CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

Water supply is the provision of water by public utilities, commercial organization, community
activities or by individuals, usually via system of pumps and pipes. Provision of sufficient
water with appropriate quality and quantity has been one of the most important issues in human
history. Access to a safe and affordable supply of drinking water is universally recognized as
a basic human need for the present generation and a pre-condition for development and care of
the next generation. Each person needs to consume about 2 - 4.5 litres of water per day
(depending on the climate and level of activity) for their body to function properly (WHO,
1997).

Globally water distribution shows that 97% is salt water and 3% is fresh water and from that
percentage of fresh water 30.1% is ground water, 68.7% is ice caps and glaciers, 0.3% is surface
water like rivers, lakes and others. Such that it can be seen that there is just small amount of
fresh water that is required for various consumptions in the world hence proper designing,
operations are required so as to treat the contaminated sources and protect them from
contamination for better access of safe water for community as to sustain various purposes such
as domestic, industrial, commercial, institutional, agricultural, construction, irrigation and
recreational activities (WHO, 2015).

In Tanzania the access to water and sanitation remains low like 2015, 50% of the population
has access to at least basic water, 79% and 39% of urban and rural areas, respectively in
Tanzania around 26 million people in 2015 lacked access to at least basic water Slightly more
than half the population of Tanzania is estimated to have access to an improved water source,
with stark differences between urban areas (about 79% in 2010) and rural areas (about 44% in
2010). In rural areas, access is defined as meaning that households have to travel less than one
kilometre to a protected drinking water source in the dry season. Trends in access to water
supply are difficult to discern due to conflicting and unreliable data (WHO, 2012).

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1.2 Problem statement

For many years the Mbezi - Makabe community has faced the problem of inadequate and
meagre water supply systems. Although studies have been made based on designing a suitable
water supply system to satisfy the community needs, but great challenges face the area due to
the geographical land structure and high initial costs of the project establishment therefore there
is an urge to impose the engineering concepts and designs so as to ensure that there is adequate
supply of water in the whole community.

1.3 Objectives

1.3.1 Main objectives

The main objective of this project is to design an efficient and viable water supply system to
Mbezi - Makabe community.

1.3.2 Specific objectives.

• To identify the sources of water and demands at Makabe community.

• To identify possible problems and effects facing the current water supply at Mbezi -
Makabe community.
• To identify the sanitation systems at Makabe.
• Suggesting engineering solutions to the identified problems facing the water supply at
Mbezi - Makabe.
• Designing a suitable and reliable water supply system for the Mbezi - Makabe
community.

1.4 Scope

The scope of this project is based on identifying, examining problems of the current water
supply system and designing a suitable water supply system at Mbezi - Makabe.

1.5 Significance of the study

This study aims at providing a healthy living environment for the Mbezi Makabe community
by designing a water supply system that will adequately meet the water demands of both
present and future population of the people.

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 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

Safe and reliable water is important for public health, whether it is used for domestic activities
such as drinking, food production or recreational purposes. Improved water supply and
sanitation facilities, and better supervision of water resources, can boost many countries’
economic growth and facilitate greatly on poverty reduction issue. In 2010, the UN clearly
recognized the human right to water and sanitation. Everyone has the right to sufficient,
continuous, safe, acceptable, physically accessible, and affordable water for personal and
domestic use; therefore, all designers and engineers should ensure that water is adequately
supplied to all people in a community at a sufficient pressure for use.

2.2 Water Supply Project Planning

Unquestionably, the planning of a water supply project is well-thought-out to be one of the

most important stages in the design of the systems. Hence it is much urged that the planning
process is ought to be carefully undertaken so as to achieve the maximum goals of the project.
A proper project planning will ensure an efficient achievement of the project successively. The
project planning is undertaken considerably under the following processes: -

• Planning considerations for water supply projects

Prior the undertaking of any water project, it is essential to implement all considerations of the
project in its impact’s relation to the environment and the society is to be adhered. This includes
the entailment to undertake ESIA and SESIA studies, engagement and involvement of the local
community to instil the ownership, provide the local knowledge, determination of the suitable
source of water to the community and the distribution system in accordance to the society.

• Implementing the Project Planning

The implementation involves the mobilization of the whole community which is brought
through providing awareness of the project, understanding the community’s history, problems
and initiating the goals and how to achieve them. Implemented through practicing pre and
feasibility studies, choice of the suitable technology, preliminary designing, engineering
drawings, project phasing, monitoring of construction, operation and maintenance planning
and performance monitoring.

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 • Consulting the Integrated Water Resources Management and Development Plan

During the planning process it is important to consult the authorities responsible for monitoring
of all activities to take place in the certain area like basin authorities, so as to adhere their
enacted policies and conserving the available water resources including also, obtaining
important data for the quantity of water available in the basin and the one authorized to be
withdrawed.

• Consult guideline for preparation of Water Safety Plan

Water Safety Plan is an effective way of consistently guaranteeing the safety of a drinking-
water supply through the use of an inclusive risk assessment and management approach that
covers all steps in water supply from the catchment to the consumer (WHO, 2017). In Tanzania
during the planning phase, an engineer should first consult the procedures for the preparation
of water safety plans in resilient to climate change (MoW, 2020).

• Environmental and Social Impact Assessment (ESIA) and Strategic Environmental and
Social Impact Assessment (SESIA) Compliance

EIA is an organized approach for obtaining and evaluating environmental information in

advance to its use in the decision-making as such for the water supply development process
specifically. Normally, the SESIA is carried out to large projects of a nation. They both serve
an objective of predicting the impacts of development projects and programmes on the natural
resources and environmental quality, as well as the communities that depend on, or interact
with them (Alshuwaikhat, 2005).

• Participation of CBWSOs in Project Planning Stages

The consideration planning of involving the community-based water supply organizations is to

be adhered so as to promote the ease of maintenance and operation of the system as to facilitate
the sustainability of the project.

2.3 Population Projection and Forecasting

Population is the number of people living within a community at a particular time period
(Ramsden, 2002). Population is one of the most important factors for designing water systems,
therefore it should be well estimated and projected, in order to know the increasing demand
and ensure continuous supply of water for the coming population.

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Socio-economic factors that influence urban population growth rates are indicated here as a
guide for the study:

• Water supply in quantity, quality and efficient distribution system

• Adequate supply of electricity power
• Availability chance of industries in the area
• Reliable and good communication systems and network
• Health services and hospitals
• Political activities of a place
• Advancement of educational facilities and institutions

Population data is gained from previous records and the rate increase is found out and used for
further analysis in the water supply project, for both current and the future population. Such
that the future population may be estimated by using some of the following methods: -

• Arithmetical Increase
• Geometrical Increase
• Incremental Increase Method

The choice of method to be adopted in each particular case will depend upon the nature of the
supply area, habits of the people, migration and the population growth rate and its future
expansion.

• Geometric Increase Method

r
P = Po (1 + )n
100

Where;

P = population after n years,

Po = present population, and

r = annual growth rate (%)

In this method the percentage increase in population from decade to decade is assumed to
remain constant such that the geometric mean increase is used to find out the future increment
in population. Since this method gives higher values and hence should be applied for a new
industrial town at the beginning of development for only few decades. Indeed, for urban areas

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population projections are more difficult to make than for rural areas, because of the large
number of factors which influence the development of an urban area.

• Arithmetical progression method

Pn = P + nC

Where;

Pn = is the projected population after n years or decades

n = is the number of years or decades

C = is the growth rate per year or rate

This method is suitable for large and old city with considerable development, such that if used
for small, average or comparatively new cities, it will give lower population estimate than
actual value.

• Incremental Increase method

n (n + 1)
Pn = P + nX + { }Y
2

Where;

Pn = Population after nth decade

X = Average increase

Y = Incremental increase

n = Decades

This method involves the modification of arithmetical increase method in such a way that it it
is suitable for an average size town under normal condition where the growth rate is found to
be in increasing order. The incremental increase is determined for each decade from the past
population and the average value is added to the present population along with the average rate
of increase.

2.4 Water Sources

Water is the most abundant compound in nature. It covers almost about 75% of the earth
surface. About 97.3% of water is contained in the great oceans that are saline and 2.14% is held

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in icecaps glaciers in the poles, which are also not beneficial. Were as the remaining 0.56%
found on earth is in useful form for general livelihood. (Franzini et al, 1991).

Water source forms one single most important element as a key to proper function and thus
sustainability of any water supply project. All kinds of sources of water on earth can be grouped
into three classes which are as follows: -

2.4.1 Surface water sources

Surface water is water on the surface of the planet such as in a stream, river, lake, wetland or
ocean. It can be constructed with ground water and atmospheric water (C.W. Fetter, 1980).
Surface sources are the easiest water sources to be acknowledged with a lot of people because
since it can easily be seen and readily used. It is any water that flows or is stored on top of the
ground surface. This would be the water that is in rivers, lakes, streams, reservoirs, even the
oceans although we can't drink salt water. The types of surface water sources are as follows: -

2.4.1.1 Rivers and streams

Water flowing in streams consists of direct precipitation run off which has flowed on the
surface of the ground, or overflow from lakes and swamps and of water seeping through the
ground from high land to the valleys. Rivers and streams are one of the main sources of surface
source of water such that they do require special treatments.

2.4.1.2 Lakes and ponds

Lakes are either located at the end of drainage basins or are highland lakes whereas some of
them are volcanic lakes. Water from lakes, ponds and artificial or impounding reservoirs would
be more uniform in quality than water from flowing streams, like rivers where the components
dissolved change to vary from place to place as they flow (Veltrop, 1993).

