Part 1:

Biology

Chapter 1, Section 1, Mendel and Pea plants.

 Heredity: The passing of genetic traits from parent to off-spring.

 Mendel: An Austrian scientist whose research led to the discovery of heredity.

 Mendel was born in Austria.

 Pollination: A process in which the pollen fertilizes the ovule of a flower.

 Mendel chose pea plants for his experiments for a few reasons, including:
 1. Pea plants grow quickly 2. There are many different kinds
 3. They are able to self-pollinate 4. They are able to cross-pollinate

 Self-pollinating plant: A plant with both male and female reproductive parts.

 True-breeding plants: are plants whose off-springs will have the same traits if
they self-pollinate.

 What’s the importance of pea plant self-pollination?

The eggs and the sperm from the same plant combine to make a new plant.
 Cross-pollination: Pollen from one plant Fertilizes the ovule of a flower on a
different plant.

 Pollen is carried by:

 A. Insects B. Wind

 Characteristic: A feature that has different forms in a population.

 Traits: The different forms of characteristics.

 Such as hair color.

 Mendel chose plants that had different traits for each characteristic he studied.
 For the characteristic of seed shape Mendel used round and wrinkled traits.
 For the characteristic of plant height, he used tall and short plants.
 For the characteristic of flower color he used white and purple.

 In Mendel’s First experiment, he cross pollinated purple flowered and white

flowered plants, and removed the anther from one plant to make sure they
would not self-pollinate.
 The off-spring of parent generation plants are called first-generation plants.
 All the first-generation plants had the purple flower trait.

 Mendel found two types of traits:

 A. Dominant B. Recessive

 Dominant trait: the trait that is more likely to show

 Recessive trait: the trait that is less likely to show.

  In his Second experiment, Mendel allowed the first-generation plants to self-
pollinate, the recessive trait of the white flower appeared in the second
generation.
 Ratio: relationship between two different numbers often expressed as a
fraction.
 Mendel discovered that each plant had two sets of instructions for each
characteristic.

The answers to the table in page 10:

Flower color 3.15:1 dominant to recessive
Seed color 2.99:1 dominant to recessive
Seed shape 2.96:1 dominant to recessive
Pod color 2.81:1 dominant to recessive
Pod shape 3.31:1 Dominant to recessive
Flower position 3.14:1 Dominant to recessive
Plant height 2.84:1 dominant to recessive

The following multiple-choice questions are from the national exams:

1. Where was Gregor Mendel born:
A. Germany B. Austria C. Italy
2. What was the ratio of dominant traits to recessive traits in the second-generation
Mendel plants?
A. 1:1 B. 3:1 C. 2:1 D. 4:1
3. A plant that has both male and female reproductive parts has the ability to:
A. Self-multiplication B. Self-Pollination C. Change color D. None of the
above

Section Review, Page 11.

1. Use each of the following terms in a separate sentence:
A. Heredity: the passing of genetic traits.
B. Dominant trait: the trait that’s more likely to show
C. Recessive trait: the trait that’s less likely to show

2. A plant that has both male and female reproductive structures is able to:
A. Self-replicate B. Self-pollinate C. Change color D. None of the above

3. Explain the difference between self-pollination and cross-pollination.

Answer/ Self-pollination is when pollen from a plant fertilizes the ovule on the
same flower or a different flower of the same plant.
Cross pollination is when the pollen from one plant fertilizes the ovule of a flower
on a different plant.

4. What is the difference between a trait and a characteristic? Give an example for
each.
Answer/ A characteristic is a feature with different forms, such as hair color.
A trait is the different forms of characteristics, the traits for hair color are black,
brown, blonde…etc.

5. Describe Mendel’s first set of experiments.

Answer/ In the first set of experiments Mende, cross-pollinated purple flowered and
white flowered plants, while having removed one of the plants’ anthers, so that they
could not self-pollinate.
6. Describe Mendel’s second set of experiments.
Answer/ Mendel allowed the off-spring of the purple and white flowered cross to
self-pollinate, to create the second-generation plants.

7. in a bag of chocolate candies, there are 21 white candies and 6 brown candies.
What is the ratio of white to brown candy? What is the ratio of brown to white
candy?
21
Answer/ The ratio of white to brown candy 6
=3.15:1

3.15 brown white candies for each 1 brown candy.

6
The ratio of brown to white 21
=0.28 :1

0.28 brown candies per 1 white candy in each chocolate bag.

8. Mendel used only true breeding plants. If he had used plants that were not true
breeding, do you think he would have discovered dominant and recessive traits?
Explain.
Answer/ No, because true-breeding plants make off-spring that have the same traits,
so the results are expected.

9. In cats, there are two types of ears: Normal and Curly.

A curly-eared cat, mated with a normal-eared cat, and all of the kittens had curly
ears. Are curly ears a dominant or a recessive trait? Explain.
Answer/ Curly ears are dominant traits because they’re more likely to show.

10. List three other fields of study that use ratios.

Answer/ Physics, Chemistry, Engineering.

Chapter 1, Section 2, Pages 12-17

 Gene: one instruction for inherited trait.

 Allele: One of the alternative forms of gene that governs a characteristic, such
as hair color.

 Phenotype: An organism’s appearance or other detectable characteristics

 .
 Albinism: a disease in humans that prevents hair, eyes, and skin from having
normal coloring.

 Genotype: the entire genetic makeup of an organism; also the combination of

genes for one of more specific traits.
 Both inherited alleles together form an organism’s genotype.
 Punnett square: a square used to organize all the possible combination of
offspring from particular parents.
 Dominant traits are always written as capital letters, such as , R, P…etc.
 Recessive traits are always written as small letters such as, r, p… etc.

 In Mendel’s first experiment, purple flowered plants (PP genotype) were

cross-pollinated with white flowered plants (pp genotype)
 Punnett square for the first experiment. p p
P Pp Pp
 All the first-generation plants had purple flowers, this is
because in order for recessive traits to show, you need two P Pp Pp
recessive alleles together.
 But for dominant traits to show, only one dominant Allele is enough.
 Both Pp, and PP, show the dominant trait, in this case, purple flower.
 While a plant with pp, genotype would show the recessive trait in this case,
white flower.
 The first-generation plants all had the Pp genotype so self-pollination would
look like this:
 Punnett Square for Second experiment. P p
 It can be noted that here we only have 1 recessive, white
P PP Pp
colored flower. This is because only one plant has the
genotype of (pp), two recessive alleles.
p Pp pp

 A plant with two recessive or dominant alleles is homozygous.

