme. The scheme may not settle matters of
refe rence, but it does settle how I answer all sorts of questions about
what the speaker means or refers to by a word or sentence . Quine
frequently puts the matter just this way : 'It makes no sense to say
what the objects of a theory are, beyond sayi ng how to interpret or
rei nterpret that theory in another: 1 2 or, again, 'What makes sense is
to say not what the objects of a theory are, absol utel y speaki ng, but
how one theory of objects is i nterpretable or rei nterpretable i n
another. ' The second quotati on bothers me, si nce the 'absolutely
speaking' suggests that there is a way of rel atively speaking that wi ll
decide, perhaps arbitrarily, what the objects are , and this I have
stror.gly denied. But we cannot deny that, given a scheme of
i nterpretation or translation, we have decided what word� we can use
1 I think Max Black is wrong when he says, The rules of our language determine
that some expressions must cou nt as metaphors, ' ( ' M e tapho r' , 29,) There a re no such
r ules.
246 Limits of the Literal
emerges when error a nd confusion are cleared away makes meta
phor a more, not a less, i n teresti ng phenomeno n .
The central mi stake agai nst which I shall be i n veighi ng is the idea
that a metaphor has, in addition to its literal se nse or meani ng,
another sense or meani ng. This idea is commo n to many who have
written about metaph0r : it is found i n the works of lite rary critics
like Richards, Empson, and Wi nters ; phi losophers from A ristotle to
Max Black ; psychologists from Freud and earlier to Ski nner and
l ater ; and l i n guists from Plato to Uriel Wei nreich a nd George
Lakoff. The idea takes many forms, from the relatively simple i n
Ari stotle to the rel ati vely complex in Black . The idea appea rs i n
wri ti ngs which mai ntai n that a literal pa raphrase of a metaphor can
be produced , bu t it is also shared by those who hold that typically no ,
literal paraphrase can be fou nd. Some stress the special i n si ght
metaphor can i nspi re and make much of the fact that ordinary
language, i n i ts usual fu nctioni ng, yields no such i nsight. Yet this
view too sees metaphor as a form of commu nication alongside
ordinary communicati on ; metaphor conveys tru ths or fal sehoods
about the world much as plai ner language does, though the message
may be considered more exotic, profou nd , or cu nni ngly garbed.
The concept of metaphor as primarily a vehicle for conveyi ng
ideas, even if u nusual ones, seems to me as wrong as the parent idea
that a metaphor has a special meani ng. I agree with the view that
metaphors cannot be paraphrased , but I thi nk this is not because
metaphors say something t oo novel for li teral expressi on but
because there is nothi ng there to paraphrase . Paraphrase, whether
possi ble or not, is appropriate to what is said: we try, in paraph rase,
to say it another way. But if I am righ t, a metaphor doesn't say
anything beyond its li teral meaning (nor does its maker say
anythi ng, in usi ng the metaphor, beyond the li teral). This is not, of
cou rse, to deny that a metaphor has a poi nt, nor t hat that poi nt can
be brought out by usi ng fu rthe r words.
I n the pas t those who have denied that metaphor has a cognitive
content in addi tion to the literal have often bee n ou t to show that
metaphor is confusi ng, merely emotive, unsui ted to serious, scie n
tific, or philosophic di scou rse . My views should not be associated
with this tradition. Metaphor is a legitimate device not only in
Ii te rature but i n science, phil osophy, and t he law ; it i s effective i n
praise and abuse, praye r and promotion, descri pti on and prescrip
tion. For the most part I don't disagree wi th Max Black , Paul Henle,
What Metaphors Mean 24 7
Nelso n Goodman, Monroe Beardsley, and the rest i n thei r accou n ts
of what metaphor accompl ishes, except that I think it accompl ishes
more and that what is additional is different in kind .
My di sagreement is with the explanation of how metaphor works
its wo nders. To an ticipate : I depend on the di sti nction betwee n what
words mean and what they are u sed to do. I thi nk metaphor belongs
exclusively to the domain of use. It is something brought off by the
imaginative employme n t of words and se ntences and depe nds
entirely o n the o rdinary meani ngs of those words and hence on the
ordinary meani ngs of the sentences they compri se.
