Mathematics

Basic Mechanics Royal Malaysian Air Force
Mathematics 8 - TP - 1
Apprentice Course -- Phase I
Training Papers Summary

Courseware Pages
Subject Subject Title TS II OT HO WS TE
8 Mathematics 2 21 2 17 44 --
Topic/ Courseware Pages

Lesson Topic/Lesson Title TS II OT HO WS TE
8.1 Powers and Roots 2 21 2 17 44 --

8.1.1 Mathematical Operations with Powers -- 13 2 11 31 --
8.1.2 Roots or Radicals -- 8 -- 6 13 --
For training purposes only -- Rev. 07/97

Basic Mechanics Royal Malaysian Air Force Powers and Roots
Mathematics 8.1 - TS - 1
Topic Summary
8 Mathematics
8.1 Powers and Roots
8.1.1 Mathematical Operations with Powers Periods

8.1.1.1 Power Term Theory 16.0
8.1.1.2 Basic Operations with Powers
8.1.1.3 Polynomials and Factoring
8.1.1.4 Scientific Notation
8.1.1.5 Powers with Fractional Number Exponents (Roots)
Task 1: Powers of Real Numbers
Task 2: Powers of Sums and Differences
Task 3: Addition and Subtraction of Powers
Task 4: Multiplication of Powers
Task 5: Division of Powers
Task 6: Proving Exponent Zero and Negative Exponents
Task 7: Powers of Powers
Task 8: Simplification of Polynomials
Task 9: Scientific Notation
Objectives Training Aids
The expected learning outcome is that the student is able to Overhead Projector,
V explain the power term Scientific Pocket
V apply the four basic arithmetic operations with powers Calculator
V apply raising the power of a power Blackboard
V simplify polynomials
V evaluate power expressions involving whole number
exponents, negative and fractional exponents
V apply scientific notation when working with extremely
large and small numbers

Mathematics 8.1 - TS - 2
8.1.2 Roots or Radicals Periods

8.1.2.1 Definition of the Root Term Theory 11.0
8.1.2.2 Finding the Root
8.1.2.3 Mathematical Operations with Roots or Radicals
8.1.2.4 Simplification of Roots or Radicals
Task 1: Converting Roots and Powers
Task 2: Finding the Root
Task 3: Multiplication with Roots
Test Compose a Test out of the Catalogue of Questions Test 1.0
Objectives Training Aids
The expected learning outcome is that the student is able to Scientific Pocket
V explain the term root Calculator
V find the root using a scientific pocket calculator Blackboard
V evaluate root expressions involving whole number and
fraction indices
V apply the four basic arithmetic operations to root
expressions
V simplify radical expressions

Mathematics 8.1.1 - II - 1
8.1.1 Mathematical Operations with Powers
All students should have experience in working with powers and roots.
Therefore, emphasis should be laid on practical work; numerous Worksheets
are provided to help the students pick up the loose ends from public school
training.
The required time is based on the assumption that each student, at least teams
of two, work with a scientific pocket calculator. If not enough calculators are
available the tasks must be reduced according to the available means.
All computations marked as ’Example’ are to be written on the blackboard and

to be explained.
8.1.1.1 Power Term
It is convenient to have a shorthand for writing repeated products. For

example, the product x ¡ x ¡ x ¡ x can be written as x 4 . The number 4
shows that x is used as factor 4 times in the product. Here, 4 is called
the exponent or power and x is called the base. The quantity x 4 is
called a power. Read x4 as ”x to the fourth” or ’x to the power of 4’.
Read x2 as ’x to the second’, or more commonly ’x squared’, just as x3
is commonly read ’x cubed’. Since x = x 1, the exponent on x is under-
stood to be 1.
a ⋅ a ⋅ a ⋅ a ⋅ a ⋅ a = a6 The exponent is
6 and the base
is a
(− 2)(− 2)(− 2)(− 2)(− 2) = (− 2) 5 = − 32 The exponent is
5 and the base
is --2
3 The exponent is
141414 = 14 = 1
64
3 and the base
is 1/4
(2 + 1)(2 + 1)(2 + 1)(2 + 1) = (2 + 1) 4 The exponent is
4 and the base
is 2+1, or 3
-1

Using literal numbers, a power equation looks like
bn = b . b . b . . . . . . b
bn = c
where bn is the power term

c is its value or result
b is its base
n is its exponent or power index.
With respect to the result ’c’, we speak of ’c’ being the nth power of the
base b.
To obtain a numeral result from this equation, the literal numbers ’b’
and ’n’ would be replaced by real numbers. Especially the number
types
V natural number
V zero
V negative integer and
V fraction
assigned to the exponent ’n’, require specific mathematical operations

or provide specific results.
Powers with Integer Exponents

-2
The set of natural numbers are identical with the positive integers or
whole positive numbers [1, 2, 3, 4 ...].
Example: Base b=3

Exponent n=5
Example 1 in Figure 2 shows that the base 3 has been raised to the
fifth power by multiplying it five times or the result of 243 is the fifth
power of 3.
To raise a fraction to a power, as shown in Example 2, raise both, the

numerator and the denominator, to the given power.
Example: Base b = 3
4
Exponent n=4

Three special cases do exist concerning writing and articulating a

power with natural number exponent:
V If n = 1, then c = b1 = b. In writing and expressing, the first
power is omitted and the result is the base itself.
V If n = 2, then c = b2. One usually speaks of squaring the number
’b’, and ’c’ being the square number of ’b’.
V If n = 3, Then c = b3. One usually speaks of cubing the number
’b’, and ’c’ being the cube number of ’b’.
Distribute Worksheet page 1 and have students complete Task 1. It is recom-

mended to have the solution to this task worked out at the blackboard from the
students or yourself. Compare the results and discuss. Advise the students to
keep all worksheets for completing their handouts.
General Rules
Considering the various values for the base, general rules for powers
with natural number exponents can be derived:
V If the base of a power is +1, its result is +1; i.e 1n = 1.
V If the base of a power is zero, its result is zero, i.e. 0n = 0
(for n ¹ 0).
V The absolute values of powers with the same exponent are mir-
ror inverted to the base a = 0, e.g. ú(--3)3 ú = ú33 ú = ú±27 ú;
i.e. ú(± b)n ú = ú±c ú.
V If the base is a negative number and the exponent an even
number, the result of a power is a positive signed number.
V If the base is a negative number and the exponent an odd
number, then the result of a power is a negative signed number.
Powers of Sums
Powers of sums have the general form
(a ± b ± c ± ...)n
which means raising the power algebraically requires multiplying the

expression in the bracket ’n’ times by progressively multiplying all
summands with each other, in the same manner as it would be done in
case of multiplying ordinary algebraic summands.

Have the students complete Task 2 on page 2 of the provided Worksheet.
The binomial formulae
(a + b) (a -- b) = a2 -- b2,
(a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2 and
(a -- b)2 = a2 -- 2ab + b2
are the most often used ones and should be remembered as they
often permit quick mental squaring or multiplication of large number
sets by multiplying, respectively squaring their sum and/or difference
to the next convenient number.
Addition and Subtraction of Powers
Only powers having the same base and the same exponent may be
added or subtracted.
ka n  ma n = (k  m)a n
Example: 15 ⋅ 6 3 − 12 ⋅ 6 3= (15 − 12) 6 3

= 3 ⋅ 63
= 648
Have students solve Task 3 of the provided Worksheet. It is recommended to

work out the solutions at the blackboard by a student or yourself.
Multiplication of Powers
An expression such as a 5 ⋅ a3 can be simplified by using the

definition of an exponent to write out the repeated factors:
a 5 ⋅ a 3 = (a ⋅ a ⋅ a ⋅ a ⋅ a) (a ⋅ a ⋅ a)
= a⋅a⋅a⋅a⋅a⋅a⋅a⋅a
a 5 ⋅ a3 = a 8

When multiplying powers with the same base the exponents are
added (if the exponents are not zero). This is called the product
theorem of exponents.
a m ⋅ a n = a m+n Product Theorem
Example: The product of 5y 2 and − 3y 4 has to be found.
Using the commutative and associative properties and the product

theorem of exponents the solution is as follows:
(5y 2) ⋅ (− 3y 4) = 5 ⋅ (− 3) ⋅ y 2 ⋅ y 4
= − 15y 2+4
(5y 2) ⋅ (− 3y 4) = − 15y 6

Division of Powers
8
A quotient, such as a 3 , can be simplified in much the same way as a
a
product. In all quotients of this type it is assumed that the denominator
is not zero.
Using the definition of an exponent, it follows
a8 = a ⋅ a ⋅ a ⋅ a ⋅ a ⋅ a ⋅ a ⋅ a
a3 a⋅a⋅a
= a⋅a⋅a⋅a⋅a
a 8 = a5
a3
Note that 8 -- 3 = 5 . In the same way,
a3 = a⋅a⋅a
a 8 a ⋅ a ⋅ a ⋅ a⋅a⋅a⋅a⋅a
a3 = 1
a8 a5