 Such as (RR or rr)
 A plant with one recessive and one dominant allele is heterozygous.
 Such as (Rr)

 Probability: The likelihood that a possible future event will occur in any given
instance of the event.
 The probability of recessive off-spring in the Punnett square for the first
experiment above, is 0%, this is because out of 4 offspring none of them have
2 recessive alleles.
 While for the second Punnett square, the probability of recessive off-spring is
25%, this is because 1/4 of the off-springs is recessive and 1/4x100=25%.
 Non-mendelian heredity is the exceptions to Mendel’s principles of genetics.
 There are a few types:
1. Incomplete dominance 2. One gene affecting multiple traits
3. Multiple genes affecting one trait 4. Environmental factors

 Incomplete dominance is when one trait is not completely dominant over the
other.
  The traits do not blend together but each allele has its own degree of
influence.
 An example of this would be the snapdragon flower.
 Snapdragon cross Punnett square: R
1
R
1

As you can see the R1R1 genotype is for the red flower, and R2 R1 R 2 R R
1 2

the R2R2 are for the white flower, but the off-springs are
R1R2, meaning that they’re Pink. R
2 1 2
R R R R
1 2

 2. One gene, many traits.

Sometimes one gene is responsible for multiple traits, in white tigers one gene is
responsible for the white fur and the blue-eyes.

 3. Many traits, one gene.

Some traits such as hair, skin, and eye color are the result of several genes acting
together, so it’s hard to determine recessive and dominant
traits.

 4. Environmental factors
The environment and diet can affect how genes work,
your genes might make it possible for you to grow tall, but you would need a good
diet.
  National exam question/ What is result of each of the following crosses? Use
Punnett squares.
1. Aa x Aa 2. Rr x rr
1. 75% dominant, 25% recessive 2. 50% dominant, 50% recessive
A a R r
AA Aa r Rr rr
A
r Rr rr

Aa aa
a

 National examination question/ Use a Punnett square to determine the

genotypes of the off-spring, from a cross of Tt x Tt, and calculate the
probability of each type of genotype.
 Answer/ 25% recessive tt, T t
25% dominant homozygous TT TT Tt
50% Dominant heterozygous Tt.
T
t Tt tt
Multiple choice questions from the previous nationals.
1. A plant that has two dominant or recessive alleles is called:
A. Heterozygous B. Cross-pollination C. Homozygous D. Self-pollination
2.Use a Punnett square to determine the genotypes of the off-springs from a
BB x Bb cross.
A. All BB B. Bb, BB C. All bb
3. Which of the following is a heterozygous genotype?
A. AB B. bb C. Bb D. BB
4. When one trait is not completely dominant over the other it’s called:
A. Recessive trait B. Incomplete dominance C. Environmental factor
D. Complete dominance
5. Two inherited forms of genes are called:
A. Two alleles B. Chromosome C. Gene

Section review, Page 17

1. Use the following terms in the same sentence: Gene and Allele.
Answer/Genes are instructions for a trait while alleles are the alternative forms of
genes.
2. In your own words, write a definition for each of the following terms: Genotype
and Phenotype.
Answer/Genotype is the two inherited alleles for a specific trait
Phenotype is the appearance of an organism.

3. Use a Punnett square to determine the possible genotypes of the off-spring of a

BBxBb cross.
B B
A. All BB B. BB, Bb, C. BB, Bb, bb D. All bb
B BB BB
b Bb Bb

4. How are genes and alleles related to genotype and phenotype.

Answer/Genes are instructions for traits, alleles are the forms of genes, two
inherited alleles together determine a genotype, which determines the phenotype.
5. Describe three exceptions to Mendel’s experiments.
Answer/ I. Incomplete dominance II. One gene, Many traits III. Many genes,
one trait
6. What is the probability of rolling a five on one die three times in a row?
Answer/ Each dice has a 1/6 chance of rolling a five.
1 1 1 1
So x x =1/216
6 6 6 this is because we have three die. 216
x 100=046 %

7. The alleles for a cleft chin, C, is dominant among humans. What are the results of
a cross between parents with genotypes Cc and cc?
Answer/ two off-spring with clef chins and two normal off-spring. C c
c Cc cc

c Cc cc

8. Given the combinations shown, what are the genotypes of the parents?
? ?
? Bb Bb
? Bb Bb
Answer/ One BB and the other bb.

9. If black fur had incomplete dominance over white fur, what color would the off-
spring be?
Answer/ Grey.

Section 3 , Pages 18-25

 In organisms there are two types of reproduction:
 1. Asexual B. Sexual
  Asexual reproduction is when genetic information from one parent is needed
to make new cells. It’s called Mitosis.
 Sexual reproduction is when genetic information from two parents are needed,
it’s called Meiosis.
The differences between Meiosis and Mitosis:
Meiosis Mitosis

1. Sexual reproduction 1. Asexual reproduction

2. Only happens in sex cells 2. Happens in most body cells

3. Four cells are produced 3. Two cells are produced

4. The nucleus divides twice 4. The nucleus divides once

5. The number of chromosomes is half 5. The number of chromosomes is the

of the parent cell’s same as the parent cell

6. Takes 8 steps to finish 6. Takes 6 steps to finish

 Homologous chromosomes: Are chromosomes that have the same sequence of

genes and structure

 Meiosis: A process in cell division in which the number of chromosomes is

decreased to half the original number by two divisions of the nucleus.
 The nucleus divides twice
 Meiosis produces sex cells.
 In Meiosis 4 cells are made with 23 chromosomes each from 1 parent cell
.

FOR THE STEPS OF MEIOSIS CHECK PAGES 19, 20, 21 IN YOUR BOOK.
 A scientist called Walter Sutton discovered that Genes are located on
chromosomes.
 Human egg and sperm cells always have 23 chromosomes.
 Sex cells carry one allele for each trait.

 In meiosis a cell that has the genotype of (Rr) for hair color becomes 4 cells,
two Rs and two (r)s
 Like so, RrR, R, r, r
 So if you cross two sex cells one with the genotype of Rr and one with RR
 The cross would look like so:
 R, R, r, r x R, R, R, R so the offspring will be RR, RR, Rr, Rr, this can be
drawn in a Punnett square as such:
R R
R RR RR

r Rr Rr

 Sex chromosome: one of the pair of chromosomes that

determine sex.
 The chromosomes for a female are XX and for a male they
are XY.
 If you crossed a male and a female the probability of having
a daughter or a son is 50%.
 It can be noted that we have 50% females and 50% males in the off-spring.