It i s no help in explai ning how words work in metaphor to posit
metaphorical or figu rative meanings, or special ki nds of poetic or
metaphorical tru th. These ideas don't expl ain metaphor, metaphor
explains them. Once we u nderstand a metaphor we ca n call what we
grasp the 'metaphorical truth' and (u p to a point) say what the
'metaphorical meaning' is. Bu t si mply to lodge this meani n g in the
metaphor is like explai ning why a pil l puts you to sleep by saying i t
has a dormative power. Lite ral meaning a nd lite ral truth conditions
can be assigned to words and sentences apart from pa rticular
contexts of use. Thi s is why adve rting to them has genui ne
explanatory power.
I shall try to establish my nega tive views about what metaphors
mean and introduce my limited positive claims by exami ning some
fal se theories of the nature of metaphor.
A metaphor makes u s attend to some likeness, often a novel or
su rprisi ng likeness, between two or more things. Thi s t rite and true
observations leads, or seems to lead, to a conclusion concerning the
meaning of metaphors. Consider o rdinary like ness or simil arity : two
roses are similar becau se they share the prope rty of being a rose ; two
i nfa nts are similar by virtue of thei r i nfanthood . Or, more si mpl y,
roses are simila r because each is a rose, i nfants, because each is an
i nfa nt.
Suppose someone says Tolstoy was once an i nfant'. How is the
i nfant Tolstoy like other i nfants ? The answer comes pal : by vi rtue of
exhi biti ng the property of i nfanthood, that is, leaving out some of
the wind, by virtue of bei ng an infant. If we tire of the ph rase 'by
virtue of' , we ca n, it seems, be plai ner sti l l by sayi ng the i nfa nt
Tolstoy shares with other i nfants the fact that the predicate 'is an
i nfant' appl ies to him ; given the word 'i nfant', we have no trouble
sayi ng exactly how the i nfant Tolstoy resem bles othe r i nfants. We
248 Limits of the Literal
could do it without the word 'i nfant' ; all we need is othe r words that
mean the same . The end resu l t is the same . Ordinary similarity
depends on groupi ngs establ ished by the ordinary meani ngs of
words. Such similarity i s natu ral and unsurprising to the extent that
fami liar ways of grouping objects are tied to usual meanings of usual
words.
A famous critic said that Tol stoy was 'a great moralizing infant' .
The Tol stoy referred to he re is obviously not the i nfant Tolstoy but
Tol stoy the adult wri ter ; this is metaphor. Now in what sense is
Tol stoy the writer similar to an infant? What we are to do, perhaps,
is thi nk of t he class of objects which i ncl udes all ordi nary i nfants
and, in addition, the adu l t Tolstoy and then ask ou rselves what
special, surprising prope rty the mem bers of this cl ass have in
common. The appeal i ng thought is that gi ven patience we could
come as close as need be to specifyi ng the appropri ate prope rty. I n
any case, we could d o the job perfectly i f we fou nd words that meant
exactl y what the metaphorical 'i nfant' means. The important poi nt,
from my pe rspective, is not whethe r we can find the pe rfect other
words but the ass umption that there is somethi ng to be attempted, a
me taphorical meaning to be matched . So far I have been doi ng no
more than crudely sketching how the concept of meani ng may have
crep t i n to the analysis of me t aphor, and the answer I have su ggested
is that since what we think of as garden variety si mil arity goes wi th
what we t hink of as garden varie ty meani ngs, it is natu ral to posi t
unusual or metaphorical meani ngs to help explai n the simil ari ties
metaphor promotes.
The idea, t hen, is that in metaphor certai n words take on new, or
what are often called 'extended', meanings. Whe n we read , for
example, that ' the Spi ri t of God moved upon the face of the waters ' ,
w e are to rega rd the word 'face ' as havi ng a n extended meaning ( I
disregard fu rthe r metapho r i n t he passage). The extension applies, as
i t happens, t o what philosophe rs cal l the extension of the word , that
is, the class of entities to which it refers. Here the word 'face' applies
to ordinary faces, and to waters in addition.