2.4.1.3 Wetlands

Wetlands are areas of marsh, fen, peat land or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent
or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salty, including areas of
marine water, the depth of which does not exceed 6m. Rift system wetlands are found in the
depressions and characterized by salt lakes, swamps and short streams with inland drainage.
Normally, the soils are heavily affected by salinity.

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2.4.2 Ground or sub-surface water sources

Groundwater is that portion of rainwater which has percolated beneath the ground surface to
form an underground reservoir referred to as aquifer water. The upper surface of groundwater
is normally known as the water table. Groundwater is often clear of less or no turbidity, free
from organic matter and bacteria due to the filtering effect of the soil on water percolating
through it. Nevertheless, groundwater almost always contains dissolved minerals e.g. Fe, Mn
and CaCO3 and dissolved elements that may affect users, e.g. fluoride and arsenic, from the
soil, but is often better in terms of quality and cheaper than surface waters (MoW, 2020).

2.4.2.1 Springs

Occasionally, ground water reappears at the ground surface in the form of springs. Springs
generally supply small quantity of water and hence suitable for the hill towns. Some springs
discharge hot water due to presence of Sulphur and useful only for the curve of certain skin
disease patients. There are different kinds of springs namely Artesian, Gravity and Surface
spring (USGS, 2009).

2.4.2.2 Infiltration galleries

Infiltration galleries are horizontal wells, constructed by digging a trench into the water-bearing
sand and installing perforated pipes in it. Water collected in these pipes converges into a well
from which it is pumped out.

Figure 2.1: Infiltration gallery ground water source

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2.4.2.3 Wells

This is a hole constructed by any method such as digging, driving, boring, or drilling for the
purpose of extracting water from underground aquifers. Wells can vary greatly in depth, water
volume and water quality. Well water typically contains more minerals in solution than surface
water and may require treatment to soften the water by removing minerals such as arsenic, iron
and manganese. Well water may be drawn by pumping from a source below the surface of the
earth. Alternatively, it could be drawn up using containers, such as buckets that are raised
mechanically or by hand (MoW, 2020).

Classification of wells: -

• Shallow wells

A well is considered to be shallow if it is less than 20 meters deep. Shallow wells tap the upper
water bearing layer underground. This permeable layer, however, usually has limited safe yield
due to its great dependence on seasonal rainfalls. Thus, the supply capacity of shallow wells
could be unreliable and are sometimes intermittent. Also, the water extracted from the upper
strata is usually more affected by contamination since the aquifer being tapped is near the
ground surface where possible sources of contamination are abounded.

Figure 2.2: Shallow well

• Deep wells

Deep wells, which are over 20 meters deep, tap the deeper unconfined aquifer. This aquifer is
not confined by an overlying impermeable layer and is characterized by the presence of a water

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table (NKBA, 2013). A deep well is less liable to surface contamination because of the deeper
aquifer. Also, its yield tends to be more reliable since it is less affected by seasonal rainfall.

Figure 2.3: Deep drilled well

• Artesian wells

Artesian wells are much like the deep wells except that the water extracted is from a confined
aquifer. The confining impermeable layers are above and below the aquifer Wheeler, 1980).
Groundwater recharge enters the aquifer through permeable layers at high elevations causing
the confined groundwater at the lower elevations to be under pressure. In some cases, the
hydraulic pressure of the aquifer is sufficient for a well to flow freely at the well head.

Figure 2.4: Artesian well section

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2.5 Water Demand Quantity Assessment

Water demand is the quantity of water that the supply has to meet all water requirements of the
people in the certain area. These include water delivered to the system to meet the needs of
consumers, water supply for firefighting, system flushing, water required for operation of
treatment facilities and amount water lost due to leakages in the infrastructure.

2.5.1 Water Demand Assessment

In planning and designing of any project Engineering decisions are required to determine the
design horizon for which the facilities will be designed, and project the population to be served
annually over this horizon, the unit consumptions, and expected non-revenue water. These
projections are based on the historical data on population growth and levels, as well as on
analyses of current and future developments in the area to be served, their effects on income
levels, and other information relevant to the drivers of water consumption. This will lead to a
determination of how much water demand the system needs to support.

For effective determination of water demand, engineers need to critically assess the
components of the water demand for the planned water supply system and in order to mitigate
all loses it is advised to compensate the loss water prior the supply system to the consumers as
to meet their demands. The following are the main components that should be considered when
conducting water project demand assessment:

• Water demand for domestic use

• Institutional Water Demands
• Industrial Water Demands
• Commercial Water Demand
• Livestock Water Demand
• Water for Fire Fighting
• Operational Demand
• Non-Revenue Water

2.5.2 General Factors Affecting Water Demand Assessment

The intricacy of water demand assessment to meet various needs in the community may be
brought about by many factors influencing individual water consumption patterns which
include:

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 • Religion
• Social economic status of the community
• Climatic conditions
• Cultural, habits of community
• Age and education
• Availability of alternative water sources
• Level of service, technological process

The combination of these factors leads to estimation of the water demand in the given project
area. The Over-estimation of demand may justify a project that should not have been built and
that loss had occurred whereas the underestimation does not perceive the needs of people. The
fundamental components of calculating water demand are by determining the total population
and the average consumption of the individuals per day.

2.5.3 Determination of Water Demand for Different Uses

In the determination of the demand of water, it is very necessary to analyse all activities
associated in a place that relates to the water consumptions in the given period of time.
Activities including industries, markets, slaughter houses, domestic water uses, agricultural
activities, hospital and medical centres of a place, this will be of great importance in knowing
the total quantity of water that will satisfy all needs of the community.

Total water demand = Domestic + Institutional +Industrial +Commercial +Livestock +

Firefighting + Operational demand + Non-Revenue Water

2.5.4 Considerations when approximating the water consumptions

• Ensuring proper survey is done to asses all daily needs of all households, industries,
schools.
• Estimating population of the community including the future one so as to meet the
demands of the future.
• Reassessing of the peak factor causes of water demand fluctuations to satisfy all needs
of water at all times.

2.5.5 Domestic water demands

The water demand establishment must adhere to the already proposed demand standards of the
households basing on the socio-economic status of people. The domestic water demands simply

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refers the requirement of water for cooking, laundry, bathing cleanliness, gardening and toilet
flushing.

2.5.6 Institutional Water demands

When designing and planning for a water project, the current and expected water requirements
must be calculated using institutional water requirements standard obtaining through surveying
the institutional available in that area these including Schools, Hospitals, Administration
Offices, Police, Missions, Churches and Mosques.

2.5.7 Industrial Water demands

The water needed for industrial process varies seriously depending on the process done and
size of the industry. Some of the industry require much water for processing, cooling machines
but other required little water. Therefore, much survey and estimations have to be done in
compliance to various authorities related to industries and water for supply, purposely to
achieve the supply requirements.

2.5.8 Commercial Water demands

Commercial water consumption is former termed under either on institutional or industrial

demands. The increase of such needs can cause technical mistakes in the design and future
projection of water needs for commercial activities such as hotels, restaurants, bars, shops,
small workshops, car wash, service stations. The current water demand should be known either
by their metered with uniform water consumption, and at least, the bigger hotels, restaurants
and services stations must be checked and making an average water consumption per day.

2.5.9 Livestock Water demands

The livestock demands for water may simply refer to the ones that cattle and poultry may
require to consume for the survival. The demand units may either be noted as stocks referring
in comparison of various variables of cattle and poultry in relation to obtain the sustainable
required amount, as cows are larger that goats, hence a certain number of goats must be
configured in measures to fit the sizes for cows.

2.5.10 Fire Fighting Water demands

Firefighting requirements are required in urban areas and commercial rural centres, which are
fast rising including airports, industrialized area and dry ports. Under normal design in
Tanzania, 2% of the water needed is required to be established for firefighting. The fire-fighting

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water supplies for industrial areas must be estimated separately since it considered the fire
mostly occurs at industry rarely than in household.

2.5.11 Operational water demands

The operational water needed is required for progression of the water treatment processes such
as rapid sand filter backwashing and chemical mixing, and operational activities. In Tanzania,
the estimates of 5% is proposed for water treatment where it takes place and a further 2% for
other operational demands be allowed for this water use also forms part of the unbilled
authorized consumption (MoW,2020).

2.5.12 Water Demand

Water demand is calculated by summation of all the consumption categories described in the
water demands sections and making budget to NRW expressed as percentages.

2.6 Non-Revenue Water

Non-revenue water is the water that has already been treated and distributed to the main supply
but unsuccessfully does not reach the customer (IWA, 2000). Mathematically, obtained by the
difference between the allowed water distributed in the main and the metered consumed water.

2.6.1 Components of Non-Revenue Water

2.6.1.1 Unbilled Authorized Consumption

Unbilled Authorized Consumption can mainly include the water used for fire fighting or free
water distributed at the standpipes or provided to the religious institutions.

2.6.1.2 Apparent Losses

The apparent losses comprise unauthorized consumption and metering inaccuracies.

Unauthorized consumption means illegal use, and this includes: - Illegal connections for the
purpose of selling the water and use. Also, the Metering inaccuracies can mainly include
malfunctioning of water meters, and estimated water consumption when meters are not
working.

2.6.1.3 Real Losses

They comprise leakage from transmission or distribution mains, the leakage and overflow from
utility storage and balance tanks, and also leakages in reticulation systems up to the point of
metering. The design of the water supply for the community should readily ensure that the
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NRW are maximum reduced so as to prevent the loss of revenues for the investment in the
water supply and profits.