 The Y chromosome does not carry all the genes of an X chromosome.

Females have two X chromosomes,
 If one gets damage, a backup is available.
 But because males only have one X chromosomes, if it gets damaged they get
sex-linked disorders. Which include: Color blindness, Haemophilia.
 Sex linked disorder: any disorder that affects the X chromosome.
 For example/ A female is a carrier of color blindness, her genotype is as such:
X X , While the male is normal, If you cross them , one male off-spring will
r

r
have color blindness, while one female will be a carrier. X X
r
X X X XX
 Pedigree: A diagram that shows the occurrence r
Y X Y XY
Of a genetic trait in several family generations.

 A pedigree can predict whether someone has a hereditary disease. The figure
above traces a disease called Cystic Fibrosis, which causes serious lung
problems. Both parents have to be carriers for a child to inherit a disease,
people with the inherited disease carry two recessive alleles.
 It can be noted that in the parent generation both the female and the male are
carriers, as such, out of 5 children, one daughter has the disease in the first
generation.
  In the first generation, a male carrier marries a normal woman, the off-springs
they have 2 normal off-spring and a carrier, the female carrier marries a male
carrier, in the third generation they have three children, one normal and 2 who
have cystic fibrosis.
 Selective breeding: the process of mating organisms with desirable
characteristics, so that the off-spring can only get those characteristics.

 Multiple choice questions from the nationals:

1. Chromosomes that carry the same genes are called:
A. Normal Chromosomes B. Homologous Chromosomes C. Asexual
chromosomes
2. What process do cells undergo when they reproduce asexually?
A. Sexual reproduction B. Mitosis C. Meiosis D. Homologous
3. Genes carry information which determine:
A. Alleles B. Ribosome C. Chromosome D. Traits
4. Genes are located on:
A. Chromosomes B. Proteins C. Alleles D. Sex cells
5. By which process are sex cells produced?
A. Mitosis B. Heredity C. Meiosis D. Probability
6. In meiosis:
A. The nucleus divides once B. Four cells are produced C. Two cells are
produced from one.
7. Homologous chromosomes are chromosomes that:
A. carry the same set of genes B. Carry different sets of genes
C. Have small volume
8. Who was the scientist that discovered that genes are located on chromosomes:
A. Walter Sutton B. Mendel C. Louis Paster
9. Sex-linked disorders are more common in males because:
A. They have 2 X chromosomes B. They have 1 X chromosome
C. They have 2Y chromosomes

Section review, page 25.

1. Use each of the following terms in the same sentence: Meiosis and sex
chromosome.
Answer/ Meiosis is a process which produces sex cells that carry sex chromosomes.
In each of the following sentences replace the incorrect term with the correct term
from the word bank:
Pedigree Homologous chromosome Meiosis Mitosis
2. During Fertilization, Chromosomes are copied, and then the nucleus divides
twice.
Answer/ During Meiosis, chromosomes are copied, and then the nucleus divides
twice.
3. A Punnett square is used to show how inherited traits move through a family.
Answer/ A Pedigree is used to show how inherited traits move through a family.
4. During meiosis, sex cells line up in the middle of the cell.
Answer/ During meiosis, homologous chromosomes line up in the middle of the
cell.
5. Genes are found on:
A. Chromosomes B. Proteins C. Alleles D. Sex cells
6. If there are 14 chromosomes in pea plant cells how many chromosomes are
present in a sex cell of a pea plant?
Answer/ 7 chromosomes.
7. Draw the eight steps of meiosis, label one chromosome, and show its position in
each step
Answer/ Student book pages 20 and 21.
8. Is this disorder sex linked? Explain your reasoning.
Answer/ It’s a sex-linked disorder.
Because the male is normal and the female is a
carrier, but a male off-spring gets the disease.
Because the X chromosome is damaged.
9. Put the following in order of smallest to largest: Chromosome, Gene, Cell.
Answer/Gene, Chromosome, Cell.
10. A pea plant has purple flowers. What alleles for flower color could the sex cells
carry?
Answer/ The sex cells would carry the dominant allele, because purple flowers are a
dominant trait, so the allele would be P.

Chapter 1 Review Pages 26-27

Explain what each of the following terms mean.
1. Sex cell
Answer/ A cell that contains 23 chromosomes.
2. Sex chromosome
Answer/ A chromosome that determines sex.
3. Phenotype
Answer/ The appearance of an organism
4. Genotype.
Answer/ Two inherited alleles.
5. Alleles.
Answer/ The different forms of genes
6. Meiosis
Answer/ A process that produces sex cells
7. Genes carry information that determine:
A. Alleles B. Ribosomes C. Chromosomes D. Traits
8. The process that produces sex cells is:
A. Mitosis B. Heredity C. Meiosis D. Probability
9. The passing of traits from parents to offspring is called:
A. Probability B. Heredity C. Recessive D. Meiosis
10. If you cross a white flower with the genotype pp with a purple flower with the
genotype PP, the possible genotypes in the offspring are:
A. PP and pp B. All Pp C. All PP d. All pp
11. For the cross item 10, what would the phenotypes be?
A. All white b. 3 purple and 1 white C. All purple D. Half white, Half purple
12. In meiosis:
A. Chromosomes are copied twice B. The nucleus divides once
C. Four cells are produced from a single cell D. Two cells are produced from a
single cell
13. When one trait is not completely dominant over another, it’s called:
A. Recessive B. Incomplete dominance C. Environmental factors
D. uncertain Dominance

14. Which sex chromosomes do females have? Which do males have?

Answer/ females have XX chromosomes and males have XY.

15. In one or two sentences define the term recessive trait in your own words.
Answer/ A trait that is less likely to show
16. How are sex cells different from other body cells?
Answer/ They only have 23 chromosomes while normal cells have 46

17. What is a sex-linked disorder? Give one example of a sex-linked disorder that is
found in humans.
Answer/ It’s a disorder that affects sex chromosomes, An example would be Color
blindness.

18. Use the following terms to create a concept map: Meiosis, eggs, cell division, X
chromosome, Mitosis, Y chromosome, sperm and sex cells.
Answer/ Mitosis and Meiosis are both types of cell division. Meiosis is a type in
which sex cells are produced, sex cells are sperm and eggs, sperm contains either an
X or a Y chromosome while eggs only contain X chromosomes.