Note that 8 -- 3 = 5 . And finally,
a3 = a ⋅ a ⋅ a
a3 a⋅a⋅a
a3 = 1
a3
As can be seen by the examples when dividing powers with the same
base the exponents are subtracted (if the exponents are whole
numbers and not zero). This is called the quotient theorem of expo-
nents.
If m and n are any whole numbers (m, n ¸ 0), and if a ¸ 0 then
a m−n if m > n
am = 1 if m = n Quotient Theorem
an
1 if m < n
a n−m
Powers with Negative Integer
As can be seen from the third result of the quotient theorem (m < n) it
can be derived
a −m = 1m
a
Using this definition of negative exponents, it can be shown that all the
theorems for exponents given above are also valid for any integer
exponent, positive, zero, or negative.
Example:
a) 3 −2 = 12 = 1
3 9
b) 5 −3 = 13 = 1
5 125


Powers with Exponent Zero
It is known that if a ¸ 0
am = 1 .
am
Using the quotient theorem of exponents it follows
a m = a m−m = a 0 .
am
From these two equations it is derived that
a0 = 1
Distribute Task 6 of the Worksheet provided and have students perform the
task given.
By comparing the powers and results of the completed worksheet,

there are conclusions, which confirm the statements before:
V A number raised to a negative power is identical with the recip-
rocal of the corresponding positive power, i.e. a −n = 1n for
a
(--n) < 0.
V A number raised to the power of zero is ’1’, i.e. a0 = 1 for a ¹ 0.
Raising the Power of a Power
The expression (a4) 2 can be simplified by writing
(a 4) 2 = a 4 ⋅ a 4 = a 4+4 = a 8 .
Note that 4 ¡ 2 = 8. This example generalizes to the power theorem for

exponents:
(a m) n = a m⋅n Power Theorem

(− 6x 2) 3 ⋅ (− 2x) 2
Example: The expression has to be simplified.
(2x 3) 3 ⋅ (− x 2) 3
Using the theorems of exponents the solution is as follows:
(− 6x 2) 3 ⋅ (− 2x) 2 (− 6) 3 ⋅ (x 2) 3 ⋅ (− 2) 2 ⋅ x 2
=
(2x 3) 3 ⋅ (− x 2) 3 2 3 ⋅ (x 3) 3 ⋅ (− x 2) 3
= − 216 ⋅ x 6 ⋅ 4 ⋅ x2
8 ⋅ x ⋅ (− x 6)
9
⋅ x8
= − 10815
−x
= − 108
− x7
Have students solve the problems given in Task 7 of the Worksheet provided.
An algebraic expression is any mathematical expression involving

variables, numbers, and a finite number of operations such as addi-
tion, subtraction, multiplication, division, or finding roots. Polynomials
are the simplest kind of algebraic expressions.
A term is an expression consisting of the product of a number and one

or more variables raised to powers. The number in the product (which
may be 1) is called the coefficient.
Example: 4x, − 1 m 2n, 5.

2
A polynomial is any finite sum of terms, such as
Example: 3xy -- 5, 4x 3m 5 − 5x 2m + 6, and 3x 2t 6m 5.
The expression 3xy -- 5 is called a sum of terms or algebraic sum even

though it involves subtraction, since it can be written 3xy + (--5).

Simplification of Polynomials
When solving or rearranging equations simplifying polynomials is often

necessary to make computation more convenient. In order to perform
simplification of polynomials the following axioms are applied:
Distributive axiom: a ( b + c ) = ab + ac
Associative axiom: (a+b)+c=a+(b+c)

(ab) c = a (bc)
Commutative axiom: a+b=b+a

ab = ba
Example: Simplify the polynomial 4x 2 + 5x 2

4x 2 + 5x 2 = (4 + 5)x 2 = 9x 2 Distributive Axiom
Example: Simplify the polynomial − 5x 2y 2 + 8x 2y 2 − 6x 2y 2

− 5x 2y 2 + 8x 2y 2 − 6x 2y 2 = (− 5 + 8 − 6)x 2y 2 = − 3x 2y 2
As can be seen by the examples only terms containing exactly the

same variables to the same powers can be combined. Such terms are
called like terms. It is not possible to combine further the terms in the
polynomial 4x + 5x 2, since this polynomial consists of unlike terms.
Addition and Subtraction of Polynomials
Addition and subtraction (inverse addition) of polynomials is performed

by using associative, commutative and distributive axioms.
Example: Add the polynomials 4x 2 − 5x + 2 and − 6x 2 + 3x − 4.

(4x 2 − 5x + 2) + (− 6x 2 + 3x − 4)
= 4x 2 + (− 6x 2) + (− 5x) + 3x + 2 + (− 4x)
= − 2x 2 − 2x − 2 = 2(− x 2 − x − 1)
Example: Subtract − x 3 − 5x 2 + 3 from 4x 3 + 7x 2 − 8.

Using the fact that --(a+b) = --a + (--b), the signs of the terms of the
second polynomial are changed and add:
(4x 3 + 7x 2 − 8) − (− x 3 − 5x 2 + 3)
= 4x 3 + 7x 2 − 8 + x 3 + 5x 2 − 3
= 5x 3 + 12x 2 − 11.

Multiplication of Polynomials
In order to find the product of two polynomials in addition to the

distributive, commutative, and associative axioms the theorem on
exponents is used.
Example: Multiply (2m 2z 4) (8m 3z 2b).

(2m 2z 4) (8m 3z 2b) = (2) (8) (m 2) (m 3) (z 4) (z 2) (b)
= 16m 5z 6b
Example: Find the product of 5x 2 and the polynomial 2x 3 − 4x 2 + 3x − 2.

5x 2 (2x 3 − 4x 2 + 3x − 2)
= (5x 2) (2x 3) + (5x 2) (− 4x 2) + (5x 2) (3x) + (5x 2) (− 2)
= 10x 5 − 20x 4 + 15x 3 − 10x 2.
Example: Multiply (3x − 4) (2x 2 + x).

(3x − 4) (2x 2 + x)
= (3x − 4) (2x 2) + (3x − 4) (x)
= (3x) (2x 2) + (− 4) (2x 2) + (3x) (x) + (− 4) (x)
= 6x 3 − 8x 2 + 3x 2 − 4x
= 6x 3 − 5x 2 − 4x
Factoring of Polynomials
Factoring is the reverse process of finding the product of any two

polynomials. A polynomial is given and now it is looked for if this
polynomial can be expressed as the product of two or more simpler
polynomials. The result of the last example has been 6x 3 − 5x 2 − 4x,
which is the product of the two polynomials (3x − 4) (2x 2 + x).
The distributive property is used to factor out the greatest common

factor from a polynomial. In the polynomial 12x 3 + 18x 2 − 9x each
coefficient has a factor of 3. In fact, 3 is the largest number that will
divide evenly into each coefficient. also, x is the largest factor of
x 3, x 2, and x. Thus 3x is the greatest common factor.
Example: 12x 3 + 18x 2 − 9x

= (3x) (4x 2) + (3x) (6x) + (3x) (− 3)
= 3x (4x 2 + 6x − 3)

By factoring out the greatest common factor the polynomial can be

simplified.
An important application of integer exponents is their use in simplifying

work with extremely large or small numbers. In scientific notation a
number is written as the of a number between 1 and 10 (or --1 and
--10) and some power of 10.
Example: 0.0000025 is written in scientific notation as 2.5 ⋅ 10 −6 ,

1,360,000,000 as 1.36 ⋅ 10 9, and
147,000 as 1.47 ⋅ 10 5 .
Scientific notation frequently makes it possible to utilize the theorems

for exponents to estimate answers or to simplify lengthy computation
as illustrated in the following examples.
1, 920, 00 ⋅ 0.0015
Example: Compute
0.0000032 ⋅ 45, 000
First express all numbers in scientific notation:
1, 920, 00 ⋅ 0.0015 6
= 1.92 ⋅ 10−5⋅ 1.5 ⋅ 10 4
−3
0.0000032 ⋅ 45, 000 3.2 ⋅ 10 ⋅ 4.5 ⋅ 10
Next, use the commutative and associative axioms and the

theorems for powers to simplify the expressions:
6 ⋅ 10 −3
= 1.92 ⋅ 1.5 ⋅ 10 −5
3.2 ⋅ 4.5 10 ⋅ 10 4
= 1.92 ⋅ 1.5 ⋅ 10 4 .
3.2 ⋅ 4.5
Finally compute the numerical factor:
= 0.2 ⋅ 10 4
= 2,000.

379, 500 ⋅ 0.0012

Example: Use scientific notation to estimate the value of
4980
Since an estimation is wanted only, the numbers can be round off

as follows:
400, 000 ⋅ 0.0010

379, 500 ⋅ 0.0012 ≈
5000
The symbol ‘¶’ means ’is approximately equal to’. If each number
is now written in scientific notation the answer can be estimated:
400, 000 ⋅ 0.0010 5

= 4 ⋅ 10 ⋅ 1 ⋅ 10 ⋅ 10 3
−3
5000 5
= 4 ⋅ 10 −1
5
= 0.8 ⋅ 10 −1
= 0.08
So far it is known how to solve the power equation b = a n. This is

done by raising a to the power of n.
Example: b = 22 = 2 ⋅ 2 = 4
But in the equation above it can be asked for the value of a if the
numbers b and n are known. This leads to the first inversion of
raising to the power. This mathematical operation is referred to as
finding the root (the second inversion is referred to as finding the
logarithm). For explaining finding the root operations fractional number
exponents are introduced.