2.7 Water Treatment

Water treatment is the process that improves the quality of water to make it appropriate for a
specific end-use. The end use may be drinking, industrial water supply, irrigation, river flow
maintenance, water recreation or many other uses, including being safely returned to the
environment. Water treatment removes contaminants and undesirable components, or reduces
their concentration so that the water becomes fit for its desired end-use. This treatment is crucial
to human health and allows humans to benefit from both drinking and irrigation use. (Combest,
2003). Water treatment process is broad and is composed of many processes but it can be
mainly divided into physical, chemical and biological methods of water treatment.

A community or as in this case the municipal treatment process is comprised of several mini
processes, which can be clarified as follows: -

2.7.1 Collection

The source water for a municipal surface water treatment plant is typically a local river, lake,
or reservoir. There must be a method to get this water to the water treatment plant. Quite often,
a series of pumps and pipelines transport the water to the treatment plant. At the water plant,
large pumps are used to transfer the water up to the treatment facility. Treatment facilities are
often engineered to utilize gravity water flow as much as possible to reduce pumping costs.

Many water treatment plants utilize water from more than one source. Blending groundwater
with surface water is a method often used to improve the quality of the final product.

2.7.2 Screening and Straining

Surface water sources, i.e., lakes, rivers, and reservoirs, contain varying amounts of suspended
and dissolved materials. This material may include turbidity, colour, taste, odour,
microorganisms, fish, plants, trees, trash, etc. The material may be organic or inorganic,
suspended or dissolved, inert or biologically active, and vary in size from colloidal to a tree
trunk. Some of these larger items can impede equipment in the treatment process, such as a tree
limb getting stuck in a water pump impeller. So, the first process in conventional water
treatment is to screen or strain out the larger solid items. This is often accomplished using a
large metal screen, often called a bar screen, which is placed in front of the water source intake.

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Large items are trapped on the screen as the water passes through it. These screens must
routinely be raked or cleaned off to prevent clogging and blockage. (Schulz, 1984)

2.7.3 Chemical Addition

Once the pre-screened source water is received into the treatment plant, chemicals are added
to help make the suspended particles that are floating in the water clump together to form a
heavier and larger gelatinous particle, often called floc. In this process, a chemical is added that
reacts with the natural alkalinity in solution to form an insoluble precipitate. There are many
different chemicals on the market that are used in this process. These chemicals are called
coagulants. One of the most common that has been used for many years is aluminium sulphate,
or alum. Some of the other coagulants are: -

• Ferrous Sulphate
• Ferric Chloride
• Sodium Aluminate
• Activated Silica
• Compounds Polymers

Regardless of which coagulant or combination of coagulants is used, they must be mixed very
well with the water before they can form a heavier floc.

2.7.4 Coagulation and Flocculation

A rapid mix unit is usually used where the coagulant is added to the water to provide a very
quick and thorough mixing. The water mixing is then slowed to allow the water to come in
contact with the forming floc and allow it to increase in size. The continued mixing must be
gentle to allow the floc to grow and gain weight, but fast enough to keep it in suspension until
you are ready for it to settle in the clarifiers. The treatment unit where coagulation and
flocculation are performed is called the flocculator.

2.7.5 Sedimentation and Clarification

Once the flocculation process is complete, the water then passes over the weir in the flocculator
and travels to the centre of the clarifier, or sedimentation basin. Here, the water makes its way
from the centre of the clarifier to the saw tooth weir at the perimeter of the unit. As the water
makes its way towards the weir, the large floc particles are allowed to settle out to the bottom
of the clarifier. A rake continuously travels across the bottom of the clarifier and scrapes the

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settled floc to the centre of the unit. Pumps are used to pull the settled “sludge” out of the
clarifier and send it to a sedimentation / disposal pond. The water that passes over the weir is
collected and transferred to the filters. The reason clarification occurs before filtration is so the
majority of suspended material can be removed prior to filtration, which avoids overloading
the filters and thus allowing much more water to be filtered before the filters must be
backwashed. (Rhoades, 1994)

2.7.6 Filtration

Clarified water enters the filters from the top. Gravity pulls the water down through the filters
where it is collected in a drain system at the bottom of the unit. There are many different types
of materials (media) used in filters. The most common being sand and gravel. Many
conventional plants are now using granular activated carbon as the media of choice because it
not only provides excellent mechanical filtration of particulate matter, but also removes organic
compounds which can cause taste and odour problems (Rwegasira, 1992).

Figure 2.5: The typical water filter machine

2.7.7 Disinfection

Once the water has gone through the filtration process, it is about as clear and clean as it can
get. However, there may still be bacteria and viruses remaining. To ensure these are destroyed,
there must be a disinfection process employed. The most common disinfection process used is
chlorination.

Chlorine comes in many different forms including chlorine gas, chlorine dioxide, hypochlorite
(bleach), and others. Whichever method is used, chlorine is added to the water in an amount to
ensure all microorganisms are destroyed. Water plants monitor the chlorine levels continuously

17
and very carefully in the treated water. They must add enough chlorine to ensure thorough
disinfection of the water, but avoid adding excesses that can cause taste and odour problems
when delivered to the consumer (McDonald, 2006).

2.7.8 Water Contaminants

Water contaminant can simply be defined as any physical, chemical, biological or radiological
substance or matter in water and hence forth hinders its easy usage by the members of a given
municipality (WHO, 2004).

2.7.8.1 Inorganic Contaminants

Inorganic contaminants include minerals like metals, heavy metals, and metalloids, along with
nitrogen-oxygen chemicals like nitrites and nitrates. Arsenic is a metalloid of prime concern
due to its widespread global presence in drinking water and its health threats.

Dangers include skin damage, circulatory problems, and increased cancer risk. Arsenic finds
its way into water through erosion of natural deposits and in runoff from orchards and
discharges from glass and electronics manufacturing.

2.7.8.2 Organic Contaminants

Organic compounds are compounds in which one or more carbon atoms are covalently linked
to atoms of other elements within the molecular structure. One organic compound of great
concern due to its wide use as an industrial solvent and its health dangers is benzene, which is
linked to anaemia, reduction in blood platelets, and cancer. The most efficient removal
technology for removing benzene is air stripping.

2.7.8.3 Microbial Contaminants

One of the most concerning of microbial contaminants is faecal coliform bacteria. It is not a
health threat itself, but its presence can indicate the presence of other pathogenic microbes. It
is widespread worldwide, entering the environment through faecal matter from untreated or
inadequately treated sewage, livestock runoff, and leakage from septic systems. Many
pathogens in water cause diarrhea, a major cause of death in the developing world. Typhoid,
cholera, and dysentery were common before the beginning of water-system disinfection.
Treatment options include ultraviolet light, ozonation, and chlorination.

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2.7.8.4 Physical Considerations

Although taste, smell, and appearance are not health concerns in themselves, they do affect the
acceptability of drinking water. Suspended carbonates, solids, or even air can give turbid water
a milky look. An off-putting blackish tint can be caused by manganese, iron, or slime bacteria.
A yellowish look can indicate humus or fulvic compounds, iron, or bacteria. Dissolved iron or
bacteria can also give a reddish tint, and surface foam could indicate the presence of surfactants.
Brackish, or slightly salty, water is unacceptable for drinking, whereas high hardness or solids
can give an alkaline taste. Oily, fishy, or perfume-like taste maybe be caused by surfactants,
and presence of iron, copper, zinc, and nuisance bacteria may cause a metallic taste. Rotten-
egg, musty, earthy, grassy, fishy, vegetable, or cucumber odours are also unacceptable for
drinking water and may be caused by hydrogen sulphide, bacteria, soft water reactions, algal
by-products, or surfactants (Fluence, 2015).

2.7.8.5 Water Quality Parameters

These are parameters that are frequently sampled or monitored for water quality include
temperature, dissolved oxygen, pH, conductivity, ORP, and turbidity. However, water
monitoring may also include measuring total algae, or laboratory parameters such as BOD,
titration, or TOC, as prescribed in the Table 2.1 below. Water are divided into physical,
chemical and biological water quality parameters in which in turn directly correlate with the
method used to treat or remove the corresponding contaminants. (Omer, 2019)

• Physical parameters

The physical parameters include all the physical characteristics of water that are considered in
water treatment.

• Chemical parameters

The chemical parameters these include the characteristics that influence the chemical reaction
of the water with other materials as well itself.

• Biological parameters

Biological parameters include the living organism component existing in the water, this is
seriously considered especially in the treatment of drinking water and sensitive consumption.
The table 2.1 below contains the list of the water quality parameters in their corresponding
category: -

19
Table 2.1: Water quality parameters (WHO, 1997)

Types of water quality parameters

No. Biological
Physical parameters Chemical parameters
parameters

1 Turbidity pH Bacteria

2 Temperature Acidity Algae

3 Colour Alkalinity Viruses

4 Taste and odour Chloride Protozoa

5 Solids Chlorine residual

6 Electrical conductivity (EC) Sulphate

Nitrogen

Fluoride

Iron and manganese

Copper and zinc

Hardness

Dissolved oxygen

Biochemical oxygen demand

(BOD)

Chemical oxygen demand (COD)

Toxic inorganic substances

Toxic organic substances

Radioactive substances

20
2.8 Water Storage

Water storage is a broad term referring to storage of both potable water for consumption, and
non-potable water for use in agriculture and other activities, in both developing countries and
some developed countries found in tropical climates, there is a need to store potable drinking
water especially during the dry season.

In agriculture water storage, water is stored for later use in natural water sources, such as
groundwater aquifers, soil water, natural wetlands, and small artificial ponds, tanks and
reservoirs behind major dams. Storing water invites a host of potential issues regardless of that
waters intended purpose, including contamination through organic and inorganic means (Eric,
2010).