This account cannot , at any rate , be complete, for if i n these
contexts the words 'face' and 'i nfant' apply correctly to waters and
to the adult Tolstoy, then wate rs real ly do have faces and Tol stoy
li terally was an i nfan t , and all sense of metaphor evaporates. If we
are to thi nk of words in me taphors as di rectly goi ng about thei r
business of ap plying to what they p roperly do apply to , there is no
What Metaphors Mean 249
differe nce between metaphor and the introducti on of a new term
i nto ou r vocabul ary : to make a metaphor is to murder it.
What has bee n left ou t is any appeal to the original meani ng of the
words. Whether or not metaphor depends on new or extended
meani ngs, it certai nly depends in some way on the original meanings ;
an adequ ate account of metaphor must allow that the p rimary or
original meanings of words remai n active in their metaphorical
setting.
Perhaps, then, we can expl ai n metaphor as a ki nd of ambiguity : i n
the context o f a metaphor, certai n words have either a new o r an
original meaning, and the force of the metaphor depends on ou r
uncertai nty as we wave r between the two meanings. Thus when
Melvil l e wri tes that 'Chri st was a chronometer', the effect of
metaphor is produced by our taking 'chronometer' first i n its
ordinary sense and the n i n some extraordinary or metaphorical
sense.
It is hard to see how this theory can be correct. For the ambiguity
i n the word, if there i s any, i s due to the fact that i n ordi nary contexts
it means one thi ng and in the metaphorical context it means
something else ; but in the metaphorical context we do not
necessarily hesi tate over its meaning. When we do hesi tate , i t is
usually to decide which of a number of metaphorical i nterpretations
we shal l accept ; we are seldom in doubt that what we have is a
metaphor. At any rate, the effectiveness of the metaphor easily
outlasts the end of uncertai nty over the i nterpretati on of the
metaphorical passage. Metaphor can not, therefore, owe its effect to
ambiguity of this sort. 2
Anothe r brand of ambiguity may appear to offer a better
suggestion. Sometimes a word wil l , in a si n2;le context, bear two
meani ngs whe re we are meant to remem be r and to use both. Or, if
we thi nk of word hood as implying sameness of meaning, the n we
may describe the si tuati on as one i n which what appears as a si ngle
2 Nelson Goodman says me taphor and ambigui ty differ chiefly 'in that the several
uses of a merely ambiguous term are coeval and i ndependen t' while in me taphor ' a
term with an extension established by h a b i t is appl ied elsewhere under the infl uence o f
that habi t ' ; h e suggests t h a t a s o u r sense o f t h e history o f t h e ' two u ses' i n metaphor
fades. the metaphorical word becomes merely ambiguous ( Languages of A rt, 7 1 ) . In
fact in many cases of ambi gu i t y , one use springs fro m the o t h e r ( as Goodman says)
and so cannot be coeval. But t he basic error, w hich Goodman shares with o t hers, is
the idea that two ' u ses' a re invol ved i n metaphor in anything like the way they are in
a m b i gui t y .
250 Limits of the Literal
word is i n fact two. When Shakespeare's C ressida is welcomed
bawdily into the G recian camp, Nestor says, ' Ou r general doth
salute you with a kiss.' Here we are to take 'general' t wo ways : once
as applyi ng to Agamemnon, who is the general ; and o nce, since she
is kissi ng everyo ne, as applyi ng to no one in particular, but everyone
in genera l . We really have a conj unction of two sentences : our
general , Agamemnon, salutes you wi th a kiss ; and everyone i n
ge neral is saluting you with a kiss.
Thi s is a legitimate device, a pu n, but it is not the same device as
metaphor. For in metaphor there is no essential need of reiteration ;
whatever mea ni ngs we assign the words, they keep th rough every
correct readi ng of the passage.