In order to find the value of a the equation above is presented in the

form a n = b, each side of the equation is raised by the power of 1n,
and the power theorem is used.
an = b
1 1
a n n = b 1 n
1 1
a n⋅n = b 1⋅n
1
a1 = bn
1
a = bn
Example: a2 = 4
1
a = 42
a = 2
As can be seen from the examples ‘raising to the power’ means to

multiply a number n times by itself. ‘Finding the root’ means to know
the result of the multiplication of itself and to convert this number into n
factors of the same value.
Since powers with fractional number exponents are also referred to as roots or
radicals further explanations and mathematical operations with powers with
fractional number exponents are described in the corresponding lesson on
roots and radicals.

Mathematics 8.1.1 - OT - 1
Base n factors
Exponent or
power index
bn = b ⋅ b ⋅ b ⋅  ⋅ b
Power term
Result of multiplication = product
bn = c
Where bn = power term

c = result
b = base
N 9053 A
n = exponent or power index
Figure 1 Basic Form of a Power Equation

Mathematics 8.1.1 - OT - 2
bn = c
Example 1: Base b =3
Exponent n = 5
3 5 = 3 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 3 = 243
Example 2: Base b = 3
4
Exponent n = 4
4
3
4
= 34 ⋅ 34 ⋅ 34 ⋅ 34
= 3⋅3⋅3⋅3
4⋅4⋅4⋅4
4
= 3 4 = 81
4 256
A 1991
Figure 2 Use of bn = c with Natural Number

Exponents

Mathematics 8.1.1 - HO - 1
8.1.1 Mathematical Operations with Powers
8.1.1.1 Power Term
It is convenient to have a shorthand for writing repeated products. For example, the
product x ¡ x ¡ x ¡ x can be written as x 4 . The number 4 shows that x is used as
factor 4 times in the product. Here, 4 is called the exponent or power and x is called
the base. The quantity x 4 is called a power. Read x 4 as ”x to the fourth” or ’x to the
power of 4’. Read x 2 as ’x to the second’, or more commonly ’x squared’, just as x 3
is commonly read ’x cubed’. Since x = x 1, the exponent on x is understood to be 1.
The exponent is 6
a ⋅ a ⋅ a ⋅ a ⋅ a ⋅ a = a6
and the base is a
The exponent is 5
(− 2)(− 2)(− 2)(− 2)(− 2) = (− 2) 5 = − 32
and the base is --2
3 The exponent is 3
141414 = 14 = 1
64 and the base is 1/4
The exponent is 4
(2 + 1)(2 + 1)(2 + 1)(2 + 1) = (2 + 1) 4
and the base is 2+1,
or 3
Refer to Figure 1.
Using literal numbers, a power equation looks like
bn = b . b . b . . . . . . b
bn = c
where bn is the power term

c is its value or result
b is its base
n is its exponent or power index.
With respect to the result ’c’, we speak of ’c’ being the nth power of the base b.
To obtain a numeral result from this equation, the literal numbers ’b’ and ’n’ would be
replaced by real numbers. Especially the number types
V natural number
V zero
V negative integer and
V fraction
assigned to the exponent ’n’, require specific mathematical operations or provide

specific results.

Powers with Integer Exponents
Refer to Figure 2.
The set of natural numbers are identical with the positive integers or whole positive
numbers [1, 2, 3, 4 ...].
Example: Base b=3

Exponent n=5
Example 1 in Figure 2 shows that the base 3 has been raised to the fifth power by
multiplying it five times or the result of 243 is the fifth power of 3.
To raise a fraction to a power, as shown in Example 2, raise both, the numerator and
the denominator, to the given power.
Example: Base b = 3
4
Exponent n=4
Three special cases do exist concerning writing and articulating a power with natural
number exponent:
V If n = 1, then c = b1 = b. In writing and expressing, the first power is omitted
and the result is the base itself.
V If n = 2, then c = b2. One usually speaks of squaring the number ’b’, and ’c’
being the square number of ’b’.
V If n = 3, Then c = b3. One usually speaks of cubing the number ’b’, and ’c’
being the cube number of ’b’.
General Rules
Considering the various values for the base, general rules for powers with natural
number exponents can be derived:
V If the base of a power is +1, its result is +1; i.e 1n = 1.
V If the base of a power is zero, its result is zero, i.e. 0n = 0 (for n ¹ 0).
V The absolute values of powers with the same exponent are mirror inverted to
the base a = 0, e.g. ú(--3)3 ú = ú33 ú = ú±27 ú; i.e. ú(± b)n ú = ú±c ú.
V If the base is a negative number and the exponent an even number, the re-
sult of a power is a positive signed number.
V If the base is a negative number and the exponent an odd number, then the
result of a power is a negative signed number.
Powers of Sums
Powers of sums have the general form
(a ± b ± c ± ...)n
which means raising the power algebraically requires multiplying the expression in
the bracket ’n’ times by progressively multiplying all summands with each other, in
the same manner as it would be done in case of multiplying ordinary algebraic
summands.

The binomial formulae
(a + b) (a -- b) = a2 -- b2,
(a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2 and
(a -- b)2 = a2 -- 2ab + b2
are the most often used ones and should be remembered as they often permit quick
mental squaring or multiplication of large number sets by multiplying, respectively
squaring their sum and/or difference to the next convenient number.
Addition and Subtraction of Powers
Only powers having the same base and the same exponent may be added or
subtracted.
ka n  ma n = (k  m)a n
Example: 15 ⋅ 6 3 − 12 ⋅ 6 3 = (15 − 12) 6 3
= 3 ⋅ 63
= 648
Multiplication of Powers
An expression such as a 5 ⋅ a 3 can be simplified by using the

definition of an exponent to write out the repeated factors:
a 5 ⋅ a 3 = (a ⋅ a ⋅ a ⋅ a ⋅ a) (a ⋅ a ⋅ a)
= a⋅a⋅a⋅a⋅a⋅a⋅a⋅a
a5 ⋅ a3 = a8
When multiplying powers with the same base the exponents are added (if the
exponents are not zero). This is called the product theorem of exponents.
a m ⋅ a n = a m+n Product Theorem
Example: The product of 5y 2 and − 3y 4 has to be found.
Using the commutative and associative properties and the product theorem of
exponents the solution is as follows:
(5y 2) ⋅ (− 3y 4) = 5 ⋅ (− 3) ⋅ y 2 ⋅ y 4

= − 15y 2+4
(5y 2) ⋅ (− 3y 4) = − 15y 6
Division of Powers
A quotient, such as
a 8 , can be simplified in much the same way as a product. In all
a3
quotients of this type it is assumed that the denominator is not zero.
Using the definition of an exponent, it follows
a8 = a ⋅ a ⋅ a ⋅ a ⋅ a ⋅ a ⋅ a ⋅ a
a3 a⋅a⋅a
= a⋅a⋅a⋅a⋅a
a 8 = a5
a3
Note that 8 -- 3 = 5 . In the same way,
a3 = a⋅a⋅a
a8 a⋅a⋅a⋅a⋅a⋅a⋅a⋅a
a3 = 1
a8 a5
Note that 8 -- 3 = 5 . And finally,
a3 = a ⋅ a ⋅ a
a3 a⋅a⋅a
a3 = 1
a3
As can be seen by the examples when dividing powers with the same base the
exponents are subtracted (if the exponents are whole numbers and not zero). This is
called the quotient theorem of exponents.
If m and n are any whole numbers (m, n ¸ 0), and if a ¸ 0 then
a m−n if m > n
am = 1 if m = n
an Quotient Theorem
1 if m < n
a n−m

Powers with Negative Integer
As can be seen from the third result of the quotient theorem (m < n) it can be derived
a −m = 1m
a
Using this definition of negative exponents, it can be shown that all the theorems for
exponents given above are also valid for any integer exponent, positive, zero, or
negative.
Example:
a) 3 −2 = 12 = 1
3 9
b) 5 −3 = 3 = 1
1
5 125
Powers with Exponent Zero
It is known that if a ¸ 0
am = 1 .
am
Using the quotient theorem of exponents it follows
a m = a m−m = a 0 .
am
From these two equations it is derived that
a0 = 1
By comparing the powers and results of the completed worksheet, there are
conclusions, which confirm the statements before:
V A number raised to a negative power is identical with the reciprocal of the
corresponding positive power, i.e. a −n = 1n for (--n) < 0.
a
V A number raised to the power of zero is ’1’, i.e. a0 = 1 for a ¹ 0.
Raising the Power of a Power
The expression (a 4) 2 can be simplified by writing
(a 4) 2 = a 4 ⋅ a 4 = a 4+4 = a 8 .
Note that 4 ¡ 2 = 8. This example generalizes to the power theorem for exponents:
(a m) n = a m⋅n Power Theorem

(− 6x 2) 3 ⋅ (− 2x) 2
Example: The expression has to be simplified.
(2x 3) 3 ⋅ (− x 2) 3
Using the theorems of exponents the solution is as follows:
(− 6x 2) 3 ⋅ (− 2x) 2 (− 6) 3 ⋅ (x 2) 3 ⋅ (− 2) 2 ⋅ x 2
=
(2x ) ⋅ (− x )
3 3 2 3 2 3 ⋅ (x 3) 3 ⋅ (− x 2) 3
= − 216 ⋅ x6 ⋅ 4 ⋅ x2
8 ⋅ x 9 ⋅ (− x 6)
= − 108 15
⋅ x8
−x
= − 108
− x7
An algebraic expression is any mathematical expression involving variables,

numbers, and a finite number of operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplica-
tion, division, or finding roots. Polynomials are the simplest kind of algebraic
expressions.
A term is an expression consisting of the product of a number and one or more

variables raised to powers. The number in the product (which may be 1) is called the
coefficient.
Example: 4x, − 1 m 2n, 5.