2.8.1 Types of water storage

2.8.1.1 Ponds and tanks

Detention basins and water tanks can be defined as community-built and household water
stores, filled by rainwater, groundwater infiltration or surface runoff as described in Figures
2.6 and 2.7. They are usually open, and therefore exposed to high levels of evaporation. They
can be of great help in both domestic water uses and agricultural activities but however, they
can promote water borne diseases such as malaria or schistosomiasis, when subjected to some
contamination pursuing to the coliforms spread. (Alemayehu, 1998).

Figure 2.6: Detention basin storage

21
 Figure 2.7: The Community water Storage tank

2.8.1.2 Buckets and Barrels

This storage involves the preserving of water into cylindrical or rectangular shaped plastics or
metallic storages. They may range from a volume storage of 4L – 250L thus may be of great
usefulness in case of short period shortage of the water supply.

2.9 Water Distribution Systems

Water distribution systems are the methods used to transport water from either storage or
treatment plants to the consumers. They are designed to accommodate for domestic and other
residential water requirements. For the efficient distribution it is required that the water should
reach to every consumer with required rate of flow and in an adequate amount (Chatterjee,
1998). The transportation distribution of the water in large distances may employ the following
methods of transportation that fall into three categories:

• Aqueducts; which include pipelines, canals, and tunnels.

• Container shipment; which includes transport by tank truck, tank car, and tank ship.
• Towing; where a tugboat is used to pull an iceberg or a large water bag along behind it.

2.9.1 Pipeline Distribution systems

Within a distribution system there are so many types of pipe classifications that are well joined
and forming the system. Those pipes are such as discussed below: -

22
 • Truck Main

This is for bulk conveyance of water from sources to required destination point in the system.
Example: From the water treatment plant

• Supply main

This is the pipeline between the source or treatment plant to service storage tank.

• Ring main

This is a connection between distributions main that forms a ring like pattern.

• Service line

Connection from distribution main to domestic household points in the supply system. These
are pipe networks within a building.

2.9.1.2 Materials used in pipes production

The pipes that found in water works systems are either be made of the following materials
depending on the choice factors like, nature of the grounds, quantity of water transported and
the design life. The materials include: -

• Galvanized steel
• Steel
• Polyethylene
• Cast Iron
• Glass reinforced plastic
• PVC (poly vinyl chloride)
• Pre- stressed concrete
• Reinforced concrete cylinder

23
 Figure 2.8: PVC pipes Figure 2.9: Galvanized steel pipe

Factors governing the choices of pipes are such as: -

• Unit costs and prices of the pipes

• Local experience and skills
• Ground conditions
• Preferences and choices
• Technical consideration

2.9.1.3 Pipe Line Design and layout

Before the actual detailed pipeline design a detailed design area topographical map has to be
prepared. The area proposes the installation type of the pipes basing on the features and terrain
of the area. The design layout for the pipes must compose the following: -

• Proposed pipeline or network route with ground level.

• Coordinates and sport heights of important features.
• Contours of the area.
• Details of the features including roads, railways, sewers, buildings, hills and valleys.

2.9.2 Layout of Water Distribution System

Generally, in practice there are four different systems of distribution which are used;

• Dead End or Tree system

• Grid Iron system
• Circular or Ring system

24
 • Radial system

2.9.2.1 Dead End or branched system.

This system is suitable for irregular developed towns or cities. In this system water flows in
one direction only into submains and branches. The diameter of pipe decreases at every tree
branch.

Figure 2.10: Tree system

The following are the advantages of Dead-End System.

• Discharge and pressure at any point in the distribution system is calculated easily
• The valves required in this system of layout are comparatively less in number.
• The diameter of pipes used are smaller and hence the system is cheap and economical
• The laying of water pipes is used are simple.

The following are the disadvantages of Dead-End System

• There is stagnation of water at dead ends of pipes causing contamination.

• During repairs of pipes or valves at any point the entire down stream end are deprived
of supply
• The water available for fire fighting will be limited in quantity

25
2.9.2.2 Loop System

From the mains water enters the branches at all Junctions in either directions into submains of
equal diameters. At any point in the line the pressure is balanced from two directions because
of interconnected network of pipes.

Figure 2.11: A loop system

The following are the advantage of Loop system: -

• In the case of repairs a very small portion of distribution area will be affected
• Every point receives supply from two directions and with higher pressure
• Additional water from the other branches are available for fire fighting
• There is free circulation of water and hence it is not liable for pollution due to stagnation
• The lower water velocities in the main reduce head losses, resulting in greater capacity,
• Main breaks can be isolated, minimizing service interruptions to consumers
• Usually better chlorine residual content is achieved.

The following are the disadvantages of Loop system

• High cost because more length of pipes and number of valves are needed.
• Calculation of sizes of pipes and working out pressures at various points in the
distribution system is laborious, complicated and difficult.

2.9.2.3 Grid iron system

It is suitable for cities with rectangular layout, where the water mains and branches are laid in
rectangles.

26
 Figure 2.12: Grid iron system

Advantages of the Grid iron system

• Water is kept in good circulation due to absence of dead ends.

• In the case of breakdown in some section, water is available from other direction.

Disadvantages of the Grid iron system

• Exact calculation of sizes of pipes is not possible due to provision of valves on all
branches.

2.9.2.4 Radial system

This is a zoned system. Water is pumped to the distribution reservoirs and from the reservoirs
it flows by gravity to the tree system of pipes. This is most economical system and combined
pumping and gravity flow may be adopted. Most preferred.

Figure 2.13: Radial system

27
2.9.3 Systems of Water Distribution

For efficient distribution it is required that the water should reach to every consumer with
required rate of flow. Therefore, some pressure in pipeline is necessary, which should force the
water to reach at every place.

Depending upon the methods of distribution, the distribution system is classified as the follows:

• Gravity system
• Pumping system
• Dual system or combined gravity and pumping system

2.9.3.1 Gravity System

When some ground sufficiently high above the city area is available, this can be best utilized
for distribution system in maintaining pressure in water mains. This method is also much
suitable when the source of supply such as lake, river or impounding reservoir is at sufficiently
higher than city. The water flows in the mains due to gravitational forces. As no pumping is
required therefore it is the most reliable system for the distribution of water.

2.9.3.2 Pumping System

Constant pressure can be maintained in the system by direct pumping into mains. Rate of flow
cannot be varied easily according to demand unless number of pumps are operated in addition
to stand by ones. Supply can be affected during power failure and breakdown of pumps. Hence
diesel pumps also in addition to electrical pumps as standby to be maintained. During fires, the
water can be pumped in required quantity by the standby units.

2.9.3.3 Dual System

This is also known as dual system. The pump is connected to the mains as well as elevated
reservoir. In the beginning when demand is small the water is stored in the elevated reservoir,
but when demand increases the rate of pumping, the flow in the distribution system comes from
the both the pumping station as well as elevated reservoir. This system is more reliable and
economical, because it requires uniform rate of pumping but meets low as well as maximum
demand. The water stored in the elevated reservoir meets the requirements of pumping but
meets low as well as maximum demand. The water stored in the elevated reservoir meets the
requirements of demand during breakdown of pumps and for fire fighting.

28
2.9.4 Container water shipment

Bulk water supplies are used for both everyday and emergency use situations including the
applications related to both potable and non-potable water delivery systems and subsystems
such as water tankers and distribution wagons. This aims to supply adequate water with
acceptable quality to the customers.

Figure 2.14: Tanker distributing water to the community

2.10 Sanitation

Sanitation mostly refers to the promotion of hygiene and prevention of diseases by maintaining
sanitary conditions (clean drinking water and adequate treatment and disposal of human excreta
and sewage). The prevention of excreta with human contact is part of sanitation. It aims to
protect human health by preventing transmission of communicable water diseases and to
promote aesthetic environment (Gates foundation, 2010).

A sanitation system includes the capture, storage, transport, treatment and disposal or reuse of
human excreta and wastewater. (WHO, 2017) Reuse activities within the sanitation system
may focus on the nutrients, water, energy or organic matter contained in excreta and
wastewater.

Types of sanitation system

There are two types of sanitation system

• On site sanitation system

• Off-site sanitation system

29
2.10.1 On site sanitation system

Is the sanitation system in which excreta and wastewater are collected and stored or treated on
the plot where they are generated (Tilley, 2014). Example: Pit latrines and septic tanks. This
system is often connected to faecal sludge management systems in which the faecal generated
onsite is treated at an off-site location. Wastewater (sewage) is only generated when piped
hence water supply is available within the buildings or close to them.

The groundwater pollution may cause by On-site sanitation as a major concern in many urban
and peri-urban areas when organized sewerage is lacked and where the drinking water
requirements are met from groundwater sources. The contamination is likely to take place in
the event of a pathway existing between a ground water source and an on-site sanitation facility.

The growing population has led to adopt the On-site sanitation system as compared to
conventional sewerage. The On-site sanitation system poses a significant adverse impact on
the groundwater quality in the long run. It assumes more importance when the geological
settings favour the migration of contaminants. The problem becomes alarming when the
groundwater table is shallow. The groundwater quality studies were reported by (NEERI, 2005)
pertaining to the impact of septic tanks. (Pujari my et al, 2007) found that the increased
concentration of nitrate and bacteria in groundwater near On-site sanitation system and
showing the impact on groundwater quality.

Advantages of on-site sanitation

• Low cost
• Small water demand
• No sewer networks
• Reliable techniques
• No energy necessary

Disadvantages of on-site sanitation

• No control of performance
• Needs maintenance by users
• Large space required
• It is not well adapted to densely populated areas

30
 Figure 2.15: Ventilated Pit Latrine Figure 2.16: Septic Tank and Soak pit

2.10.2 Off-site sanitation system

Is a sanitation system in which excreta and wastewater are collected and conveyed away from
the plot where they are generated. An off-site sanitation system relies on a sewer technology
for conveyance.