A plausible modification of the last su ggesti on would be to
consider the key word (or words) i n a metaphor as having two
different kinds of meani ng at once, a literal and a figurati ve
meaning. Imagine the literal meaning as laten t, something that we
are aware of, that can work on us without working in the context,
while the figu rative meaning carries the direct l oad. And finally,
there must be a rule which connects the two meani ngs, fo r otherwise
the expla nation lapses into a form of the ambigui ty theory. The rule,
at least fo r many typical cases of metaphor, says that i n its
metaphorical role the word applies to everythi ng that it appl ies to i n
i ts l i te ral role, and then some. J
Thi s theory may seem complex, but it is striki ngly similar to what
Frege proposed to accou nt for the behaviour of referri ng terms i n
modal se ntences and sentences about propositional attitudes like
belief and desire. According to F rege, each referri ng term has two
(or more) meani ngs, one which fixes i ts refere nce in ordi nary
co ntexts and another which fixes its reference in the special contexts
created by modal operators or psychological verbs. The ru le
connecting the two mea ni ngs may be put like this : the meaning of
the word in the special contexts makes the reference in those
contex ts to be identical with the meaning in ordi nary co ntexts.
Here is the whole pictu re, putti ng Frege together with a Fregea n
view of metaphor : we are to thi nk of a word as having, i n addition to
its mu ndane field of application or reference, two special or
supermu ndane fields of application, one for metaphor and the other
fo r modal contexts and the like. In both cases the original meani ng
Mind, J). Max Black att ribu tes a similar view to Alexander Bain, English Composition
and Rhetoric.
6 M . Black, ' Metaphor', J S .
What Metaphors Mean 255
more tells us what similarities we are to notice than the metaphor
does. B lack mentions three similarities, and of course we could go on
adding to the list forever. But is this list, when revi sed and
supplemented in the right way, supposed to give the literal meaning
of the simile ? Surely not, since the simile declared no more than the
similarity. If the list is supposed to provide the figurative meaning of
the simile, then we learn nothing about metaphor from the
comparison with simile-only that both have the same figurative
meaning. Nelson Goodman does indeed claim that ' the difference
between simile and metaphor is negligi ble', and he continues,
'Whether the locution be "is l ike" or "is", the figure likens picture to
person by picking out a certain common feature . . . . ' 7 Goodman is
considering the difference between saying a picture is sad and saying
it is like a sad person. It is clearly true that both sayings liken picture
to person, but it seems to me a mistake to claim that either way of
talking 'picks out' a common featu re . The simile says there is a
likeness and leaves it to us to pick out some common feature or
features ; the metaphor does not explicitly assert a likeness, but i f we
accept it as a metaphor, we are again led to seek common features
(not necessarily the same fea �ures the associated simile suggests ; but
that is another matter).
Just becau se a simile wears a declaration of similitude on its
sleeve, it is, I think, far less plausi ble than in the case of metaphor to
maintain that there is a hidden second meaning. In the case of simile,
we note what i t literally says, that two things resemble one another ;
we then regard the objects and consider what similarity would, in the
context, be to the point. Having decided, we might then say the
author of the simile intended us-that is, meant us-to notice that
similarity. But having appreciated the difference between what the
words meant and what the author accomplished by using those
words, we shou ld feel little temptation to explain what has happened
by endowing the words themselves with a second, or figurative,
meaning. The point of the concept of l inguistic meaning is to explain
what can be done with words. But the supposed figurative meaning
of a simile explai ns nothi ng ; it is not a feature of the wo rd that the
word has pri or to and independent of the context of u se, and it rests
upon no lingui stic customs except those that gove rn ordinary
meanmg.
Here simile and metaphor in teract strangely, but the metaphor would
va nish if a literal conflagration we re imagi ned . In much the same
258 Limits of the Literal
way the usual effect of a simile can be sabotaged by taking the
comparison too earnestly. Woody Allen writes, 'The trial, which
took place over the foH owing weeks, was l ike a circus, although
there was some difficulty getting the elephants into the courtroom'.9
Generall y it is .o nl y when a sentence is taken to be false that we
accept it as a metaphor and start to hunt out the hidden implication.
It is probabl y for this reason that most metaphorical sentences are
patently false, j ust as all similes are trivia! l y true. Absurdity or
contrad iction in a metaphorical sentence guarantees we won't
believe it and invites us, under proper circumstances, to take the
sentence metaphorically.
Patent falsity is the usual case with metaphor, but on occasion
paten t truth will do as wel l . 'Business is business' is too obvious in its
literal meaning to be taken as having been uttered to convey
information, so we look for another use ; Ted Cohen reminds us, in
the same connection, that no man is an island. 1 0 The point is the
same . The ordinary meaning in the context of use is odd enough to
prompt us to disregard the question of l iteral truth.