19. If you were a carrier of one allele for a certain recessive disorder, how could
genetic counseling prepare you for the future?
Answer/ With the help of pedigrees, genetic counseling would help me to know
whether if I have a child that’s sick or not.

20. If a child has blonde hair and both of her parents have brown hair, what does
that tell you about the allele for blonde hair? Explain.
Answer/ It tells me that both parents are carriers, because only that way can they
produce off-spring with two recessive alleles.

21. What is the genotype of a pea plant that is true-breeding for purple flowers?
Answer/ PP. all off-spring would also be PP if the plant self-pollinates.
Use this Punnett square to answer the questions that
? ?
Follow.
? TT TT

22; What is the unknown genotype? ? Tt Tt

Answer/ The unknown genotypes are TT, and Tt.

23. If each of the off-spring were allowed to self-fertilize, what are the possible
genotypes in the next generation?
Answer/ TT, Tt, tt are all possible genotypes.

24. What is the probability of each genotype in item 23.

Answer/ For the first off-spring, there is a 100% probability for the genotype TT.
For the second off-spring there is a 100% probability for the genotype TT.
For the third off-spring, there is a 25% probability for TT, 50% for Tt, 25% for tt.
For the fourth off-spring, there is a probability of 25% for TT, 50% for Tt, 25% for
tt.

Chapter 2
Body Organization and Structure
Section 1
 Homeostasis: The maintenance of a constant internal state in a changing
environment
.
 In order to maintain homeostasis your cells need to survive and in order to
survive they need:
1. Oxygen 2. Waste removed 3. Energy
 Cells may not get the material they need so they may be damaged or die.

 Cells do many jobs to maintain homeostasis, but each cell does not have to do
every job.

 Cells that do common jobs join together and form Tissue.

 Tissue: A group of similar cells that perform a common function

 The body has four types of tissue:

1. Connective tissue 2. Muscle tissue 3. Nerve tissue 4. Epithelial tissue
 One kind of tissue cannot do everything that multiple tissues do working
together, so they join together and they form organs.

 Organ: a collection of tissues that carry out a specialized function in the body

.
 One organ does not do every job, so they have to work together to become
organ systems.

 Organ system: a group of organs that perform a common job.

 Organ systems work together to maintain homeostasis.

 Self-check page 31, How is the stomach part of an organ system?

Answer/ The stomach is part of the digestive system, the stomach only digests
food, so other organs are needed to transport nutrients, produce energy, and
remove waste.
 Self-check page 32, give an example of how organ systems work together in
the body.
Answer/ The cardiovascular system picks up oxygen from the respiratory
system and transports it to your body.

 There are 12 types of organ systems in the body:

1. Integumentary system 2. Muscular system 3. Skeletal system
4. Cardiovascular system 5. Respiratory system 6. Urinary system
7. Male reproductive system 8. Female reproductive system
9. Nervous system 10. Digestive system 11. Lymphatic system
12. Endocrine system
Section review page 33.
1. Use the following terms in the same sentence: Homeostasis, tissue, organ.
Answer/ Tissue work together to become organs, organs work together in systems
to maintain homeostasis.
2. Which of the following statements describes how tissues, organs, and organ
systems are related?
A. Organs form tissues, which form organ systems
B. Organ systems form organs, which form tissues
C. Tissues form organs, which form organ systems D. None of the above
3. List the 12 organ systems.
Answer/ They’re listed above.
4. The human skeleton has 206 bones, the human skull has 22 bones. What
percentage of bones are skull bone?
22
Answer/ 206
x 100=10.5 %

5. Abdulrahman went to a restaurant and ate a sandwich. Describe how

Abdulrahman used five organ systems to eat and digest his sandwich.
Answer/ Abdulrahman uses the muscular system to grab and chew the food, he uses
the digestive system to digest the food to nutrients, he uses the endocrine system to
convert the food into nutrients. the cardiovascular transports nutrients throughout
the body, while the respiratory system provides oxygen for the food to be converted
to energy.
6. Predict what might happen if the human body did not have specialized cells,
tissues, organs and organ systems to maintain homeostasis.
Answer/ The body would fail and die, or it would have on cell that would do all the
jobs like bacteria.

Section 2, The integumentary system.

 Integumentary system: The organ system that forms a protective covering on
the outside of the body.

 It’s composed of:
1. Skin 2. Nails 3. Hair

 Skin has a variety of functions, including:

 Protecting the body by keeping water in and particles out.
 Skin keeps you in touch with the outside world, it lets you feel.
 Skin helps regulate body temperature. Skin has small organs called Sweat
glands which makes sweat, as air hits sweat, your body cools.
 Skin helps get rid of waste, several kinds of waste can be removed in the form
of sweat.

 Skin gets it color from a chemical called Melanin.
 The more the melanin, the darker the skin gets, the less the melanin present,
the lighter skin gets.

 The skin covers an area of about 2m2 and is composed of two layers:
 1. Epidermis 2. Dermis

 Epidermis is the surface layer of cells on a plant or animal

 Dermis the layer of skin below the epidermis
 The epidermis is thick and is made of a protein called Keratin.
 The dermis is soft and is made of a protein called Collagen.
 The collagen fibers provide strength.

 Hair and nails:

 Hair forms of at the bottom of a tiny sac called Hair follicle.
 The hair is dead cells while the hair follicles are living cells.
 Hair also gets its color from melanin.

 Hair has some functions such as:

  Protection against ultraviolet light from the sun
 Keeping out particles, like dust and insects out of your eyes and nose
 In most mammals, it helps regulate body temperature

 Nails grow from the nail root, the nails are dead cells while the nail roots are
living cells.

Multiple choice questions from the previous nationals.