2
A polynomial is any finite sum of terms, such as
Example: 3xy -- 5, 4x 3m 5 − 5x 2m + 6, and 3x 2t 6m 5.
The expression 3xy -- 5 is called a sum of terms or algebraic sum even though it
involves subtraction, since it can be written 3xy + (--5).
Simplification of Polynomials
When solving or rearranging equations simplifying polynomials is often necessary to

make computation more convenient. In order to perform simplification of polynomials
the following axioms are applied:
Distributive axiom: a ( b + c ) = ab + ac
Associative axiom: (a+b)+c=a+(b+c)

(ab) c = a (bc)
Commutative axiom: a+b=b+a

ab = ba
Example: Simplify the polynomial 4x 2 + 5x 2

4x 2 + 5x 2 = (4 + 5)x 2 = 9x 2 Distributive Axiom
Example: Simplify the polynomial − 5x 2y 2 + 8x 2y 2 − 6x 2y 2

− 5x 2y 2 + 8x 2y 2 − 6x 2y 2 = (− 5 + 8 − 6)x 2y 2 = − 3x 2y 2

As can be seen by the examples only terms containing exactly the same variables to
the same powers can be combined. Such terms are called like terms. It is not
possible to combine further the terms in the polynomial 4x + 5x 2, since this
polynomial consists of unlike terms.
Addition and Subtraction of Polynomials
Addition and subtraction (inverse addition) of polynomials is performed by using

associative, commutative and distributive axioms.
Example: Add the polynomials 4x 2 − 5x + 2 and − 6x 2 + 3x − 4.

(4x 2 − 5x + 2) + (− 6x 2 + 3x − 4)
= 4x 2 + (− 6x 2) + (− 5x) + 3x + 2 + (− 4x)
= − 2x 2 − 2x − 2 = 2(− x 2 − x − 1)
Example: Subtract − x 3 − 5x 2 + 3 from 4x 3 + 7x 2 − 8.

Using the fact that --(a+b) = --a + (--b), the signs of the terms of the second poly-
nomial are changed and add:
(4x 3 + 7x 2 − 8) − (− x 3 − 5x 2 + 3)
= 4x 3 + 7x 2 − 8 + x 3 + 5x 2 − 3
= 5x 3 + 12x 2 − 11.
Multiplication of Polynomials
In order to find the product of two polynomials in addition to the distributive,

commutative, and associative axioms the theorem on exponents is used.
Example: Multiply (2m 2z 4) (8m 3z 2b).

(2m 2z 4) (8m 3z 2b) = (2) (8) (m 2) (m 3) (z 4) (z 2) (b)
= 16m 5z 6b
Example: Find the product of 5x 2 and the polynomial 2x 3 − 4x 2 + 3x − 2.

5x 2 (2x 3 − 4x 2 + 3x − 2)
= (5x 2) (2x 3) + (5x 2) (− 4x 2) + (5x 2) (3x) + (5x 2) (− 2)
= 10x 5 − 20x 4 + 15x 3 − 10x 2.
Example: Multiply (3x − 4) (2x 2 + x).

(3x − 4) (2x 2 + x)
= (3x − 4) (2x 2) + (3x − 4) (x)
= (3x) (2x 2) + (− 4) (2x 2) + (3x) (x) + (− 4) (x)
= 6x 3 − 8x 2 + 3x 2 − 4x
= 6x 3 − 5x 2 − 4x
Factoring of Polynomials
Factoring is the reverse process of finding the product of any two polynomials. A
polynomial is given and now it is looked for if this polynomial can be expressed as
the product of two or more simpler polynomials. The result of the last example has
been 6x 3 − 5x 2 − 4x, which is the product of the two polynomials
(3x − 4) (2x 2 + x).

The distributive property is used to factor out the greatest common factor from a
polynomial. In the polynomial 12x 3 + 18x 2 − 9x each coefficient has a factor of 3. In
fact, 3 is the largest number that will divide evenly into each coefficient. also, x is the
largest factor of x 3, x 2, and x. Thus 3x is the greatest common factor.
Example: 12x 3 + 18x 2 − 9x

= (3x) (4x 2) + (3x) (6x) + (3x) (− 3)
= 3x (4x 2 + 6x − 3)
By factoring out the greatest common factor the polynomial can be simplified.
An important application of integer exponents is their use in simplifying work with

extremely large or small numbers. In scientific notation a number is written as the of
a number between 1 and 10 (or --1 and --10) and some power of 10.
Example: 0.0000025 is written in scientific notation as 2.5 ⋅ 10 −6 ,

1,360,000,000 as 1.36 ⋅ 10 9, and
147,000 as 1.47 ⋅ 10 5 .
Scientific notation frequently makes it possible to utilize the theorems for exponents
to estimate answers or to simplify lengthy computation as illustrated in the following
examples.
1, 920, 00 ⋅ 0.0015
Example: Compute
0.0000032 ⋅ 45, 000
First express all numbers in scientific notation:

1, 920, 00 ⋅ 0.0015 1.92 ⋅ 10 6 ⋅ 1.5 ⋅ 10 −3
=
0.0000032 ⋅ 45, 000 3.2 ⋅ 10 −5 ⋅ 4.5 ⋅ 10 4
Next, use the commutative and associative axioms and the theorems for powers
to simplify the expressions:
1.92 ⋅ 1.5 10 6 ⋅ 10 −3
= ⋅
3.2 ⋅ 4.5 10 −5 ⋅ 10 4
1.92 ⋅ 1.5
= ⋅ 10 4 .
3.2 ⋅ 4.5
Finally compute the numerical factor:
= 0.2 ⋅ 10 4
= 2,000.
379, 500 ⋅ 0.0012

Example: Use scientific notation to estimate the value of
4980
Since an estimation is wanted only, the numbers can be round off as follows:
400, 000 ⋅ 0.0010
379, 500 ⋅ 0.0012 ≈
5000

The symbol ‘¶’ means ’is approximately equal to’. If each number is now written
in scientific notation the answer can be estimated:
400, 000 ⋅ 0.0010 4 ⋅ 10 5 ⋅ 1 ⋅ 10 −3

= ⋅ 10 3
5000 5
= 4 ⋅ 10 −1
5
= 0.8 ⋅ 10 −1
= 0.08
So far it is known how to solve the power equation b = a n. This is done by raising a
to the power of n.
Example: b = 22 = 2 ⋅ 2 = 4
But in the equation above it can be asked for the value of a if the numbers b and
n are known. This leads to the first inversion of raising to the power. This mathemat-
ical operation is referred to as finding the root (the second inversion is referred to as
finding the logarithm). For explaining finding the root operations fractional number
exponents are introduced.
In order to find the value of a the equation above is presented in the form a n = b,
each side of the equation is raised by the power of 1
n , and the power theorem is
used.
an = b
1 1
( a n) n =  b 1 n
1 1
a n⋅n = b 1⋅n
1
a 1 = bn
1
a = bn
Example: a2 = 4
1
a = 42
a = 2
As can be seen from the examples ‘raising to the power’ means to multiply a number
n times by itself. ‘Finding the root’ means to know the result of the multiplication of
itself and to convert this number into n factors of the same value.

Base n factors
Exponent or
power index
bn = b ⋅ b ⋅ b ⋅  ⋅ b
Power term
Result of multiplication = product
bn = c
Where bn = power term

c = result
b = base
N 9053 A
n = exponent or power index
Figure 1 Basic Form of a Power Equation

bn = c
Example 1: Base b =3
Exponent n = 5
3 5 = 3 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 3 = 243
Example 2: Base b = 3
4
Exponent n = 4
4
3
4
= 34 ⋅ 34 ⋅ 34 ⋅ 34
= 3⋅3⋅3⋅3
4⋅4⋅4⋅4
4
= 3 4 = 81
4 256
A 1991
Figure 2 Use of bn = c with Natural Number

Exponents

Mathematics 8.1.1 - WS - 1
Task 1: Powers of Real Numbers
Calculate the powers of the given numbers of the base a and complete the
columns below. For this remember that a power is the repeated product of its
base.
a a2 a3 a4 a5 a6 a7
3
4
1
2
1
4
− 1
4
− 1
2
− 3
4
--1
--2
--3
--4

Task 2: Powers of Sums and Differences

Solve the following algebraic (binomial) expressions
1. (a + b)2
=
2. (a -- b)2
=
3. (a + b)3
=
4. (a + b) (a -- b)
=