Advantages of off-site sanitation

• High removal of organic matter, nutrients and pathogen bacteria.

• Good adapted to urban areas.
• Good controllability.
• Space required for WWTP (0.5 - 2 sq.m/person).

Disadvantages of off-site sanitation

• High cost in investment and operation

• Requires highly skilled personal
• High water demand - for the operation of a sewer network high water consumption
is required to prevent sewer clogging.
• Energy and large machinery necessary.
• Materials are often not locally available

31
2.10.2.1 Sewerage system

Sewerage is the infrastructure that conveys sewage or surface runoff (stormwater, meltwater,
rainwater) using sewers. It includes components such as receiving drains, manholes, pumping
stations, storm overflows, and screening chambers of the combined sewer or sanitary sewer.
Sewerage ends at the entry to a sewage treatment plant or at the point of discharge into the
environment. It is the system of pipes, chambers and manholes that conveys the sewage or
storm water.

Sewerage system main part is made up of large pipes (sanitary sewers) that conveys the sewage
from the point source to the treatment or discharge point. There are sanitary sewer that include
gravity sewers (combined sewer, simplified sewerage and storm drain) other sanitary sewer are
not relying solely on gravity including vacuum sewers.

Severe constraints are applied to sewerage, which may result in premature deterioration. These
include root intrusion, joint displacement, cracks, and hole formations that lead to a significant
volume of leakage with an overall risk for the environment and public health. For example, it
is estimated that 500 million m3 of contaminated water per year can leak into soil and ground-
water in Germany (Kaempfer, 2009). The rehabilitation and replacement of damaged sewers is
very costly.

Figure 2.17: Sewer pipe

32
 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 METHODOLOGY

This refers to the systematic study methods to resolve problems through data gathering and
collection by using various techniques. In this project various methods and materials were used
in collection of data that is relevant to water supply at Mbezi - Makabe. These methods include;

3.1 Physical Observation

This involved the visitation of the site at Mbezi - Makabe to observe and study the existing
situation concerning water supply such as water sources, water quality, quantity, water demand,
availability, primary water treatment options, water consumption and the existing water
distribution at Mbezi - Makabe.

Moreover, we observed the terrain of the case study, also including different human activities
taking place, existence of institutions for example schools, hospitals, churches, mosques and
many more at Mbezi – Makabe.

3.2 Literature Review

This mainly involved the surveying of different scholarly sources such as books, online
sources, journal article, and theses that are related to issues of water supply and sanitation.
These written books and other documents helped us to find secondary data concerning water
supply such as water source, water quality and quantity, water demand, availability of water in
various relevant communities, water treatment, water consumption in the community and
engineering solutions to the observed problems. Thus, helped us to acquire knowledge,
experiences and engineering solutions related to water engineering and supply.

3.3 Questionnaire

This a set of printed or written questions, some with a set of answers devised for the purpose
of data collection from respondents. The data collected from the data collection questionnaire
was well ensured to be both qualitative as well as quantitative in nature.

The questionnaire was conducted by asking a series of well-prepared technical questions both
closed ended whereby answers were fixed on the resulting questions and the choice of the
respondent is what was considered related to the situation of the asked issue.

33
Also, another set of questionnaires involved the open-ended questions that depended on the
explanations of the respondent resulting to the asked issue as an approach to intensive data
collection from the respondents.

In the resulting approach, a series of 150 questionnaires in two different phases of data
collection were conducted from the households present at Mbezi – Makabe ward. On the basis
of collecting data, it was ensured that information was obtained in different portions distributed
at Mbezi – Makabe. The questionnaires involved the random sampling whereby every
household had an equal chance of being chosen to provide data on the related issue.

The questionnaire involved various questions targeted to all water consumption sectors
including the household domestic uses of water, health centres, schools, industries, markets
and kiosks.

The use of questionnaire as a data collection method was advantageous to us in collecting data
as follows: -

• It was less cost fully.

• It provided specific data to the required issue.
• It is of less bias, since data is randomly obtained from different households.
• Less time was required to gather data, compared to interviews.

3.4 Interview

This is essentially a structured conversation where one participant asks questions (interviewer)
and the other provides the answers (interviewee). The interview was conducted by asking
different question to the local government personnels, including the ward chairperson, ten-
house authority representatives. Water supply and sanitation authority personnel, water selling
kiosks’ owners, and school heads.

3.5 Consultation

This is a meeting with a professionals or experts for the purpose of gaining information or
experience of certain concepts, the purpose of consultation as a help to formulate the plan of
attack for solving the problems at hand and accomplish their goals. Therefore, consultations
included gaining from the supervisors, course instructors and some colleagues during analysis,
interpretation and presentation of collected data from the site.

34
 CHAPTER 4

4.0 EXISTING SITUATION

4.1 Site Description

4.1.1 Location of the area

Mbezi – Makabe ward is located at Mbezi in the Ubungo Municipality, Dar es salaam. The
ward covers an area of 1.39 km2, bordered by 4 wards namely, Msumi in the north, Mbezi Inn
in the south-east, Mbezi centre in the eastern and Msakuzi in the whole western part.

MAKABE TOPOGRAPHICAL MAP

Figure 4.1: The Topographical Map of Mbezi – Makabe

35
 Figure 4.2: The Mbezi – Makabe Satellite imaged Map

4.1.2 Climatic temperature conditions

The climatic conditions at Makabe has its temperature range between 23 – 35c. Furthermore,
the driest month with less precipitation lies in August whereas the most precipitation is received
in April.

4.1.3 Topography of the area

The Mbezi – Makabe terrain is generally of more gentle highland areas with some places of
steep sloped highlands having contour elevations of 140 – 170m above the sea level. Most of
the places are composed of clay-loams and a few with sand-silt soils.

4.2 Population

According to the census of 2012 there are 3984 households holding the population of 17,550
people holding up 5 people per household as illustrated in the Figure 4.3 below whereby 8482
of the population are men covering about 48% of the total population and 9068 of the
population women which is about 52% of the total population.

36
 Population Distribution at Mbezi - Makabe

Men
Women
48%
52%

Men Women

Figure 4.3: Population distribution of men and women at Makabe

4.3 Social-economic activities

The community of Mbezi - Makabe has various social economic activities enabling most of the
dwellers earn income for well-being. The following major social-economic activities were
identified as follows: -

• Commercial restaurants, shops and Car wash bays

The area is composed of various commercial places including the small-scale restaurants, car
wash bays, shops, bars and recreation parks. They generally act as the water requiring points
for performing daily activities of performing works, as most of the car washing bays and parks
purchase water for use. Currently, there are 6 car wash points within the area.

Figure 4.4: Car washing points

37
 • Small scale industries - Blocks making

There are 16 Small scale industries observed at Mbezi - Makabe which were block making
industries which are made for sale, in order to be used in building houses activities in the
community. Most of the block works industry require much water that is brought by private
supplying tankers that is salt free for use.

Figure 4.5: Blocks works manufacturing industry at Makabe

• Institutions

The Makabe ward is viably composed of various institutions within the ward as presented in
the Table 4.1. The institutions mostly are straight associated with the environment in terms of
the activities involved in relation to the supply of water and sanitation. The institutions
identified in the ward are as follows: -

Table 4.1: Water requiring Institutions situated at Mbezi – Makabe.

TYPE OF INSTITUTIONS NUMBER OF INSTITUTIONS

Schools
Boarding 0
Day 3

Churches 4
Mosques 3
Health centres 2

38
4.3 The water supply at Mbezi – Makabe community

4.3.1 Major sources of water for domestic use at Mbezi – Makabe

Mbezi - Makabe has different water sources for supply to the houses, industries and commercial
activities that demand water. Some of the identified and common water sources included rain
water, boreholes, tank supplied water and the supplied water from DAWASA.

The water sources for drinking and for other uses are sometimes of separate as identified from
the site, while for other dwellers use the same water for both uses. As prescribed on the Figure
4.6 below a total of 63 households making up 42% of the total households rely on boreholes
for domestic water uses while the remaining 31% rely tap water from DAWASA and 40 of the
households same as 27% on the tank supplied water.

SOURCE OF WATER FOR DOMESTIC USE

27%

42%

31%

TANKERS SUPPLIED WATER DAWASA TAP WATER BOREHOLES

Figure 4.6: The Domestic use water sources at Makabe

Drinking water is one of the domestic water consumptions, and most of the households at
Mbezi – Makabe prefer separately using the DAWASA tap water, as 54 households making up
36% of the total households. This favours most of the households situated near the DAWASA
mains, but for those situated far from the mains prefer tankers water by 48% of the supplied
water. Most of them do not prefer using borehole water as the drinking source, since the water
is salty for use, as described in the Figure 4.8 below.

39
 SOURCE OF WATER FOR DRINKING

36%

48%

16%

DAWASA TAP WATER BOREHOLES TANKERS SUPPLIED WATER

Figure 4.7: The Drinking water sources at Mbezi - Makabe

Also, there have been some variations in the sources such that the reliance on rain water as a
source varies significantly according to the seasons of the year such that the use of rain as the
main source of water especially during rainy seasons has been incredibly reliable, so as to
minimize the costs of payments of the water at Makabe, either by tankers or DAWASA
supplied tap water.

Thus, as from the results of the households, 69.3% rely on rain water during rainy seasons for
drinking and other domestic uses, while only 14% consume water from DAWASA and 8.7%
rely on tankers 8% on boreholes water.

This deviation is brought much due to the salinity of the ground water obtained at Makabe,
making it not quite suitable for drinking, cooking and laundry purposes and the reducing the
costs of water for bills and purchases.