1. Homeostasis is the maintenance of:
A. Varied internal conditions B. Stable internal conditions
C. Varied external conditions D. Stable External conditions

2. When tissue work together to perform a common function they become:

A. Cell B. Connective tissue C. Organ D. Organ system

3. A type of tissue that connects things together and protects them:

A. Epithelial tissue B. Nervous tissue C. Muscle tissue
D. Connective tissue

4. Aids in the removal of viruses and bacteria:

A. Integumentary system B. Nervous system C. Muscular system
D. Lymphatic system

5. What is the function of hair follicles?

A. Changing hair color B. Cooling skin C. Accumulation of fat
D. Production of Hair.

6. The organ system that sends chemical messages is called:

A. Nervous system B. Endocrine system C. Digestive system
D. Lymphatic system

7. The muscle tissue of the stomach helps digestion of food via:

A. Protecting the stomach B. Chemical digestion C. Mechanical digestion
D. Production of acids

8. Integumentary system:
A. Regulates body temperature B. Helps body move
C. Stores metals

9. The dermis is different from the epidermis in that:

A. It’s thinner B. It’s made of dead cells D. It’s thicker

10. Nails develop from living cells called:

A. Nail follicle B. Nail root C. Hair follicle D. Epidermis

Section review page 37

1. In your own words write a definition for each of the following terms:
Integumentary system, epidermis, dermis.
Answer/ the integumentary system is an organ system that forms a protective
coating.
Epidermis is the surface layer of skin, Dermis the layer of skin below
2. Which of the following is NOT a function of skin?
A. To regulate body temperature B. To keep water in the body
C. To move your body D. To get rid of wastes
3. Describe the two layers of skin.
Answer/ The two layers are Epidermis and dermis, the Epidermis is outside while
the dermis is beneath, The epidermis is tough and is made of keratin, the dermis is
softer and made of collagen.
4. How do nails and hairs develop?
Answer/ Nails develop from the nail root and hails develop from the hair follicles,
as they grow, they’re pushed upwards.

5. Describe how a cut heals.

Answer/ A blood clot forms over a cut to stop bleeding and keep bacteria from
entering, bacteria fighting cells then come to the area to kill bacteria, then damaged
cells get replaced through cell division, all that is left is a scar.
6. On average hair grows 0.3mm per day. How many mm does hair grow in 30
days? In a year?
Answer/ in 30 days, 30 x 0.3=9 mm
In a year, 365 x 0.3=¿109.5 mm
7. Why do you feel pain when you pull on your hair or nails, but not when you cut
them?
Answer/ Because nails and hair are dead cells so you can’t feel pain when you cut.
But when you pull on them, you’re pulling on the nail roots and hair follicles which
are living cells supplied by nerve cells, so you sense pain.
8. The epidermis on the palms of our hands and on the soles of your feet is thicker
than it is anywhere else in the body. Why might this skin be thicker?
Answer/ Because your feet and palms are prone to a lot of physical interactions.
Such as walking, your feet are on the ground, or grabbing things, in which case
palms are used.

Chapter review pages 38-39

Explain each of the following terms

1. Homeostasis
Answer/ The maintenance of stable internal conditions

2.Tissue
Answer/ A group of organs working together

3.Epidermis
Answer/ The surface layer of skin

4.Integumentary system
Answer/ A system of organs that form the outside coating of plants or animals

5.Organ
Answer/ A group of tissue working together

6. Dermis
Answer/ The internal layer of skin

7. Which of the following shows the way in which the body is organized?
A. Cells, Organs, Organ systems, Tissue B. Tissues, Cells, Organs, Organ systems
C. Cells, Tissues, Organs, Organ systems D. Cells, Tissues, Organ systems,
Organs

8. The integumentary system:

A. Helps regulate body temperature B. Helps the body move
C. Stores minerals D. None of the above

9. The two layers of the skin are:

A. Epidermis and sweat glands B. Dermis and oil glands
C. Epidermis and dermis D. Epidermis and hair follicles

10. List two injuries that affect the skin.

Answer/ Burns and Cuts.

11. Explain how hair regulates body temperature.

Answer/ Tiny muscles are attached to hair, that can pull the hairs so they stand up
and trap warm air.

12. Use the following terms to create a concept map: Tissues, Muscle tissue,
Connective tissue, Cells, Organ systems, Organs, Epithelial tissue, and nervous
tissue.
Answer/ Cells work together to make tissue, which are 4 types: Muscle, Epithelial,
Nervous and connective tissue, tissue work together to make organs that form organ
systems.
13. Compare your elbows and fingertips in terms of the texture and sensitivity of
the skin on these parts of your body. Why might the skin on these body parts differ?
Answer/ The skin differs due to the function of the body part, and whether it has
many physical interactions or not.

14. What is d called? What substance is most abundant in this layer?

Answer/ Dermis, the most common substance is collagen.
15. What is the name and function of a?
Answer/ Sweat gland, and its function is to produce sweat.
16. What is the name and function of b?
Answer/ Oil gland, its function is to produce oil to lubricate the skin.
17. Which letter corresponds to the part of the skin that is made up of epithelial
tissue that contains dead cells?
Answer/Letter C, Epidermis
18. Which letter corresponds to the part of the skin from which hair grows? What is
this part called?
A. Letter F, it’s called a hair follicle.

Chapter 3
The digestive and urinary systems

Section 1, the digestive system

.
 Digestive system: The organs that break down food so that it can be used by
the body.
 The most obvious part of the digestive system is a series of tubelike organs
called the Digestive tract.

 Food passes through the digestive tract.

 The digestive tract includes: 1. Mouth 2. Pharynx

3.Esophagus 4. Stomach
5. Small intestine 6. Large intestine 7. Rectum 8.
Anus

 The digestive tract can be more than 9m long.

 Some organs are part of the digestive tract but not of the digestive system.
 This is because food does NOT pass through them.
 These include: 1. Liver 2. Gallbladder 3. Pancreas 4. Salivary glands

 Digestion is the process of breaking down food into a form that can pass into
the bloodstream.
 Digestion is two types:
 A. Mechanical B. Chemical
 Mechanical digestion is the breaking, crushing and mashing of food.
 Chemical digestion is when large molecules are broken down into nutrients.

 Nutrients are substances in food that the body needs for normal growth,
maintenance and repair.
 Three major types of nutrients are:
1. Carbohydrates 2. Proteins 3. Fats

 Enzymes are substances that break nutrients down into smaller particles for
the body to use.
 Proteins are made of smaller molecules called amino acids, proteins are too
large to be absorbed so enzymes break them down into chains of amino acids,
which are small enough to pass into the bloodstream.

 It’s important to think of Enzymes like chemical scissors, which cut food
apart into small particles.

 Digestion begins in the mouth.

 Teeth are important organs for mechanical digestion.
 Teeth break and grind food.
 The outermost layer of tooth is called the Enamel, it’s the hardest material in
the body.

 There are different kinds of teeth: 1. Molars for grinding food
 2. Pre-molars for mashing food 3. Incisors and canines for shredding food

 Saliva is a liquid that is produced by salivary glands located in the mouth.