Task 3: Addition and Subtraction of Powers

Solve the following problems:
1. 6x2 + 8y2 -- 4z2 -- x2 + 2y2 -- z2

=
2. 2a3 -- 4a2 + 6a -- a3 + 3a2 -- 8a

=
3. s2 -- 1 s2
4
=
4. (--a)3 + 4a3 -- 2a3

=

Task 4: Multiplication of Powers

Simplify the following problems using the product theorem of exponents:
1. xn . x
=
2. bn . bn
=
3. q5 . q(2--x)
=
4. 5a6 . 7a3 . 3a2

=

Task 4 (continued):
5. x2y . xy3
=
6. (a + b)(n--3) . (a + b)(5--n)
=
7. 44 . 254
=
2 2
8. 1 13 ⋅ 1 17
=

Task 4 (continued):
9. (--3)3 . (--2)3
=

Task 5: Division of Powers

Simplify the fractions of powers:
n
1. a 3
a
=
2
2. a n
a
=
3. a3
a (n+2)
=
(n+1)
4. a (n−1)
a
=

Task 5 (continued):
(n−1)
5. x (n+2)
x
=
(3−n)
6. x (n+5)
x
=
(a 3b 2) n
7.
(a 2b 3) n
=
n
8. a ⋅nb
ab
=

Task 5 (continued):
Solve the following problems of division:
9. (ax4 + bx3 -- cx2 + dx -- e) : x2

=
10. (axm + bxn + cx(m+n)) : x(m--n)

=
11. (a5b -- a4b2 + a3b3 -- a2b4) : a2b2

=

Task 5 (continued):
Eliminate all negative exponents and simplify if possible:
12. 3x --3
=
13. a 2x −5
b −2
=
−3
14. ab
=
−2
15. x 2 ⋅ m
x

=

Task 5 (continued):
16. 5ab −3 ⋅ 3a −2b

=
Compute the following problems:
17. 5.044 : 1.684

=
3 3
18. 5 58 : 3 34
=

Task 6: Proving Exponent Zero and Negative Exponents
Reduce the exponents in unit steps and continue the tables in the given manner.
25 = 32 10 5 = 100000
32 10 4 = 100000
2 = = 16 = 10000
4
2 10
23 = 16 = 8 10 3 = 100000 = 1000
2 10
22 = = 10 2 = =
21 = = 10 1 = =
20 = = 10 0 = =
2 --1 = = 10 --1 = =
2 --2 = = 10 --2 = =
2 --3 = = 10 --3 = =
2 --4 = = 10 --4 = =
2 --5 = = 10 --5 = =

Task 7: Powers of Powers
Simplify the powers of powers
1. (3xy 2) 4
(a 3b 4) 3
2.
(a 2b 3) 2
3.  
ab 2 ¡
x3
2
 
xy 2
a

Task 7 (continued):
Give the simplified numeral notation and the result
4. [(--3)3]2
5. (((2)2)2)3
−6
6. 2 − 
1
3

Task 8: Simplification of Polynomials

Simplify each of the following polynomials by combining like terms:
1. − 6y 2m + 4y 2m
2. 6x − 5x + x 2
Perform the following operations:
3. Find the sum of 3x 2 − 5x and 5x − 3x 2.
4. Subtract 4y 2 − 2y + 3 from 8y 2 − 6y + 5 .

Task 8 (continued):
Multiply the following polynomials:
5. (6a − 3) (2a + 1)
6. (a + b) (a − b)
7. (a + b) 2

Task 8 (continued):
8. (a − b) 2
For each of the following polynomials, factor out the greatest common factor:
9. 3y 2 + 6y
10. 6(a + 2b) 2 − 4(a + 2b) 3 + 12(a + 2b) 4

Task 9: Scientific Notation

1. Express each of the following numbers in scientific notation:
230 =
46,500 =
0.02 =
0.0051 =
176,000,000 =
2. Write each of the following without using scientific notation:
6.5 ⋅ 10 3 =
2.317 ⋅ 10 5 =
1.52 ⋅ 10 −2 =
5 ⋅ 10 −3 =
8 ⋅ 10 7 =
Solve the following problems without using a pocket calculator (estimation) but
applying scientific notation:
3. 0.00096
1, 600
=

Task 9 (continued):
140, 000
4.
0.09
=
5. 28 ⋅ 0.004 5
140 ⋅ 1500
=

Solution to Task 1:
Calculate the powers of the given numbers of the base a and complete the
columns below. For this remember that a power is the repeated product of its
base.
a a2 a3 a4 a5 a6 a7
4 16 64 256 1024 4096 16384
3 9 27 81 243 729 2187
2 4 8 16 32 64 128
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
3 9 27 81 243 729 2187

4 16 64 256 1024 4096 16384
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2 4 8 16 32 64 128
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
4 16 64 256 1024 4096 16384
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 − 1 1 1 1 1
− 1 16 64 256
−
1024 4096
−
16384
4
− 1 1 −1 1 − 1 1 − 1
2 4 8 16 32 64 128
− 3 9 − 27 81 − 243 729 − 2187

4 16 64 256 1024 4096 16384
--1 1 --1 1 --1 1 --1
--2 4 --8 16 --32 64 --128
--3 9 --27 81 --243 729 --2187
--4 16 --64 256 --1024 4096 --16384

Solution to Task 2:
Solve the following algebraic (binomial) expressions
1. (a + b)2 = (a + b) (a + b)
= a2 + ab + ab + b2
= a2 + 2ab + b2
2. (a -- b)2 = (a -- b) (a -- b)
= a2 -- ab -- ab + b2
= a2 -- 2ab + b2
3. (a + b)3 = (a + b) (a + b) (a + b)
= (a2 + ab + ab + b2) (a + b)
= a3 + 3a2b + 3ab2 + b3
4. (a + b) (a -- b)
= a2 + ab -- ab -- b2
= a2 -- b2

Solution to Task 3:
Solve the following problems:
1. 6x2 + 8y2 -- 4z2 -- x2 + 2y2 -- z2

= 5x2 + 10y2 -- 5z2
2. 2a3 -- 4a2 + 6a -- a3 + 3a2 -- 8a

= a3 -- a2 -- 2a
3. s2 -- 1 s2
4
= 3 s2
4
4. (--a)3 + 4a3 -- 2a3
= -- a3 + 4a3 -- 2a3
= a3

Solution to Task 4:
Simplify the following problems using the product theorem of exponents:
1. xn . x
= x (n+1)
2. bn . bn
= b2n
3. q5 . q(2--x)
= q(7--x)
4. 5a6 . 7a3 . 3a2

= 105 a11
5. x2y . xy3
= x 3y 4
6. (a + b)(n--3) . (a + b)(5--n)
= (a+b)2
7. 44 . 254
= (4 . 25)4 = 1004 = 108
2 2
8. 1 13 ⋅ 1 17
2 2
= 4 ⋅ 8 = 32  = 2.32
3 7 21
9. (--3)3 . (--2)3
= [(--3)(--2)]3 = 63 = 216

Solution to Task 5:
Simplify the fractions of powers:
n
1. a 3
a
= a n−3
2
2. a n
a
= a 2−n
3. a3
a (n+2)
= a 1−n
(n+1)
4. a (n−1)
a
= a2
(n−1)
5. x (n+2)
x
= x −3
(3−n)
6. x (n+5)
x
= x −2(n+1)
(a 3b 2) n
7.
(a 2b 3) n
n
  = ba
3 2
= a 2b 3
a b
n
n
8. a ⋅nb
ab
(n−1)
=
a n−1
b n−1
= a
b

Solve the following problems of division:
9. (ax4 + bx3 -- cx2 + dx -- e) : x2

4 3 2 + dx − e
= ax + bx − cx
x2
4 3 2
= ax2 + bx2 − cx2 + dx2 − e2
x x x x x
2
= ax + bx − c + dx − ex −2
−1

Solution to Task 5 (continued):

10. (axm + bxn + cx(m+n)) : x(m--n)
m n + cx (m+n)
= ax + bx(m−n)
x
(ax m + bx n + cx (m+n)) ⋅ x n
=
xm
= (ax m + bx n + cx (m+n)) ⋅ x n ⋅ x −m
= ax n + bx 2n−m + cx 2n
11. (a5b -- a4b2 + a3b3 -- a2b4) : a2b2

5 4 2 3 3 2 4
= a2 ⋅ b2 − a 2 ⋅ b 2 + a 2 ⋅ b 2 − a 2 ⋅ b 2
a ⋅b a ⋅b a ⋅b a ⋅b
3 −1 2 2
= a ⋅b −a +a⋅b−b
Eliminate all negative exponents and simplify if possible:
12. 3x --3
= 3 : x3
= 33
x
13. a 2x −5
b −2
= a2b2 : x5
2 2
= a b5
x
−3
14. ab
3
= b
a