Now let me raise a somewhat Platonic issue by comparing the
making of a metaphor with telling a lie. The comparison is apt
because l ying, like making a metaphor, concerns not the meaning of
words but thei r use. It is sometimes said that telling a l ie entails what
is false ; but this is wrong. Telling a lie requires not that what you say
be false but that you think it false. Since we usually believe true
sentences and disbelieve false, most lies are falsehoods ; but in any
particular case this is an accident. The paral lel between making a
metaphor and tel ling a lie is emphasized by the fact that the same
sentence can be used, with meaning unchanged , for either purpose.
So a woman who believed in witches but did not think her neighbour
a wi tch might say, 'She's a witch', meaning it metapho ricall y ; the
same woman, still believing the same of witches and her neighbour
but intending to deceive, might use the same words to very different
effect. Since sentence and meaning are the same in both cases, it is
sometimes hard to prove which in ten tion lay behind the saying of it ;
thus a man who says 'Lattimore's a Communist' and means to lie
can a lways try to beg off by pleading a metaphor.
IZ
M. Black, ' M e t a p hor', 44-5 . J J I bid . , 46 .
1 7 Stanley Cavell mentions the fact that most attempts at paraphrase end with ' and
so on' and refers to Empson ' s remark that metaphors are ' p regnant' (' Aesthetic
Problems of Modern Phi losophy ' , 79). B u t Cavell doesn 't explain t he endlessness of
paraph rase as I do, as can be learned from the fact that he t h i n k s i t distingu ishes
metaphor from some ( ' bu t pe rhaps not a l l ' ) literal discou rse. I hold that the endless
character of what we call the paraph rase of a metaphor springs from the fact that i t
attempts to spell o u t what the metaphor makes us notice, and to this there is no clear
end . I wo u ld say the same fo r any u se of langu age .
264 Limits of the Literal
hidden message, like the critic who attempts to state the message, is
then fundamentally confused. No such explanation or statement can
be fo rthcoming because no such message exi sts.
Not, of course , that interpretation and elucidation of a metaphor
are not in order. M any of us need help if we are to see what the
autho r of a metapho r wanted us to see and what a more sensitive o r
educated reader grasps. The legitimate function of so�called para
phrase is to make the lazy or ignorant reader have a vision like that
of the skilled critic . The critic is, so to speak, in benign co mpetition
with the metapho r maker. The critic tries to make his o wn art easier
or more transpare nt in some respects than the origin al , but at the
same time he- tries to reproduce in others some of the effects the
original had on him. In doing this the critic also, and perhaps by the
best method at his command, calls attention to the beauty or
aptness, the hidden power, of the metaphor itself.
18 Communication and
Convention
truth can serve as a theory o f meaning. The issue here is whether o r not the re i s a
conven tion of a certain sort governing our uttera nces of (declara tive) sentences.
b The d i stinction between activities that can be ends in themselves, such as playing
the flute. and th ose that serve some further end. such as build i ng a house , comes, o f
cou rse, from Aristotle : Nichomachean EthicS 1 094a ; Magna Moralia 1 2 1 1 b.
268 Limits of the Literal
Dummett's anal ogy between games a nd language is radically
defective.
Is speaking the truth, in the sense of intentionally uttering a
sentence that happens to be true, like winning ? It is in this respect,
·
that what it is to speak the truth is what a theory of truth seeks to de
fine . In so far, then, as the truth conditi ons of utterances are known
to speakers and interpreters in advance, and agreed upon as a
condition of communication, speaking the truth has one of the
features of winning. (I'll question how far this is true later.) But it
lacks the others, fo r people who utter a sen tence do not usually want
to speak true se ntences. Sometimes they do, and very often they
don't. Nor, in orde r to play the speech game , do they have to
represent themselves as intending or wan ting to speak the truth ;
there is no general presumption that someone who utters a
declarative sentence wants or intends to speak the truth, nor that, if
he does, he does it intentionally. Finally, speaking the truth, in the
sense of uttering a true sentence , is never an end in itself.