40
 Figure 4.8: Rain water harvesting from a certain house at Mbezi – Makabe

4.3.2 Community water tank constructions activitiy

Currently, there is an ongoing progress of constructing a storage tank for water to be supplied
to the Mbezi – Makabe community. The Tank is elevated capable of holding up a volume of
100,000L of water. The water to fill up the tank is expected to be obtained from DAWASA
main, adding up sufficient head to distribute in various places of Makabe.

Figure 4.9: The water supply tank construction project at Makabe

41
4.3.3 Domestic water Demand and Availability

The water demand for domestic uses at Mbezi – Makabe significantly ranged from 20 – 90L
per capita consumptions for the households generating an average of 70L/person/day. The
average number of people per households analysed is 6 people per single household.

Domestic water demand Estimation = Total Number of people x Per capita demand

But: Per capita water demand = 70L/ca/day (From the questionnaire results)

Thus;

Population is forecasted from the previous 2012 census data of Mbezi – Makabe of 17550
people using the Geometric Increase Method, since this method gives higher values and hence
should be applied for a new industrial place at the beginning of development for only few
decades as Mbezi Makabe area is considered thus favoring its current conditions.

• From: Geometric Increase Method

r
P = Po (1 + )n
100

Whereby: P = Projected population

Po = Previous census population

r = Rate of growth (4 – 5) % growth rates for Tanzania (World Bank, 2018)

n = Number of decades

4.0 9
The 2021 Population = 17,550 (1 + 100) = 24,979 people

Thus, Current domestic water demand = 24,979 x 70 = 1,748,530L/day

Taking the domestic water demands for the medium income households from the Tanzania
design manual, 2020 is 110L/ca/day.

Demand estimations = 24,979 x 110 = 2,747,690L/day

Water deficit = 2,747,690 - 1,748,530 = 999,160 L/day, that is almost 36% of the water to be
supplied to satisfy the domestic water requirements.

42
4.3.3.1 Water selling Kiosks

The water selling kiosks at the Makabe community mostly are of locally managed by a single
household, the well-known and registered ones are 14 of them distributed throughly Makabe
aiming to produce water for the households, at a price of Tshs 400/= per 20 litre buckets. The
water normally is stored in 1000, 2000, 5000 and 10000L tanks as displayed in the Figure 4.11
for ensuring adequate to an average number of 20 - 50 customers a day from different
households. The kiosks located at the Madukani, and Kwa mshana in Makabe, also have fixed
meters to the houses in which water is supplied to.

The kiosks do not offer any further treatment for the supply, instead the customers have the
secondary role of either treating the bought water or not.

The Kiosks for selling water obtain the water mainly from the boreholes providing 65% of the
total supplied water as prescribed from the Figure 4:10 and the remaining 35% obtaining the
water from the supplying tankers.

KIOSKS WATER SOURCES

35%

65%

BOREHOLES TANKERS WATER SUPPLIED

Figure 4.11: Sources of water for the Kiosks for sell

43
 Figure 4.10: Kiosks Storage tanks from the Boreholes drilled for selling water

4.3.3.2 Health centres

The Makabe ward has only 2 health centres, with one having an ability to bedrest 3 patients
per day. Both the two health centres have capabilities to accommodate at least 60 patients per
day. The health centres also have a total of 27 staffs, the capita consumptions for the health
centres as analysed from the site is 30L/c/day, obtaining clean water from DAWASA tap water
and the supplied tank water at Makabe.

4.3.3.3 Industrial places

The ward is composed of only 16 medium scaled industries that actually require the water for
its functions. The industries mostly refer to the block works production industry, with the
consumption of fresh water from the tankers, consuming 800L – 1200L/day in in each block
work industry, in dry seasons while in wet ones only 500L when water storage from rains are
depleted. The water is either used for hydrating the blocks or mixing up the sand and cement,
whereby 1 tanker is of 1000L sold at Tshs 15000.

4.3.3.4 Schools

There is a sum of 3-day schools registered in the ward. The schools have a total population of
1493 student and a sum of 72 staffs. Each school depends itself on its source of water such as
Makabe primary buys water in tankers as two tanks of 4000L/day, whereas the Makabe Hill
Top and Safi Schools have their own boreholes whereby the Makabe Hill Top has a borehole
yielding 12m3 per day. The schools are of primary level of education with their self-measured
boreholes for water uses.

44
The Table 4.2 below describes the consumptions and population number of students in schools.

School Students Staffs Consumption Consumption/

Population per capita school/ day
Safi Primary 455 34 20L/std/day 9780
Makabe 714 16 15L/std/day 10,950
primary
Makabe Hill 324 22 20L/std/day 6920
Top

Demand estimation as per the design manual requires 25L/std/day using WCs, giving a
consumption of 39,125L/day in the schools, thus portraying a deficit of 11,475L/day.

Figure 4.12: Water storage tank for the Makabe primary school

4.3.3.5 Mosques

Mbezi – Makabe has 3 mosques and 7 Madrassa, the demand in the mosques is 20L/ca/day for
the worshipers, obtaining water from the boreholes. The total number of worshipers in the
mosques are 527, 329 and 402 making a total of 1528 and according to the questionnaire results
demanding 30,560L/day. Whereas in the Madrasa there are 243 worshipers as per the capita

45
demand of 20L/day making a total water consumption of 4860L/day. The total water demand
is 35,420L per day.

4.3.3.6 Churches

Mbezi – Makabe has a sum of 4 registered churches with populations of 1270, 785, 612 and
1700 worshipers. The sum of worshipers is 4,367, according to the questionnaire results
demanding each 10L/ca/day making the total water demand of 43,670L/day.

4.3.3.7 Administrative offices

The data was collected and analysed from various institution administrative offices, including
the Ward office, to appropriately asses on the consumption of water for various uses, including
the sanitary ones. The offices consume 40 – 80L/day for cleaning and toilet flushing. The
variation of data obtained from the site presumes the average demand of 60L/day of use for the
administrative uses.

4.3.3.8 Commercial Water Demands

The commercial water demands were established depending on the questionnaire results from
the site. The following data was established as presented on the Table 4.3 below.

Table 4.3: Commercial water demands as per specific activities.

Commercial No. of same Demand of Total water

activity commercial water per demand of
activities specific activity same activities
(L/day)
Restaurants 21 70 1470
Bar 7 80 560
Markets 3 130 390
Guest houses 8 400 3200
Car Wash 6 100 600

4.3.4 Water Storage

Normally, the Mbezi – Makabe households store water that may either be supplied by tankers,
rainfall, DAWASA tap water or the boreholes in tanks of 1000L – 10000L for future use as
displayed in the Figure 4.15 below.
46
 WATER STORAGE CAPACITIES AT MAKABE
11% 8%

19%

36%

26%

10 TO 50 L 50 TO 200 L 200 TO 1000 L 1000 TO 3000 L 3000 TO 10000

Figure 4.15: Storage quantities (Litres) for water in various households at Mbezi – Makabe

Figure 4.13: PVC material storage tank Figure 4.14: Concrete underground tank

4.3.5 Quality of Water

At Mbezi - Makabe the water quality is poor basin on observations, such that the parameters
including turbidity, odour, salinity especially to the users depending on groundwater sources
like boreholes. As a mitigative measure to counteract the consequences and improve the water
quality the households prefer using primary treatment methods including boiling,
sedimentation and filtration and disinfection, whereas some of them consume the raw water
without any treatment method.

47
A total of 64.7% prefer boiling as their primary treatment method for the water while the 9.3%
prefer sedimentation and filtration, in cases of places with solid particle settled water, and the
remaining 5.3% prefer disinfection methods by water guards and 20.7% opt to use water
without any further treatment aiming on saving the energy costs.

4.3.6 Costs of Water

Water bill payments by majority of individuals in Mbezi - Makabe is mostly done by the daily
purchase of water from tankers suppliers which they had to fill tankers of 1000L each for the
water to be sold to the people. The water is sold at 15,000 Tshs per each barrel which contained
1000 L in capacity.

However, for the minority of individuals benefited with the tap water from DAWASA normally
pay per their consumptions the bills paid after every month consumption, under the Metered
domestic quantities as a meter is displayed in Figure 4.16 of use ranging 0 - 5 m3 costing Tshs
1,106 unit tariff since most of them required lower demands of water, and Tsh 1663 per unit
for the households requiring more than 5m3 of water significantly. The water bills are then paid
to DAWASA. For the households purchasing water in the kiosks spend Tshs 400 for a 20L
bucket.

Figure 4.16: A water meter

48
4.3.7 Total current demand at Makabe

The total water demand at Makabe serves as a sum of the water demands identified from the
site. The estimation of the total current water demand is of a great significant in assessing the
sustainability of the current water supply on terms of quality and quantity when related to
proper living and sanitation.

Total water demand = 9780 + 10950 + 6920 + 35420 + 43670 + 1470 + 560 + 390 + 3200 +
600 + 19200 + 675 + 1748530 = 1,881,365 L/day

Therefore, the current water demand for all consuming uses at Mbezi – Makabe is 1,881,365
L/day basing on the site results analysis.

4.3.8 The Role Women in Water Supply

As women are increasingly being recognized internationally as essential actors in successful

water supply management since they are good key players in the water supply issues as in
Mbezi – Makabe. Figure 4.17 describes the role of gender distributions concerning water
supply and consumption, women play a good role in the sector as was observed in Mbezi -
Makabe where by most of the women where responsible for fetching and tapping water for the
household, cleanliness activities in the households, laundry and sanitation as prescribed in the
Figure 4.17 below, whereas the opposite gender often offer money for buying water and few
acts as the water vendors on carts and water trucks.