 The digestion of carbohydrates start in the mouth due to the action of saliva.
 Saliva changes complex carbohydrates into simple sugars.

 Once the food has been turned into mush, it is pushed into the throat by the
tongue, which goes down a tube called Esophagus.
 Esophagus a long straight tube that connects the pharynx to the stomach.
 Esophagus squeezes the mass of food with rhythmic muscle contractions
called Peristalsis.

Stomach: The saclike, digestive organ between the esophagus and the small
intestine that breaks down food into a liquid by the action of muscles,
enzymes, and acids.
 The digestion of Proteins begins in the stomach
 Stomach acid aids in chemical digestion and kills bacteria, after chemical and
mechanical digestion food is turned into a liquid mixture called Chyme.

 The stomach releases chyme slowly, so that the intestine has more time to mix
the chyme with fluids from the liver and pancreas, these fluids help digest
food and stop the acids in chyme from hurting the small intestine.

 Most chemical digestion takes place after food leaves the stomach, proteins,
carbohydrates and fats finish digestion in the small intestine.

 Digestion of carbohydrates begins in the mouth

 Digestion of Proteins begins in the stomach
 Digestion of fats begin in mouth

 Pancreas: the organ that lies behind the stomach which makes digestive
enzymes and hormones that regulate sugar levels
 Chyme does not enter the pancreas.
 Pancreas releases a chemical called Bicarbonate into the small intestine, to
neutralize the acidity of the chyme.

 The pancreas also functions as a part of the endocrine system by making

hormones that regulate blood sugar levels.

 Small intestine: The organ between the stomach and large intestine where
most breakdown of food occurs and nutrients from food are absorbed.
 The small intestine has a diameter of about 2.5cm and a length of 6 meters.
  The inner walls of the small intestines are covered in small projections called
Villi which absorb nutrients into the bloodstream.

 Liver: The largest organ in the body; it makes bile, stores and filters blood and
stores excess sugars as glycogen

 The liver helps with digestion in these ways:

 Making bile to break up fat
 Storing nutrients
 Breaking down toxins

 Gallbladder: an organ that stores bile

 Bile breaks down large fat droplets into small droplets.
 This allows more molecules to be exposed to digestive enzymes

 Large intestine: The wider and shorter portion of the intestine that removes
water from digested food and producing waste into semisolid stool.
 It has a length of 1.5m and a diameter of 7.5cm.
 Whole foods contain Cellulose, which is fiber.
 Fiber keeps the stool soft and material moving through the large intestine.

 The rectum is the last part of the digestive system.

 The rectum stores feces until they’re excreted.

Multiple choice questions from the previous nationals:

1. Protects the nerves and soft tissue inside of teeth:
A. Molar B. Incisor C. Enamel
2. The soft tissue of the stomach aids in:
A. Protection of the stomach B. Chemical digestion
C. Mechanical digestion D. Production of acids

3. The mixture of food, enzymes and acids in the stomach is called:

A. Chyme B. Villi C. Urea D. Vitamins

4. Which of the following is NOT part of the digestive tract?

A. Stomach B. Pharynx C. Esophagus D. Kidney

5. A tube that converts liquid waste into semisolid stool:

A. Small intestine B. Gallbladder C. Large intestine D. Pancreas

6. Which of the following does chemical digestion?

A. Tongue B. Pharynx C. Liver D. Stomach

7. Through which of the following does food pass?

A. Salivary glands B. Pancreas C. Gallbladder D. Stomach

8. Which of the following does not aid in chemical digestion?

A. Esophagus B. Liver C. Pancreas D. Stomach

9. Which of the following is NOT part of the digestive tract?

A. Stomach B. Pharynx C. Large intestine D. Liver
Section review
1. Use each of the following terms in a separate sentence: Digestive system, Large
intestine, small intestine.
A. Digestive system: the system that breaks down into small particles so they can be
absorbed by the body
B. Large intestine is an organ that stores, compacts and eliminates indigestible
material.
C. Small intestine is the organ that absorbs nutrients from digested food into the
bloodstream.
2. Which of the following is NOT a function of the liver
A. To secrete bile B. To store nutrients C. To detoxify chemicals
D. To compact wastes

3. What is the difference between mechanical digestion and chemical digestion?

Answer/ Mechanical digestion happens by the action of muscles while chemical
happens by the action of enzymes and acids.

4. What happens to the food that you eat when it gets to your stomach?
Answer/ it gets chemical and mechanically digested into a mixture called Chyme.

5. Describe the role of liver, gallbladder, and pancreas in digestion.

Answer/ Pancreas neutralizes the acidity of chyme, liver produces bile, gallbladder
squeezes bile out.
6. Put the following steps of digestion in order.
A. Food is chewed by the teeth in the mouth
B. Water is absorbed by the large intestine
C. Food is reduced to chyme in the stomach
D. Food moves down the esophagus
E. Nutrients are absorbed by the small intestine
F. The pancreas releases enzymes.
Answer/ A. Food is chewed by teeth in the mouth
D. Food moves down the esophagus C. Food is reduced to chyme in the stomach
F. The pancreas releases enzymes E. Nutrients are absorbed the small intestine
B. water is absorbed by the large intestines

7. Explain the following statement: “Digestion begins in the mouth”

Answer/ Mechanical digestion of food takes place in the mouth, and then some
nutrients are digested chemically as well.

8. How would the absence of saliva affect digestion?

Answer/ The chewed food would be harder on the esophagus to squeeze, in turn it
can cause stomach and esophagus problems

9. Label and describe the function of each of the organs in the diagram.
Answer/ A. Mouth, functions are chemical and mechanical digestion
B. esophagus, function is movement of food into the stomach
C. Stomach, chemical and mechanical digestion
D. Liver, production of bile
E. Small intestines, absorption of nutrients
F. Large intestines, production of stool
G. Rectum, storage of stool.

Section 2, The urinary system pages 50-53

 Excretion: is the process of removing waste.
 Waste is removed by the body via 3 organ systems:
 Integumentary system, removal of waste through sweat.
 Respiratory system, removal of carbon dioxide and water when you exhale.
 Urinary system, removal of waste through urine.

Urinary system: The organs that produce, store, and eliminate urine
.
 The body performs chemical reaction to keep you alive, waste is produced in
the process, such as carbon dioxide and ammonia. The urinary system
removes waste from blood.