Assertion , in contrast to speaking the truth, may seem a likelier
candidate for linguistic counterpart of winning. Someone who
makes an assertion represents himself as believing what he says, and
perhaps as being justified in his belief. And since we want our beliefs
to be true, it seems right to agree with Dummett that when someone
makes an assertion, he represents himself as intending to say what is
true. (This is how I take Dummett's remark that the speake r is
'understood' to have the intenti on of uttering a true sentence.) As in
playing a game , the represen tation may or may not be deceitful.
(The liar makes an asserti on .) The asserter may or may not, in
making his assertion, intend to cause his hearer to believe he believes
what he says. Making an assertion is, then, like playing a game in a
respect in which speaking the truth is not : there is a pu blic
presumption of purpose . In other respects, however, asserti on is
un like winning, for what constitutes the making of an assertion is
not governed by agreed rules or conventions. 7
If the concept of a ssertion is to provide a conven tional bridge
between purpose and truth, two things must hold : there must be
conventions governing asserti on, and there must be a convention
linking assertion to what is believed true . I think neither of these
claims holds.
H See footnote 3 .
270 Limits of the Literal
his role to imitate as persuasively as he can a man who is trying to
warn othe rs of a fire. 'Fire ! ' he screams. And perhaps he adds, at the
behest of the author, 'I mean it ! Look at the smoke ! ' etc. And now a
real fire breaks out, and the actor tries vainly to warn the re al
audience . 'Fire r he screams, 'I mean it ! Look at the smoke ! ' etc. If
only he had Frege's assertion sign.
It should be o bvious that the assertion sign would do no good, for
the acto r would have used it in the first place, when he was only
acting. Similar reasoning should convince us that it is no help to say
that the stage, or the proscenium arch, creates a conventional setting
which negates the convention of asserti on. For if that were so, the
acting convention could be put into symbols also ; and of course no
actor or director would use it. The plight of the actor is always with
us. There is no known, agreed upon, publicly recognizable conven
tion fo r making assertions. Or, for that matter, giving orders, asking
questions, or making promises. These are all things we do, often
successfully, and our success depends in part on our having made
public our intention to do them. But it was not thanks to a
convention that we succeeded .
The second point of Dummett 's claim is that there is a conventi on
that in making an asse rtion a speaker is 'understood' to be speaking
with 'the intention of uttering a true sentence'. This also seems to me
to be wrong, though in a somewhat different way. What is
understood is that the speaker, if he has asserted something, has
represented himself as believing it-as uttering a sen tence he believes
true, then . But this is not a convention, it is merel y part of the
analysis of what assertion is. To assert is, among other things, to
represent oneself as believing what one asserts. It is clear that there
cannot be a conventional sign that shows that one is saying what one
believes ; for every liar would use it. Convention cannot connect
what may always be secret-the intention to say what is true-with
what must be public-making an assertion . There is no convention
of si ncerity.
If lite ral meaning is conventional, then the difference in the
grammatical moods---d eclarative, imperative, interrogative,
optative-is conven tional , These differences are in the open and
intended to be recognized ; syn tax alone usually does the job. What
this shows is that grammatical mood and ill ocutionary force , n o
matter how closel y related , cannot be related simpl y by convention.
Although I have concentrated on assertion, similar considerations
Communication and Convention 27 1
apply to illocutionary forces of all kinds. My main interest here,
however, is not in the n ature of illocutionary fo rce, or in such acts as
asserting, promising, and commanding, but in the idea that
convention can link what our words mean-their literal semantic
properties, including truth-and our purposes in using them, for
example, to speak the truth.
We have been discussing claims that there are comprehensive
purposes tied by convention to the enterprise of linguistic
communication-purposes that, in Dummett's word , give us the
'point' of using language . I turn now to theories of quite a different
sort, that attempt to derive the literal meanings of entire sentences
(not just the mood indicators) from the non-linguistic purposes their
utterances serve. I am concerned in the present essay with theories
which make the derivation depend on convention.
Stated crudely. such theories maintain that there is a single use (or
some finite number of uses) to which a given sen tence is tied, and this
use gives the meaning of the sentence . Since in fact there are endless
uses to which a sentence, with meaning unchanged, can be put, the
connection between a single use (or finite n umber of u ses) and the
sentence is conventional ; it is a use that can be called standard.