GENDER DISTRIBUTION IN ACTIVITIES

RELATED TO WATER USE AT MBEZI - MAKABE

33%

67%

MEN WOMEN

Figure 4.17: The gender distribution in activities related to water use at Mbezi – Makabe

49
4.3.9 Sanitation Situation at Mbezi - Makabe

The type of sanitation that existed in most of the households and some commercial areas is on-
site sanitation as all households prefer on using this type with respect to the availability of
water having a majority using the septic tanks and soak pits at 54% with sanitary appliances
like Eastern and Western WCs, Hand washing basins and showers are present.

Figure 4.18: A pour flush fixed latrine Figure 4.19: A western WC

THE ONSITE SANITATION SYSTEM AT MAKABE

12%

54%
34%

Pit Latrines VIP Latrines Septic Tanks and Soak Pits

Figure 4.20: Onsite sanitation systems at Mbezi – Makabe

50
 CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 PROBLEMS FACING THE WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM AT MAKABE AND

THEIR PROPOSED SOLUTIONS

5.1 Problems facing the Current Water Supply at Makabe Community

• High daily expenses

High daily incurred expenses by the members of the community in Mbezi - Makabe in attaining
water for their daily demand satisfaction, this is mostly redirected to the kiosks for selling water
and the water from the tankers such that this was seen to be a problem to most of the mid and
low-income earners, specifically basing on the allocated costs of water 15,000 Tshs per 1000L.

• Dishonesty of some public water suppliers

Dishonesty of various water suppliers selling salty mixed water to the households instead of
the fresh water. Mostly observed that some members request for fresh tap water but
unfortunately end up being delivered water that is salty, which is not best for the people.

• Insufficient storage facilities

Also, lack of enough water storage facilities for some households in MBEZI-MAKABE, this
leads to the frequent water shortage and hence the unplanned expenses, to purchase the water
at this deficit periods.

• Reluctance of water supply officials to implement the adequate water for the people at
Makabe.

Unwillingness of the water supply officials (DAWASA) on the implementation of the of water
distribution in the given area in a given period of time. Most of the households individual
complained on the lack of manifestation of the promises given by the DAWASA officials
during their surveys, reaching up to 7 months without the supply of water.

• Geographical setbacks

The existing geographical setback as most of the terrain in Mbezi - Makabe consists of mainly
hills and generally existence of uplands, this poses a structural and engineering problems to the
fixing and establishment of functional water supply facilities.

51
5.1.1 Problems facing the Sanitation system in Makabe

• Inadequate water for sanitary purposes

Inadequate availability of water for sanitary use has quite led to a challenge as the residents use
only 5 – 10 L for toilet cleaning, that is quietly not sufficient whereas some of them clean the
toilets even up to 3 days. Thus, endangering the lives of the residents at Makabe, by exposing
them to communicable diseases like Cholera, dysentery and diarrhoea.

• Poorly designed latrines

Still the use of VIP latrines for the residents is a great challenge since still 12% of the
households use pit latrines which are unventilated, hence leading to accumulation of flies in
the toilets, hence triggering the survival and transmission of vectors like houseflies to the
nearby households.

5.2 Proposed Engineering Solutions of Identified Problems

• Water usage

Minimization of water usage to reduce high daily incurred expenses through conservation,
using less water and using it more efficiently. Domestically it can involve both engineered
features, such as low-flow showers and toilets, as well as growing native vegetation that
require little irrigation in desert climates, turning off the water while you brush your teeth, and
fixing leaky appliances.

• By- law enforcement

Enforcement of by-laws to water suppliers to avoid dishonest of selling salty water instead of
fresh tap water to members at Mbezi – Makabe, this includes the provision of the required
standards for the water quality for distribution at Makabe, thus any violation enforcement
should be implemented.

• Water storage

Enhancing sufficient water storage facilities basing on the population of household members
and daily water usage capacity, so as to avoid frequent water shortage and unplanned expenses.

52
 • Distribution of water

To enable effective distribution of water to people in a given period of time at Mbezi - Makabe
adequate finance is needed for investing in water resources management and water supply
officials like DAWASA, to facilitate the provisioning of water. Also, opportunities are to be
granted to the private investors to engage in the supply scheme so as to boost the speed of
supply of water to the people.

• Geographical area

Measuring and understanding the geographical area through monitoring, applied research,
technology development and forecasting to obtain reliable data for analysis and proper decision
making in the provisioning of water to the people at adequate pressure, quality and quantity.

• Education Provisioning and Training

This includes community awareness building, and formal education, on the best and low-cost
sanitation options that are safe to both the environment and the public health. This includes the
construction of better VIP Latrines and septic tanks that also will ensure no pollution to the
water table.

53
 CHAPTER SIX

6.0 DESIGN OF THE WATER SUPPLY

6.1 Population Forecasting

As a basic criterion of designing a water supply project for the community, it is important to
consider the population of the desired community. To fit the design period of the intended
project it is important to forecast the future population to be served by the project.

In relation to our site where, the Geometric increase method of projecting the future population
was a desired choice fitting the place where the area is at the beginning of development,
expectedly for the population to rise within the few years to come, hence logically viable.

From;

𝐈𝐆 𝐧
𝐏𝐧 = 𝐏 (𝟏 + )
𝟏𝟎𝟎

Whereby;

Pn - Population after nth years

P - Current population

IG - Growth rate

n - number of years

Pn =?

P = 17,550 people (according 2012 census)

P9 (current population) =?

P20 (population after 20 years from 2021) =?

IG = 4.0

Hence;

4.0 9
𝐏𝟗 = 17,550 (1 + 100) = 24,979 people

54
Thus;

Population after 20 years (design period) from 2021;

4 20
𝐏𝟐𝟎 = 24,979 (1 + 100) = 54,732 people

Therefore, The Population estimated is for the use in the water demand estimation as the desired
one to fit the design period of the project.

6.2 Domestic Water Demand

This is the amount of water that used for domestic purpose like, bathing, washing, cleaning and
cooking. The domestic water demand depends on the population of people in a certain or a
given area and their use.

From;

Domestic Water Demand = Population x Volume of water needed

The per capita water demand for the metered with unit tariff for the medium income group
housing, with sewer or septic tank as per the design manual for use is 110L/ca/day (MoW,
2020) that is considered in the design.

The water demand after 20 years:

= Population after 20 years x per capita water demand

= 54,732 x 110L

= 6,020,520L of water

6.3 Industrial Water Demand

This is amount of water needed in industrial activities. According to Water supply design
manual of 2020, the water demand for Medium scale industrial use is estimated to be
20m3/ha/day (MoW, 2020). Considering the medium scale industries to be initiated under the
area of 4 ha as prescribed by the local officers for medium scale industries to be initiated. The
area is to be estimated for the water demand in the future for the industry in addition to the
current industries.

Industrial water demand = number of industry x volume of water demand

= 4 x 20m3/ha/day = 80 m3/ha/day

55
The obtained 80,000L are added to the current industry demands as follows;

16 x 1000L/day = 16,000L/day

Thus, the total demand is 96,000L/day.

6.4 Commercial Water Demand

The designed water supply system is intended to satisfy the commercial water demands of all
economic activities of the place. The total commercial water demand estimations are as
follows: -

Total commercial water demand = (Bars + Car wash + Markets + Restaurants + Guest houses)

Total commercial water demands = ((600 x 3) + (600 x 6) + (981 x 80) + (100 x 125) + (90 x
873))

Total commercial water demands = 174,950 L/day

6.5 Institutional Water Demand

The institutional water demands estimated are basing of the required minimal values as per the
design manual of water supply, 2020. That is from the data regarding the site only 1
administrative office, 3 Primary schools, 2 health centers, 7 Madrasa, 3 Mosques, 4 Churches
were identified in the Makabe site.

Total Institutional water demand = (Administrative offices + Primary schools + Madrasa +

Churches + Mosques + Health centers)

Total Institutional water demands = (13620 x 10 + 4765 x 20 +20 x 758 + 70 x 197 + 25 x 83

+ 186 x 50 + 4656 x 25 + 223 x 25) = 393,800L

Total Institutional water demands = 393,800L/day

The Net water Demand for the design for the water supply project for Mbezi – Makabe under
the design period of 20 years is given as the sum of the: -

Net water demand = Domestic consumption + Institutional consumption + Industrial

consumption + Commercial consumption

Net water demand = (393,800 + 174,950 + 96,000 + 6,020,520) L = 6,685,270L

56
6.6 Fire Fighting

In designing water supply system, we considered the amount of water for firefighting which is
2% of the water demand as per the design manual for water supply for Tanzania, 2020.

That gives,

Firefighting water demand = 0.02 x total water demand

Firefighting water demand = 0.02 x 6,685,270 = 133,705.4 L of firefighting demands

6.7 Operational Water Demand

Here we take a consideration of the amount of water that are used to operate the whole system
including water of the total water demand and 2% for other operational activities.

That gives,

Operational water demand = 0.02 x domestic water demand

= 0.02 x 6,685,270 = 133,705.4 L of operational demands

6.8 Water Losses Demand

This is determined and ranging from 20% - 25% of the total domestic water demand (MoW,
2020) thus, in our design 20% of the losses on the supplied water is considered, since the project
is expected to be handled to the Mbezi – Makabe community, thus expecting full participation
of the community in prevention of losses and leakages in the pipes by reporting such cases to
all places in reach, hence the losses are to be reduced to maximum.

That gives: -

Water losses = 0.2 x total water demand

= 0.2 x 6,685,270 = 1,337,054L/day

6.9 Non – Revenue water Estimations

The NRW expected for the project accumulates for all losses that will not profit the project in
terms of profit of investment, including; system water loss, Firefighting water demands and
operational water demands.