 The urinary system is composed of 4 main organs:

1. Kidneys 2. Ureters 3. Urinary bladder 4. Urethra

 The kidneys: an organ that filters water and wastes from the blood and
excretes them in the form of urine.

 Nephron: the unit in the kidney that filters blood

 Self-check, page 51, How are nephrons related to kidneys?

 Answer/ Nephrons are units within the kidney that filter blood.
  You need to get rid of as much water as you drink, otherwise your body would
swell up. This balance is maintained by chemical messengers called
Hormones.

 When it’s hot, the body sweats, as a result blood content of water is lost, as
such the salivary glands produce less saliva and you feel thirsty.

 Antidiuretic hormone is a hormone released in response to water shortage, it

causes kidneys to absorb water from the nephrons.
 Water goes back into the bloodstream and the nephrons make less urine.
 When the blood has too much water, small amount of ADH is released, so
there is more urine.

 The urinary system can have problems, such as:

 Bacterial infection
 Bacteria can get into the bladder and ureters through the urethra and cause
damage, if they reach the kidneys, they cause permanent damage to nephrons.

 Kidney stones
 The result of the accumulation of salts and other wastes inside the kidney.

 Kidney disease.
 Damage to the nephrons can cause kidney disease. Blood will not be filtered
properly.

Multiple choice questions from the previous nationals:

1. What is excretion?
A. The process of digestion B. The process of respiration
C. The process of removing waste D. The process of increasing waste.
2. When salts and wastes accumulate in the kidneys what forms?
A. Nephrons B. Kidney stones C. Urine D. Hormone

3. The tube that excretes urine outside the body:

A. Urethra B. Ureter C. Urinary bladder D. Nephron

4. The hormone that makes the kidney produce less urine is:
A. ADH B. DNA C. ACD D. ATP

Section review Page 53

1. In your own words write a definition for the term urinary system.
Answer/ An organ system that removes waste from blood.

2. Which event happens first?

A. Water is absorbed into blood B. A large artery brings blood into the
kidney
C. Water enters the nephrons D. The nephrons separate water from waste.

3. How do kidneys filter blood?

Answer/ Kidneys have small units called Nephrons that remove waste from blood.

4. Describe three orders of the urinary system.

Answer/ 1. Kidney stones 2. Bacterial infections 3. Kidney disease
5. A study has shown that 75% of teenage boys drink 1 liter of soda per day. How
many 250 mL cans of soda would a boy drink in a week if he drank 1L per day.
Answer/ 1 Liter=1000mL, so 4 cans are 1L. The boy drinks 4 cans a day, he drinks
28 cans a week.

6. Which of the following contains more water: the blood going into the kidney or
the blood leaving it?
Answer/ The blood going into the kidney.

7. When people have one kidney removed, their other kidney can often keep their
blood clean. But the remaining kidney often changes. Predict how the remaining
kidney may change to do more work.
Answer/ The kidney might become larger or make develop more nephrons.’

Chapter review pages 54-55

Explain the meaning of the following terms:

1. Pancreas
Answer/ An organ that produces chemicals and hormones
2. Stomach
Answer/ A saclike organ that digests food
3. Kidney
Answer/ An organ that filters blood

4. Urinary system
Answer/ An organ system that removes waste from blood in the form of urine.
5. Digestive system:
Answer/ An organ system that breaks down food so it can be absorbed by the body.

6. Large intestine
Answer/ An organ that compacts waste and removes it in the form of stool.

7. The hormone that signals kidneys to make less urine is:

A. GH B. ACD C. ADH D. ATP

8. Which of the following organs aids digestion by producing bile?

A. Stomach B. Pancreas C. Small intestine D. Liver

9. The part of the kidney that filters the blood is :

A. Artery B. Ureter C. Nephron D. Urethra

10. The fingerlike projections that line the small intestine are called:
A. Emulsifiers B. Fats C. Amino acids D. Villi

11. Which of the following is Not a part of the digestive tract?

A. Esophagus B. Kidney C. Stomach D. Rectum

12. The mixture of food, enzymes and acids in the stomach is called:
A. Chyme B. Villi C. Urea D. Vitamins

13. Which of the following is not a function of the stomach?

A. Storing food B. Chemical digestion C. Physical digestion D. Secretion of
bile

14. The gallbladder stores:

A. Food B. Urine C. Bile D. Villi

15. The esophagus connects the:

A. Pharynx to the stomach B. Stomach to the small intestine
C. Kidneys to nephrons D. Stomach to large intestines

16. Why is it important for the pancreas to release bicarbonate into the small
intestine?
Answer/ To neutralize the acidity of chyme, so that the small intestine does not get
damaged.

17. How does the structure of the small intestine help absorb nutrients?
Answer/ The internal surface of the small intestine is covered in fingerlike
projections called Villi, that absorb nutrients.

18. What is a kidney stone?

Answer/ It’s a mass of accumulated salts and wastes.

19. Use the following terms to create a concept map: Teeth, stomach, Digestion,
bile, saliva, mechanical digestion, gallbladder, chemical digestion.
Answer/ Digestion is the process of breaking food down, teeth mechanically digest
while saliva chemically digest the food, which is then passed to the stomach, and
then into the small intestine where the gallbladder secretes bile onto the food to
digest fat.

20. How would digestion be affected if the liver were damaged?

Answer/ There wouldn’t be adequate amounts of bile, so some fats might not get
digested and come out with stool.

21. When you put a piece of carbohydrate-rich food, such as bread, potato, or a
cracker into your mouth, the food tastes bland. But if this food sits on your tongue
for a while, the food will begin to taste sweet. What digestive process causes this
change in taste?
Answer/ The food becomes sweeter because the starches are broken down into
simple sugars by the salivary enzymes.

22. The recycling process for one kind of plastic begins with breaking the plastic
into small pieces, next, chemicals are used to break the small pieces of plastic down
to its building blocks. Then, those building blocks are used to make new plastic.
How is this process both like and unlike human digestion?
Answer/ It’s like human digestion in that humans break down food into small pieces
physically then digest it chemically into small building blocks, but it’s unlike
humans in that the small building blocks don’t turn back into food.

The bar graph below shows how much time an average meal spends in each portion
of the digestive tract. Use the graph to answer the questions that follow.
23. In which part of your digestive tract does the food spend the longest amount of
time.
Answer/ The small intestine

24. On average, how much longer does food stay in the small intestine than in the
stomach?
Answer/ 10 hours

25. Which organ mixes food with special substances to make chyme?
Approximately how long does food remain in this organ?
Answer/ Stomach, food stays for 4 hours.