This is too simple , of course, but it is an appealing and natural
idea. For there does seem to be an important connection between a
sentence like ' Eat your eggplant' and the intention, in uttering this
sentence, to get someone to eat his eggplant. Getting someone to eat
his eggplant is, you might say, what the English sentence ' Eat your
eggplant' was made to do. If this intuition could be explicitly stated
and defended in a non-question-begging way, there would be
promise of an account of literal meaning in terms of the ordinary
non-linguistic purposes that always lie behind the utterances of
sentences.
There are inten ti ons embedded in all linguistic utterances such
that if we could detect them we would usual ly know what the words
uttered literally meant. For someone cannot utter the sentence ' Eat
the eggplant' with the words literally meaning that someone is to eat
his eggplant unless he intends the sentence to have that mean ing,
and intends his audience to interpret it as having that meaning. Of
course the mere intention does not give the sentence that meaning ;
but i f it is uttered with the intention of uttering a sentence with that
meaning, and it does not in fact have that meaning, then it has n o
linguistic meaning a t all. Literal meaning and intended literal
272 Limits of the Literal
meaning must coincide if there is to be a literal meaning. But this
fact, while true and important, is of no direct help in understanding
the concept of literal meaning, since the crucial intention must be
characterized by reference to the literal meanin g . Nor can conven
tion make a contribution here, for we were looking to convention to
convert non-linguistic purposes into performances with a literal
meaning. A convention that connected the intention to use words
with a certain literal meaning with the literal meaning of those words
would not explain the concept of literal meaning, but would depend
upon it.
What we seek are intentions characterized in n on-linguistic
terms-ulterior purposes in uttering sentences. (This concept may be
related to what Austin called perl ocutionary acts .)
I mentioned briefly before, and now want to insist on, the fact that
linguistic utterances al ways have an ulterior purpose ; this was one of
the reasons I gave for cla iming that no purely linguistic activity is
like winning at a game. There is perhaps some element of stipulation
here, but I �ould not call it a linguistic act if one spoke ' wor d s'
merely to hear the sounds, or to put someone to sleep ; an action
counts as linguistic onl y if literal meaning is relevant. But where
meaning is relevant, there is al ways an ulterior purpose. When one
speaks, o ne aims to instruct, impress, amuse, insult, persuade, warn,
remind, or aid a calculation. One may even speak with the intention
of boring an audience ; but not by hoping no one will attend to the
meanmg.
I f I am right that. each use of language has an ulterior purpose,
then one must always intend to produce some non-linguistic effect
through having one's words inte rpreted . Max Black has denied this,
pointing out that ' . . . a man may outline a lecture, or write a note to
remind himself of an appointment, or simply utter certain words,
such as "What a l ovel y day ! " in the absence of an audience . ' 9 The
first two cases here are clearly cases where the meaning matters, and
there is an audience which is intended to interpret the words : onesel f
at a later time. In the last case it would be tendentious to insist that
one is speaking to oneself; yet it matters what words are used , what
they mean . And there must be some reason for using those words,
with their meaning, rather than others. Black quotes Chomsky to
similar effect :