Non – Revenue water to be estimated = Firefighting water demand + Operational water demand
+ Water Losses

57
Non – Revenue water to be estimated = 1,337,054 + 133,705.4 + 133,705.4 = 1,604,465 L

In expression of percentages: -

NRW demand
NRW% = Water Demand x 100%

1,604,465
NRW% = x 100% = 19%
8,289,735

NRW% = 19%

Therefore, according to the designed project the NRW to be estimated is 19%

According to the water supply design manual for Tanzania, traditionally the System water
losses ranges from 20 – 25%. But the allowable NRW% for the newly designed projects is
15%, therefore taking into consideration that the project is a newly designed thus the losses
due to systems are minimal due to newly used pipe works and distribution facilities, also due
to low vandalism anticipated on the project that the community at Makabe will own the project
hence vandalism cases are expected to lower.

Therefore, considered also for the NRW to lower under a considerably change to 15%.
Considering that the system water losses will be only 10% of the water demand yielding
828,975.5L/day.

Net Water demand

Water Demand =
(1 – NRW)

6,685,270
Water Demand =
(1 – 0.123)

Water Demand = 7,622,884.84 Litres

58
 6.9 The total water demand

The total water demand is estimated as Table 5.1 below describes.

Table 6.1 The Water demands Estimations

No Consumer Per Population Current Future Future Average L/s

capital 2012 population population water water
consump 2021 2041 demand demand
tion (m3/day)
(L/day)
(L/cd)

1 Mbezi - Makabe 120 17,550 24979 54732 6020520 6020.52 69.7

2 Church (4) 10 4367 6216 13620 136200 136.2

3 Mosque (3) 20 1528 2175 4765 95300 95.306

Madrasa (7) 20 243 346 758 15160 15.16

4 Bars (7) 90 280 399 873 78570 78.57

5 Restaurant (21) 70 315 448 981 68670 68.67

6 Primary Schools 25 1493 2125 4656 116400 116.4

(3)

7 Primary Schools 25 72 102 223 5575 5.575

Staff

8 Markets (3) 130 390 0.39

9 Health Centre 50 60 85 186 9300 9.3

(2)

10 Health Centre 25 27 38 83 2075 2.075

Staff (2)

11 Industries (16) 1200 96000 96

12 Administrative 70 63 90 197 13790 13.79

Office

13 Guest Houses 100 40 57 125 12500 12.5

(8)

14 Car Wash (6) 100 600 0.6

59
 Total Net 6,685,270 6685.27
Water Demand

Firefighting 2% 133,705.4 131.7054 1.52

Water Loss 10% 668,527 668.527 77.38

Operational 2% 133,705.4 133.7054 1.547

Demand

Total NRW 935,937.8 L

6.10 The Peak Hourly Demand

The Total water demand per day for the design of the water supply at Mbezi Makabe is
12,958.904m3/day. The consumption of water at Makabe varies from time to time hourly.
Considering, the peak factors of water consumptions is not constant thus a peak hour factor of
1.7 is used in the design and estimating the maximum peak hourly demand at Makabe,
considering its forecasted population ranges from 30,000 – 100,000 people (MoW,2020).

Thus;

The peak hour factor (PHF) = 1.7

The average daily demand = 7,622,884.84L/day

The peak hourly demand = 7,622,884.84 x 1.7 = 12,958,904.23L/day

Therefore, for the design 95.95L/s will be considered in the hydraulic calculations.

NB:

The design of the water supply project including the fittings and pipes will be made to
accumulate for the peak hour demand in the day, so as to ensure there is adequate supply of
water even in deficit occasions under adequate pressure to avoid overloading and bursting of
the pipes at the hours.

6.11 Storage Tank Design

The Storage tank is designed for water storage reasons for future use and emergency reasons,
including fire outbreaks that may occur, thus proving an assurance for the supply of water in
all conditions. Also, the water storage tank is designed to balance the supply of water at all

60
hours of the day, most especially during the peak hour demands, where the rate of water supply
in the area may be exceeded by the actual demand in the peak hours (deficit hours). The source
of water for the supply is intended to be obtained from DAWASA main at Makabe.

The following are the factors for the design of the storage tank basing on the demands of the
area: -

• The method is economic and less cost since the minimum most volume of tank is
applicable in the design basing on the demand portion exceeding the supply of water
only at the peak hours.
• The method is reliable even in emergencies since all demands will be compensated at
all times.

6.11.1 Determination of the volume of storage for the tank

The volume of the tank is determined by associating the supply rate of water in relation to the
demands of water at that specific time. The percentage use of water per the daily demand is
computed directly from the site results whereby most of the water is used in the morning and
evening.

The supply of water is intended for only 8 hours a day from the main supply, and the respective
demands for the water varies hourly, where the peak hours are estimated to reach at most 15%
of the daily demands for 2 morning hours, 5% for the normal demands in 8 hours a day,
summing up to 12 hours of significant use of water.

Taking into account that, the uses of water for the other 12 hours during the nights and early
mornings is negligible forming almost 0% of the demand in the total supply of water.

Consider;

𝐓𝐡𝐞 𝐭𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐰𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐫 𝐭𝐨 𝐛𝐞 𝐬𝐮𝐩𝐩𝐥𝐢𝐞𝐝 𝐩𝐞𝐫 𝐝𝐚𝐲

The rate of supply of water/hr = 𝐓𝐡𝐞 𝐧𝐮𝐦𝐛𝐞𝐫 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐮𝐩𝐩𝐥𝐲 𝐡𝐨𝐮𝐫𝐬

Assumptions:

• The supply hours are 8 hours a day, from 0900 to 1600.

• The rate of supply of water in the total day is equivalent to the total demand in the
day.

61
 Thus;

𝟏𝟐,𝟗𝟓𝟖,𝟗𝟎𝟒.𝟐𝟑𝑳/𝟐𝟒𝒉𝒓
The rate of supply of water/hr = 𝟖𝐡𝐫

The rate of supply of water/hr = 1,619,863.028L

Table 6.2 The Storage Tank Volume Determination at Makabe.

Percentage of Supply Demand Surplus/Deficiency Balance

Time
Daily Use (litres) (Litres) (Litres) (Litres)

5.00 0% 0 0 0 0

6.00 15% 0 1,943,835.64 -1,943,835.64 -1,943,835.64

7.00 15% 0 1,943,835.64 -1,943,835.64 -3,887,671.28

8.00 5% 0 647,945.21 -647,945.21 -4,535,616.5

9.00 5% 1,619,863.028 647,945.21 971,917.82 -3,563,698.68

10.00 5% 1,619,863.028 647,945.21 971,917.82 -2,591,780.86

11.00 5% 1,619,863.028 647,945.21 971,917.82 -1,619,863.04

12.00 5% 1,619,863.028 647,945.21 971,917.82 -647,945.22

13.00 5% 1,619,863.028 647,945.21 971,917.82 323,972.6

14.00 5% 1,619,863.028 647,945.21 971,917.82 1,295,890.42

15.00 5% 1,619,863.028 647,945.21 971,917.82 2,267,808.25

16.00 15% 1,619,863.028 1,943,835.64 -323,972.61 1,943,835.64

17.00 15% 0 1,943,835.64 -1,943,835.64 0

18.00 0% 0 0 0 0

62
 DEMAND AND SUPPLY VARIATIONS FOR
THE PROJECT
Supply Demand

2500000

2000000

1500000

1000000

500000

0
05:00 06:00 07:00 08:00 09:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00

Figure 6.1 Supply and Demand Variations for water supply project at Makabe

6.11.2 Determination of the minimum tank capacity

Vtank = Vmax – Vmin – Vfinal

= 2,267,808.25– (-4,535,616.5) - 0

Volume of the Tank = 6,803,424.75L

6.11.3 The storage tank sizing

The sizing of the tank is according to the capacity of water to be stored. Considering the design
shape of the tank is a circular tank, since it is quite more stable to withhold the ground axial
forces exerted on it, thus more stable and with less maintenance cost, thus more economical.

6.11.3.1 Diameter of the tank determination

The diameter determination of the tank mainly depends of the depth and capacity of water to
be withhold by the tank.

Assumptions:

• Depth of the tank, H = 4m

• Volume of the tank, C = 6,803.424m3

63
From:

𝜋𝐷 2
Area, A = 4

Volume, C = A x H

C 6,803.424m3
A = = = 1,700.86m2
H 4m

4 x 1700.86
Thus, Diameter, D = √ = 46.55m
3.14

Thus;

Diameter of the tank = 46.55m

Depth of the tank = 4m

6.12 Distribution Network Design

The distribution network directly involves the arrangement of the pipes, valves and fittings in
ensuring that water reaches to all places of the area. The design involves the closed ended loop
method (Ring method) to supply water to all areas at Makabe.

The tank is established at the highest point at an elevated contour of 180m, providing sufficient
flow pressure to all areas at Makabe. The method of calculation of the hydraulics preferred is
the Hazen William’s method.

The total number at each junction serves as the sum of the total volume of water to be supplied
within the system.

6.12.1 Pipe Materials

The pipe materials used in the supply network is PVC, with the friction coefficient of 120 value
of the Hazen Williams. The following are the reasons of the pipe material used: -

• It does not directly affect the quality of water, since it is not likely to form any reaction
to the water supplied to the people.
• It is quite durable and can withstand range of pressures and ensure proper quantity of
supply to the community.

64
6.13 Pipe Layout Design

Figure 6.2 The Pipe Layout Network fore the Design at Makabe

6.14 The Mbezi Makabe Hydraulic Profile

65
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