26. Bile breaks large fat droplets into very small droplets. How long is the food in
your body before it comes into contact with bile?
Answer/ 4 hours and a half, because the food passes through the mouth and stomach
then goes into the small intestine where bile is secreted onto.

Physics
Chapter 10
Section 1, pages 180-185. Work and Power

 Work: the transfer of energy to an object by sing a force that causes an object
to move in the same direction.

  The force and displacement of the object have to have the same direction in
order for it to be considered work.

 One way to tell if work is done on an object, is that if the object has Kinetic
energy.
 This means that the object is moving.
 Work isn’t done every time work is applied.

 For work to be done two things need to be considered:
 1. Whether the object that has force applied on it moves.
 2. The direction of the object’s motion is the same as the direction of the
applied force.

 If an object has force applied on it but does not move, it’s not work.
 If it moves but it’s in a different direction from the force, it’s also not work.

 This is considered work, because

force is applied onto the box to the left, and the object moves to the left.

it can be noted here, what is

considered work and what’s
not.
 in the first example a
person is applying force
on a box to the left, and
the box moves in the
same direction, it’s work.
 In the second example,
the person is walking,
 their force is upwards, but the direction of motion is to the left, so it’s not
considered work.
 In the third example the person is picking trying to stand up while holding
something, the force is applied upwards and the direction of motion is also
upwards, so it’s considered work.
 In the fourth example, the person is holding an object, their force is upwards,
even though they’re moving with the object their direction of motion is to the
left, different from the direction of force, so it’s not work.

 In conclusion, Work is equal to force times distance or W =Fxd

 Force has a unit of Newton (N)

 Distance has a unit of Meters (m)
 Work has a unit of N/m or Joule (J)

 Joule: The unit used to express energy; equivalent to the amount of work done
by a force of 1N acting through a distance of 1m in the same direction.
 Keep in mind, two people can do the same amount of work in different ways.
 One can increase distance and decrease force and another can increase force
and decrease distance. But they do equal work.
Both of these people are doing the same amount of work, even though they are
pushing
the
object
in a

different way.

 Power: the rate at which work is done or energy is transformed.

 Power is equal to work divided by time.
W
 So P= t

 Work has a unit of Joule, and time is calculated in seconds here.

 As such Power has a unit of Watt or Joule per second J/s

 Here are some examples about work and power:

 If a person pushes a box with a force of 500N and moves it in the same
direction 0.5 meters, How much work has he done?
 Answer/ W =Fxd
 Force = 500N distance= 0.5 meters
 Now replace the variables with the numbers W =500 x 0.5= 250J

 If a person applies 230N of force upwards, but the object moves to the right, 2
meters, has he done work? If so, then calculate it?
 Answer/ The force is up and the distance is to the right, because they have
different direction, the person has NOT done any work.

 Now for example 1, convert the amount of work done into Power, if it takes
the person 3 seconds to move the object.
 Answer/W=250N t= 3s
W 250
 P=
t replace the variables with the numbers you’ve got, P=
3 = 83.3 Watt

 A stage manager at a play raises the curtains by doing 5,976 J of work on the
curtain in 12 seconds, what is the power output of the stage manager?
 Answer/W=5,976 J t= 12 seconds
W 5,976
 P=
t replace the variables with the numbers you have P=
12 = 498 W

Section review page 185

For each pair f terms, explain how the meanings differ.
1. Work and power
Answer/ Work is force applied onto an object whereas the object moves in the
same direction as the force is the rate at which work is done.
2. Joule and Watt
Answer/ Joule is a unit of Work, Watt is a unit of Power.
3. How is work calculated?
A. Force times distance B. Force divided by distance
C. Power times distance D. Power divided by distance.

4. Using a force of 10N, you push a shopping cart 10m, how much work have
did you do?
Answer/ W =Fxd, W =10 x 10=100 J

5. If you did 100J of work in 5s, what was your power output?
W
Answer/ P= t
100
P=
5
= 20 Watt.

6. Work is done on a ball when the pitcher throws it. Is the pitcher still doing
work on the ball as it flies through the air? Explain.
Answer/ No, once the ball is thrown work is no longer being done, the kinetic
energy from the pitcher was already transferred into the ball, that’s why it’s in
motion.

7. You lift a chair that weighs 50N to a height of 0.5, and carry it 10m across a
room. How much work do you do on the chair.
Answer/ When you lift a chair you’re applying force upwards, and you move it
upwards in the same direction of the force. So 0.5 is the distance that’s calculated
for work.
Direction of Force  Direction of distance 
So, W =Fxd=50x0.5=25 J
Carrying a chair 10m is not work because the force is vertical but the distance is
horizontal.
Direction of force  Direction of Distance 
Section 2, What is a machine pages 186-191.
 Machine: A device that makes work easier.

 Machine: A device that helps do work either by overcoming a force or

changing the direction of the applied force.

 Machines make work easier in 3 ways:

1. Changing size of force 2. Changing distance
3. Changing direction force

 A machine can only increase force or increase distance at any given time,
no machine can do both.
A common machine that is used to pry lids off is
a lever.
A device like this does not increase your force,
but rather the distance that you apply the force
through.
 We have two types of work:
1. Work input 2. Work output

 Work input: any work done on a machine.

 The product of the input force is the distance through which force is
exerted

 Work output: work done by a machine

 The product of output force is the distance through which force is exerted

.
 It’s easier to think about it this way: any work done by a person using a
 machine is the work input, any work done by the machine itself is the
ouput.

 In the picture above, the person’s hand is providing work input, while the
screwdriver is providing work output.
 Force input: the force applied on a machine
 Force output: force applied by a machine

 Even though opening a lid with a screwdriver as a lever, feels easier, it

would be the equal to the work you would do using your hand.

 However if you used your hands you would reduce distance and increase
force, but the screwdriver increases distance so you have to use less force,
thus you don’t feel tired.

 Work output can be never greater than work input.

 This is because in order for the machine to work, it has to use some of it’s
work output to overcome friction.

 Friction is a force that opposes motion between two surfaces.

‘

 Mechanical advantage: the number of times the machine multiplies force.

 It’s a ratio of force output to force input

Output Force
 MA=
Input Force

 A machine that has a mechanical advantage greater 1, has higher output

force than input force.

 A machine with a mechanical advantage less than 1 has lower output force,
but increases distance over which force is applied.