14 See Essay 1 1 .
Bibliographical References
action : Bergson, H . , 1 84
explanation of, 1 58--60 Berkeley, G . , 220
and meaning, xvii, 1 26 Beth, E., 28n
see also decision theory BiIgrami, A. , xx
Albee, E . , 269 Black, M., xii, 245--6, 2 54, 260--2, 266,
Allen, W., 258 272
ambigui ty, 30, 58-9, 1 33, 249-50 Bohnert, H . , I 1 5
analytic-syn thetic distinction, 1 87, 1 89 building-block theory, see language,
see also meanings as entities building-block theory of
animal thought, see propositional atti- Bu rge, T., 1 32, 276
tu des
Arendt, H . , 262n Carnap, R., I I n, 1 2, 3 1 , 97, 99, 1 99, 205n
Aristotle, 1 99, 246, 26 1 , 267n Cartwright, R . , 44n
assent, see hol ding true cause :
assertion, I I 0--2 1 , 1 65, 268 causal theories of reference, 235-7
distinguished from the indicative sentences about, 2 I 1 - I 3
mood, 1 1 0-- 1 4 Cavell, S . , 263
logical form of sentences about, 1 07, Charity, Principle of, x vii, 27, I O I , 1 36-7,
1 18 1 52-3, 1 59, 1 68-9, 1 96-7, 200- 1
see also indicative sentences Chomsky, N . , x v , 22, 30, 60, 63-4, 2 72-3
Austin, J. L . , 34n, 3 7n, 53-4, I I I n , 1 1 7, Chu rch, A . , xiii, 9, 1 2, 1 4- 1 5, 1 9n, 20n,
272 80, 82, 84, 98n, 99- 1 02, 1 65, 1 66n,
autonomy of meaning, see meaning, 208
au tonomy of Cohen, T . , 258
conceptual relativism, xviii, 1 83-98,
Bain, A., 254 233-4
Barfield, 0., 260, 262 as depending on scheme-<:ontent dis
Bar-Hillel, Y . , 28n, 59, 1 09 tinction , 1 8 7-90, 1 98
Beardsley, M . , 247 as reflected in l angu age, 1 84-90
behaviorism, 1 55, 220, 2 3 1 convention, xix, I I I - I 4, 265-80
belief, 200- 1 as connecting mood and force, 266-7 1
related to meaning, 1 4 1 -8, 1 95--6, as connecting u se and meaning, 27 1 -4
239-4 1 a s fixing meaning, 276-80
sentences abou t, 1 3, 2 1 , 30-- 1 , 1 65-7, language as governed by, xix, 1 1 1 - 1 4,
207-8 265-80
see also propositional attitu des see also assertion; impera tives ; in
Benacerraf, P., 2 1 9 terrogatives
290 Index
Convention T, xiv-xv, 2 3 , 46, 56, 6 1 , holism, 7, 22, 1 39, 1 54, 1 56-7, 1 96, 200,
66-7 5, 1 32 , 1 36, 1 39, 1 50, 1 5 3, 1 72- 203, 22 1
1 7 5, 1 94-5, 204 Hume, D o , 1 99, 220
see a/so Tarski, Tarski-style theo ries of
truth ; truth iIlocu tionary force, see assertion ; con
co mmands, see i mperatives vention ; imperatives
correspondence theories of tru th, see imperatives, 1 09- 1 5, 1 1 7-2 1
Tarski-style theories o f tru t h, as i ndeterminacy of translation, 24, 62-3,
correspondence theories ; tru th, as 1 00- 1 , 1 39, 1 5 1 --4, 224-5, 227-8,
correspondence to facts 2 3 9--4 1
indexicals, see demonstratives
decision theory, 1 45-8, 1 60--3 indicative sentences, 1 1 0- 1 5, 1 1 9-2 1
deep struct u re, 63--4, 1 3 3 see a/so a ssertion
demonstratives, 3 3-5, 46, 58, 74-5, 1 3 1 , indirect discourse, 1 1 - 1 3, 52-3
1 75, 1 7 7-8, 2 1 3 logical form of, 93-5
De wey, J . , 1 4 3 quota tional theory of, 97-8, 1 02--4
Donne, 1 . , 2 5 2 paratactic analysis of, 1 04-6 , 1 66- 7,
Dummett, M o , x x , 9 9 n , 1 1 0- 1 2, 1 1 4n, 1 76-8
1 1 5- 1 7, 1 20, 1 3 3, 1 7 1 -2, 266-7 1 inscrutability of refere nce, see reference,
inscruta bili ty of
intensional contexts, xiii, 85, 93- 1 07, 1 1 9,
Edwards, Wo, 1 4 7
1 63--4, 1 75 , 1 76, 207-8
Eliot, To S o , 256, 26 1
see a/so belief, sen tences abou t ; in
empiricism, 4, 1 89-94, 220
direct discourse
Empson, Wo, 246, 252, 263n
in tensions, xiv, 1 4- 1 5, 22, 73, 99- 1 00,
evalua tive terms, 3 1 -2, 1 32
1 08 , 208, 2 1 3, 266
Evans, G o , 1 7 1
interrogatives, I I I , 1 1 5