−2
15. x 2 ⋅ m
x

2
= x2 ⋅ x 2
m
4
= x2
m
16. 5ab −3 ⋅ 3a −2b

= 15a −1b −2
= 152
ab

Compute the following problems:
17. 5.044 : 1.684

= (5.04 : 1.68)4
4

= 5.04
1.68

= 34
= 81
3 3
18. 5 58 : 3 34
3

= 45 ⋅ 4
8 ⋅ 15

3
= 3
2
= 1.5 3
= 3.375

Solution to Task 6:
Reduce the exponents in unit steps and continue the tables in the given manner.
25 = 32 10 5 = 100000
32 10 4 = 100000
2 = = 16 = 10000
4
2 10
23 = 16 = 8 10 3 = 100000 = 1000
2 10
8 1000
22 = = 4 10 2 = = 100
2 10
21 = 4 = 2 10 1 = 100 = 10
2 10
2 10
20 = = 1 10 0 = = 1
2 10
1 1 1
2 --1 = = 10 --1 = = 0.1
2 2 10
1/2 1 1/ 10
2 --2 = = 10 --2 = = 0.01
2 4 10
1 1 1
2 --3 = = 10 --3 = = 0.001
4 ¡ 2 8 100 ¡ 10
1 1 1
2 --4 = = 10 --4 = = 0.0001
8 ¡ 2 16 1000 ¡ 10
1 / 16 1 (1/10000)
2 --5 = = 10 --5 = = 0.00001
2 32 10

Solution to Task 7:
Simplify the powers of powers
1. (3xy 2) 4
=81x 4y 8
(a 3b 4) 3
2.
(a 2b 3) 2
9 12
= a 4b 6
a b
= a 5b 6
3.  
ab 2 ¡
x3
2
 
xy 2
a
2 4 x 3y 6
= a b6 ⋅ 3
x a
b 4y 6
=
ax 3
Give the simplified numeral notation and the result
4. [(--3)3]2
= (--3)6
= 36
= 729
5. (((2)2)2)3
= 212
= 4096
−6
6. 2 − 
1
3
1
= 2 (−3 ) (−6)
= 22
=4

Solution to Task 8:
Simplify each of the following polynomials by combining like terms:
1. − 6y 2m + 4y 2m
− 6y 2m + 4y 2m = (− 6 + 4) y 2m = − 2y 2m.
2. 6x − 5x + x 2
6x − 5x + x 2 = x (6 − 5 + x) = x (1 + x)
Perform the following operations:
3. Find the sum of 3x 2 − 5x and 5x − 3x 2.
(3x 2 − 5x) + (5x − 3x 2) = 3x 2 − 3x 2 − 5x + 5x = 0
4. Subtract 4y 2 − 2y + 3 from 8y 2 − 6y + 5 .
(8y 2 − 6y + 5) − (4y 2 − 2y + 3) = 8y 2 − 6y + 5 − 4y 2 + 2y − 3
= 4y 2 − 4y + 2
Multiply the following polynomials:
5. (6a − 3) (2a + 1)
(6a − 3) (2a + 1) = (6a − 3) (2a) + (6a − 3) (1)

= 12a 2 − 6a + 6a − 3
= 12a 2 − 3
= 3 (4a 2 − 1)
6. (a + b) (a − b)
(a + b) (a − b) = (a + b) (a) − (a + b) (b)
= a 2 + ab − ab + b 2
= a2 + b2

7. (a + b) 2
(a + b) (a + b) = (a + b) (a) + (a + b) (b)
= a 2 + ab + ab + b 2
= a 2 + 2ab + b 2
8. (a − b) 2
(a − b) (a − b) = (a − b) (a) − (a − b) (b)
= a 2 − ab − ab + b 2
= a 2 − 2ab + b 2
For each of the following polynomials , factor out the greatest common factor:
9. 3y 2 + 6y
Both coefficients can be divided by 3 and y is contained in y 2 and y.

Thus, the greatest common factor is 3y.
3y 2 + 6y = 3y(y + 2)
10. 6(a + 2b) 2 − 4(a + 2b) 3 + 12(a + 2b) 4
Greatest common factor: 2(a + 2b) 2

6(a + 2b) 2 − 4(a + 2b) 3 + 12(a + 2b) 4
= 2(a + 2b) 2[3 − 2(a + 2b) + 6(a + 2b) 2]

Solution to Task 9:
1. Express each of the following numbers in scientific notation:
230 = 2.3 ⋅ 10 2
46,500 = 4.65 ⋅ 10 5
0.02 = 2 ⋅ 10 −2
0.0051 = 5.1 ⋅ 10 −3
176,000,000 = 1.76 ⋅ 10 8
2. Write each of the following without using scientific notation:
6.5 ⋅ 10 3 = 6,500
2.317 ⋅ 10 5 = 231,700
1.52 ⋅ 10 −2 = 0.015 2
5 ⋅ 10 −3 = 0.005
8 ⋅ 10 7 = 80,000,000
Solve the following problems not using a pocket calculator (estimation) but
applying scientific notation:
3. 0.00096
1, 600
= 9.6 ⋅ 10 3 = 5 ⋅ 10 −7 = 0.000 000 5
−4
1.6 ⋅ 10
140, 000
4.
0.09
5
= 1.4 ⋅ 10 ¶ 0.155 ⋅ 10 8 ¶ 1.55 ⋅ 10 −1 ⋅ 10 8 ¶ 15, 500, 000
9 ⋅ 10 −3
5. 28 ⋅ 0.004 5
140 ⋅ 1500
1
= 2.8 ⋅ 10 2⋅ 4.5 ⋅ 10 3 = 6 ⋅ 10 −7 = 0.000 000 6
−3
1.4 ⋅ 10 ⋅ 1.5 ⋅ 10

8.1.2 Roots or Radicals
Before starting this Lesson all students must be familiar with algebraic terms,
especially with powers and exponents.
Numerous Worksheets are provided to assist the students for better compre-
hension of the rules and laws by performing the Tasks.
The required time is based on the assumption that each student, at least teams
of two, work with a scientific pocket calculator. If enough calculators are not
available the tasks must be reduced according to the available means.
All computations marked as ’Example’ are to be written on the blackboard and

to be explained by the instructor.
8.1.2.1 Definition of the Root Term
In general, powers with fractions in the exponent are referred to as

roots or radicals.
Roots are introduced when a solution for the following equation has to
be found.
an = 2
Using the power theorem of exponents it is proved whether a = 2 1∕n

is a solution of that equation.
(2 1∕n) n = 2 (1∕n)⋅(n)
= 21
= 2
The number 2 1∕n is called an nth root of 2.
In general, a 1∕n is the nth root of a, where a 1∕n is that number with the
property that (a1∕n) n = a . For example, a 1∕2 represents a second (or
square) root of a , a 1∕3 represents a third (or cube) root of a , and
a 1∕4 represents a fourth root of a .

The nth root of a , or a 1∕n, is commonly written with a radical sign a.
With this symbol a root can be written as
a 1∕n = na .
Read ’a’ to the power of one over ’n’ equals ’nth’ root of a.
Here ’a’ is called the radicand, ’n’ is called the index or order, and the
expression na is called a radical or a root.
Finding the root of ’a’ is an inverse mathematical operation for raising

a natural number to a power.
Example: If n = 1, m = 4, b = 16;
1
16 4 = 4 16 = 4 2 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 2 = 2
At times the root result is normally not a perfect whole number factor,
but an irrational number which will be displayed by a pocket calculator
as a non--recurring decimal number, e.g.  3 = 1.7320508.
When this is done, results from the pocket calculator are rounded up
to a sensible level of accuracy, e.g.
V rounded to three decimal places (DP) 1.732 or
V rounded to two significant figures (SF) 1.7.
When a fractional exponent has a numerator m > 1, then the numer-

ator indicates the power to which the number ’a’ is to be raised, while
the denominator ’n’ indicates the root to be taken.
Thus, the equation is as follows:
a n = n a m = b
m
Example: If m = 3, n = 2, a = 4
b = 4 2 =  4 3 =  64 =  8 2 = 8
3
The result of roots with even index number ’n’ and positive radicand ’a’
may be positive or negative signed, e.g.
 64 =  (− 8)2 and  64 =  (+ 8) 2 therefore :  64 =  8
6
64 = 
6 (− 2) 6 and 6 64 = 
6 (+ 2) 6 therefore : 6 64 =  2

Normally the positive result is picked up as the correct root value and
is referred to as the prime result.
In contrast to the ambiguous root result in case of even number index

and positive radicand, any other combination of root index and
radicand provides a single result:
a) If the radicand ’b’ is positive signed and the index ’m’ an odd
number, then the root result ’c’ is positive signed, e.g.
3
27 = 3 3 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 3 = 3
b) If the radicand ’a’ is negative signed and the index ’n’ an odd
number, then the root result ’b’ is negative signed; e.g.
3
− 27 = 3 (− 3) ⋅ (− 3) ⋅ (− 3) = − 3
c) If the radicand ’a’ is negative signed and the index ’n’ an even
number, then the root result is a number of the form
c  − 1 ; e.g.  − 16 =  42 ⋅ (− 1) = 4  − 1
Thus, values with  − 1 as a final result are not often used but they
sometimes occur as intermediate results of algebraic operations.
Have students solve the problems of Task 1 of the Worksheet provided for this
Lesson.
Nowadays evaluating the value of a radical with a real number

radicand is done by using a scientific pocket calculator. Therefore it is
not necessary to learn how to find the root by intention and in written
form. There are procedures to do this without using a calculator but
using other aids such as tables (especially for finding square and cube
roots).
Have students solve the problems of Task 2 of the Worksheet provided for this
Lesson. The use of a scientific calculator is necessary.

Since roots or radicals can be described as powers with fractional

number exponents the rules for mathematical operations are the same
as the ones for operating with powers.
Addition and Subtraction of Radicals
Rule:
Only radicals having the same radicand and the same index or order
may be added or subtracted.
Expression:
a ⋅ nc  b ⋅ nc = (a  b) nc
Example: 4 3 + 6 3 − 3 3 = (4 + 6 − 3)  3
= 7 3
= 12.12
Note that only radicals with the same radicand and index can be
added or subtracted. Sums or differences such as 43 + 6 or
4 ⋅ 3 − 2 ⋅ 2 can not be added or subtracted.
Multiplication of Radicals
Rule 1:
Radicals having the same radicand are multiplied by converting the

radical expression into a power expression with fractional exponents
and raising the common radicand to the sum of the exponents.
Expression:
1 1 1 1
na ⋅ ma = a n ⋅ a m = a n +m

Example: 3
3 ⋅ 63 = 3 3 ⋅ 3 6
1 1
1 1
= 3 3+6
3
= 36
1
= 32
= 3
= 1.732
Rule 2:
Radicals having different radicands but the same index or order are
multiplied by converting the radical expression into a power expression
with fractional exponents and raising their base product to the com-
mon exponent.
Expression:
1 1 1
na ⋅ nb = a n ⋅ b n = (a ⋅ b) n = na ⋅ b
Example: 4 ⋅ 6 = 4 ⋅ 6 = 24
Division of Radicals
Rule 1:
Radicals having the same radicand are divided by converting the

radical expressions into power expressions with fractional exponents
and raising the common radicand to the difference of the numerator
exponent (top term) minus denominator exponent (bottom term).
Expression:
na 1
= a n = a 1n−m1 
ma 1
am
1
 125 (125) 2
= 125 2 − 4
1 1
Example: 4
= 1
125 (125) 4
1
= 125 4 − 4 = 125 4
2 1
= 4 125 = 3.344

Rule 2:
Radicals having different radicands but the same order or index are
divided by finding the root out of the quotient of the radicands.
Expression:
na
n
= n ab
b
In order to prove this theorem, verify that
na 1
= a1
n
n
b bn
= 
a
b
n
= n ab
Example:
6
4
= 64 = 32
 300
3
=  300
3
=  100 = 10
The rules for multiplication and division of radicals can be used to

simplify radicals. A radical is said to be in simplified form if the follow-
ing three conditions hold:
V When factored to prime factors, the radicand contains no factor
to a power greater than or equal to the index.
V The radicand has no fractions.
V No denominator contains a radical.

Example: Simplify the radical 24 .
To begin, find the largest perfect square (square of an integer) that

will divide evenly into 24. The largest such number is 4, in this
example. Thus
24 = 4 ⋅ 6
= 4 ⋅ 6
= 2 ⋅ 6
Example: Simplify the radical 125

18
Begin as follows
125
18 = 18
125
9 ⋅ 2
=
25 ⋅ 5
3 ⋅ 2
=
5 ⋅ 5
The denominator contains a radical, which must be eliminated by

the last condition in the definition of simplified form given above.
The term 5 can be eliminated in the denominator by multiplying
both the numerator and the denominator by 5 .
3 ⋅ 2 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 5
=
5 ⋅ 5 5 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 5
3 ⋅ 10
=
5⋅5
3 ⋅ 10
=
25

Simplifying Radical Expressions
A radical expression is an algebraic expression which contains

radicals. For example,
4
2 − 1 3
3 + 6 , , and
5 8 − 2
are radical expressions. In the previous Chapter simplifying radical

expressions involving only multiplication and division had been
discussed. Now it is considered, how to simplify those radical express-
ions which include the operations of addition and subtraction.
Note that only radicals with the same radicand and index can be
added or subtracted. Sums or differences such as 43 + 6 or
4 ⋅ 3 − 2 ⋅ 2 can not be added or subtracted.
Numbers such as 3 , 19 , and − 2 are real numbers. Therefore, the

distributive property applies to these numbers. Using this property an
expression such as 4 ⋅ 2 + 3 ⋅ 2 can be simplified:
4 ⋅ 2 + 3 ⋅ 2 = (4 + 3) 2
= 7 2
A radical expression which indicates subtraction, such as

2 ⋅ 3 − 5 ⋅ 3 , often can be simplified in the same way:
2 ⋅ 3 − 5 ⋅ 3 = (2 − 5) ⋅ 3
= − 3 ⋅ 3

8.1.2 Roots or Radicals
8.1.2.1 Definition of the Root Term
In general, powers with fractions in the exponent are referred to as roots or radicals.
Roots are introduced when a solution for the following equation has to be found.
an = 2
Using the power theorem of exponents it is proved whether a = 2 1∕n is a solution

of that equation.
(2 1∕n) n = 2 (1∕n)⋅(n)
= 21
= 2
The number 2 1∕n is called an nth root of 2.
In general, a 1∕n is the nth root of a, where a 1∕n is that number with the property that
(a 1∕n) n = a . For example, a 1∕2 represents a second (or square) root of a , a 1∕3
represents a third (or cube) root of a , and a 1∕4 represents a fourth root of a .
The nth root of a , or a 1∕n, is commonly written with a radical sign a. With this
symbol a root can be written as
a 1∕n = na .
Read ’a’ to the power of one over ’n’ equals ’nth’ root of a.
Here ’a’ is called the radicand, ’n’ is called the index or order, and the expression na
is called a radical or a root.
Finding the root of ’a’ is an inverse mathematical operation for raising a natural
number to a power.
Example: If n = 1, m = 4, b = 16;
1
16 4 = 4 16 = 4 2 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 2 = 2
At times the root result is normally not a perfect whole number factor, but an irrational
number which will be displayed by a pocket calculator as a non--recurring decimal
number, e.g.  3 = 1.7320508.
When this is done, results from the pocket calculator are rounded up to a sensible
level of accuracy, e.g.
V rounded to three decimal places (DP) 1.732 or
V rounded to two significant figures (SF) 1.7.

When a fractional exponent has a numerator m > 1, then the numerator indicates the
power to which the number ’a’ is to be raised, while the denominator ’n’ indicates the
root to be taken.
Thus, the equation is as follows:
a n = n a m = b
m
Example: If m = 3, n = 2, a = 4
b = 4 2 =  4 3 =  64 =  8 2 = 8
3
The result of roots with even index number ’n’ and positive radicand ’a’ may be
positive or negative signed, e.g.
 64 =  (− 8)2 and  64 =  (+ 8) 2 therefore :  64 =  8
6
64 = 
6 (− 2) 6 and 6 64 = 
6 (+ 2) 6 therefore : 6 64 =  2
Normally the positive result is picked up as the correct root value and is referred to
as the prime result.
In contrast to the ambiguous root result in case of even number index and positive
radicand, any other combination of root index and radicand provides a single result:
a) If the radicand ’b’ is positive signed and the index ’m’ an odd number, then
the root result ’c’ is positive signed, e.g.
3
27 = 3 3 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 3 = 3
b) If the radicand ’a’ is negative signed and the index ’n’ an odd number, then
the root result ’b’ is negative signed; e.g.
3
− 27 = 3 (− 3) ⋅ (− 3) ⋅ (− 3) = − 3
c) If the radicand ’a’ is negative signed and the index ’n’ an even number, then
the root result is a number of the form
c  − 1 ; e.g.  − 16 =  42 ⋅ (− 1) = 4  − 1
Thus, values with  − 1 as a final result are not often used but they sometimes
occur as intermediate results of algebraic operations.
Nowadays evaluating the value of a radical with a real number radicand is done by
using a scientific pocket calculator. Therefore it is not necessary to learn how to find
the root by intention and in written form. There are procedures to do this without
using a calculator but using other aids such as tables (especially for finding square
and cube roots).

Since roots or radicals can be described as powers with fractional number exponents
the rules for mathematical operations are the same as the ones for operating with
powers.
Addition and Subtraction of Radicals
Rule:
Only radicals having the same radicand and the same index or order may be added
or subtracted.
Expression:
a ⋅ nc  b ⋅ nc = (a  b) nc
Example: 4 3 + 6 3 − 3 3 = (4 + 6 − 3)  3
= 7 3
= 12.12
Note that only radicals with the same radicand and index can be added or
subtracted. Sums or differences such as 43 + 6 or 4 ⋅ 3 − 2 ⋅ 2 can
not be added or subtracted.
Multiplication of Radicals
Rule 1:
Radicals having the same radicand are multiplied by converting the radical express-
ion into a power expression with fractional exponents and raising the common
radicand to the sum of the exponents.
Expression:
1 1 1 1
na ⋅ ma = a n ⋅ a m = a n +m
Example: 3 1 1
3 ⋅ 63 = 3 3 ⋅ 3 6
1 1
= 3 3+6
3
= 36
1
= 32
= 3
= 1.732

Rule 2:
Radicals having different radicands but the same index or order are multiplied by
converting the radical expression into a power expression with fractional exponents
and raising their base product to the common exponent.
Expression:
1 1 1
na ⋅ nb = a n ⋅ b n = (a ⋅ b) n = na ⋅ b
Example: 4 ⋅ 6 = 4 ⋅ 6 = 24
Division of Radicals
Rule 1:
Radicals having the same radicand are divided by converting the radical expressions
into power expressions with fractional exponents and raising the common radicand
to the difference of the numerator exponent (top term) minus denominator exponent
(bottom term).
Expression:
na 1
= a 1 = a n−m
n 1 1
ma
am
1
 125 (125) 2
= 125 2 − 4
1 1
Example: =
4 1
125 (125) 4
1
= 125 4 − 4 = 125 4
2 1
= 4 125 = 3.344
Rule 2:
Radicals having different radicands but the same order or index are divided by
finding the root out of the quotient of the radicands.
Expression:
na
n
= n ab
b

In order to prove this theorem, verify that
na 1
an
n
= 1
b bn
1
= 
a
b
n
= ab n
Example:
6
4
= 64 = 32
 300
3
=  300
3
=  100 = 10
The rules for multiplication and division of radicals can be used to simplify radicals. A
radical is said to be in simplified form if the following three conditions hold:
V When factored to prime factors, the radicand contains no factor to a power
greater than or equal to the index.
V The radicand has no fractions.
V No denominator contains a radical.
Example: Simplify the radical 24 .
To begin, find the largest perfect square (square of an integer) that will divide
evenly into 24. The largest such number is 4, in this example. Thus
24 = 4 ⋅ 6
= 4 ⋅ 6
= 2 ⋅ 6
Example: Simplify the radical 125

18
Begin as follows
125
18 = 18
125
9 ⋅ 2
=
25 ⋅ 5
3 ⋅ 2
=
5 ⋅ 5

The denominator contains a radical, which must be eliminated by the last

condition in the definition of simplified form given above. The term 5 can be
eliminated in the denominator by multiplying both the numerator and the
denominator by 5 .
3 ⋅ 2 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 5
=
5 ⋅ 5 5 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 5
3 ⋅ 10
=
5⋅5
3 ⋅ 10
=
25
Simplifying Radical Expressions
A radical expression is an algebraic expression which contains radicals. For

example,
4
2 − 1 3
3 + 6 , , and
5 8 − 2
are radical expressions. In the previous Chapter simplifying radical expressions

involving only multiplication and division had been discussed. Now it is considered,
how to simplify those radical expressions which include the operations of addition
and subtraction.
Note that only radicals with the same radicand and index can be added or sub-
tracted. Sums or differences such as 43 + 6 or 4 ⋅ 3 − 2 ⋅ 2 can not be
added or subtracted.
Numbers such as 3 , 19 , and − 2 are real numbers. Therefore, the distribu-
tive property applies to these numbers. Using this property an expression such as
4 ⋅ 2 + 3 ⋅ 2 can be simplified:
4 ⋅ 2 + 3 ⋅ 2 = (4 + 3) 2
= 7 2
A radical expression which indicates subtraction, such as 2 ⋅ 3 − 5 ⋅ 3 , often

can be simplified in the same way:
2 ⋅ 3 − 5 ⋅ 3 = (2 − 5) ⋅ 3
= − 3 ⋅ 3

Task 1: Converting Roots and Powers

Convert the terms written in power notation into root notation and vice versa.
1. 1
a3 =
2. t
kx =
3. 1
m4 =

Task 1 (continued):
4. (− c) 2k =
y
−k
5.  
x
m2
=
6. 1 =
x

Task 1 (continued):
7. 3 2
n =
8. 7 −3
t =
9. s1
k
x =

Task 1 (continued):
10. 
k
(− 3) 3 =

Task 2: Finding the Root

Solve the problems of this Task using a scientific pocket calculator and round the re-
sult to 3DP. Prove the result by raising the result found to the corresponding power in
order to get the radicand back.
1. 69 =
2. 3913 =
3. 5− 3 =

Task 2 (continued):
4. 46 =
5. 3− 0.067=
6. 1000
7 1 =

Task 2 (continued):
7. 1 =
25

Task 3: Multiplication with Roots

Solve the following problems and give the result in radical expression:
1 1
1. x 2 ⋅ x 4 =
1 1
2. x 2 ⋅ x 3 =
3 3
3. x 5 ⋅ x 4 =

Task 3 (continued):
1 1
4. a 2 ⋅ a −3 =
3 3
5. a 5 ⋅ a −4 =
2
6. a ⋅ a −3 =

Task 3 (continued):
7. 415 ⋅ 315 =
8. 322 ⋅ 3− 6 =

Solution to Task 1:
Convert the terms written in power notation into root notation and vice versa.
1. 1
a 3 = 3a
2.
k x = k t
t x
3. 1
m 4 = 4m
4. k
(− c) 2 = (− c)k
y
−k
5.  
x = 1
m2
 k x
m2

y
6. 1 = 1
x 1
x2
7. 3 2 2
n = n3
1
8. 7 −3
t =  1
t3
7
1
9. k 1 =
sx
 
1
sx
k
10. 
k
(− 3) 3 = (− 3) k
3

Solution to Task 2:
Solve the problems of this Task using a scientific pocket calculator and round the re-
sult to 3DP. Prove the result by raising the result found to the corresponding power in
order to get the radicand back.
1. 69 = 8.307
2
8.307 = 69
2. 3913 = 9.701
9.701 3 = 913
3. 5− 3 = --1.246
− 1.246 5= 3
4. 46 = 1.565
1.565 4 =6
5. 3− 0.067= -- 0.406

− 0.406 3= --0.067
6. 1000
7 1 = 0.373
0.373 7 = 0.001
7. 1 = 0.2
25
0.2 −2 = 25

Solution to Task 3:
Solve the following problems and give the result in radical expression:
1 1
1. x 2 ⋅ x 4 =
x 2+4 = x 4 = x 3
1 1 3 4
1 1
2. x 2 ⋅ x 3 =
x 2+3 = x 6 = x 5
1 1 5 6
3 3
3. x 5 ⋅ x 4 =
x 5+4 = x 20 = x 27
3 3 27 20
1 1
4. a 2 ⋅ a −3 =
a 2−3 = a 6 = 6a
1 1 1
3 3
5. a 5 ⋅ a −4 =
a 5−4 = a −20 =
3 3 3
1
20 3
a
2
6. a ⋅ a −3 =
a 1−3 = a 3 = 3a
2 1
7. 415 ⋅ 315 =
1 1 1 1 7 12
15 4 ⋅ 15 3 = 15 4+3 = 15 12 = 15 7 = 4.853
8. 322 ⋅ 3− 6 =
322 ⋅ (− 6) = 3− 132 = − 5.092

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Basic Mechanics Royal Malaysian Air Force

Training Papers Summary

Topic/ Courseware Pages

8.1 Powers and Roots 2 21 2 17 44 --

For training purposes only -- Rev. 07/97

8.1.1 Mathematical Operations with Powers Periods

For training purposes only -- Rev. 07/97

8.1.2 Roots or Radicals Periods

For training purposes only -- Rev. 07/97

8.1 Powers and Roots

8.1.1 Mathematical Operations with Powers

All computations marked as ’Example’ are to be written on the blackboard and

8.1.1.1 Power Term

It is convenient to have a shorthand for writing repeated products. For

For training purposes only -- Rev. 07/97

Using literal numbers, a power equation looks like

where bn is the power term

assigned to the exponent ’n’, require specific mathematical operations

Powers with Integer Exponents

Example: Base b=3

To raise a fraction to a power, as shown in Example 2, raise both, the

For training purposes only -- Rev. 07/97

Three special cases do exist concerning writing and articulating a

Distribute Worksheet page 1 and have students complete Task 1. It is recom-

Powers of sums have the general form

which means raising the power algebraically requires multiplying the

For training purposes only -- Rev. 07/97

Have the students complete Task 2 on page 2 of the provided Worksheet.

The binomial formulae

(a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2 and

8.1.1.2 Basic Operations with Powers

Addition and Subtraction of Powers

Example: 15 ⋅ 6 3 − 12 ⋅ 6 3= (15 − 12) 6 3

Have students solve Task 3 of the provided Worksheet. It is recommended to

An expression such as a 5 ⋅ a3 can be simplified by using the

For training purposes only -- Rev. 07/97

a m ⋅ a n = a m+n Product Theorem

Example: The product of 5y 2 and − 3y 4 has to be found.

Using the commutative and associative properties and the product

Have students solve Task 4 of the provided Worksheet. It is recommended to

Using the definition of an exponent, it follows

Note that 8 -- 3 = 5 . In the same way,

For training purposes only -- Rev. 07/97

Note that 8 -- 3 = 5 . And finally,

If m and n are any whole numbers (m, n ¸ 0), and if a ¸ 0 then

Powers with Negative Integer

Have students solve Task 5 of the provided Worksheet. It is recommended to

For training purposes only -- Rev. 07/97

Powers with Exponent Zero

Using the quotient theorem of exponents it follows

From these two equations it is derived that

By comparing the powers and results of the completed worksheet,

Raising the Power of a Power

The expression (a4) 2 can be simplified by writing

Note that 4 ¡ 2 = 8. This example generalizes to the power theorem for

(a m) n = a m⋅n Power Theorem

For training purposes only -- Rev. 07/97

Using the theorems of exponents the solution is as follows:

8.1.1.3 Polynomials and Factoring

An algebraic expression is any mathematical expression involving

A term is an expression consisting of the product of a number and one

Example: 4x, − 1 m 2n, 5.

A polynomial is any finite sum of terms, such as

Example: 3xy -- 5, 4x 3m 5 − 5x 2m + 6, and 3x 2t 6m 5.