Greater yellow-headed vulture

The greater yellow-headed vulture (Cathartes melambrotus),

also known as the forest vulture,[3] is a species of bird in the Greater yellow-headed vulture
New World vulture family Cathartidae. It was considered to be
the same species as the lesser yellow-headed vulture until they
were split in 1964.[4] It is found in South America in tropical
moist lowland forests. It is a fairly large bird, with a wingspan of
166–178 cm (65–70 in), a weight of 1.65 kilograms (3.6 lb) and
a body length of 64–75 cm (25–30 in). The body plumage is
black, and the head and neck, which are featherless, range in
color from deep yellow to pale orange. It lacks a syrinx, and its
vocalizations are therefore limited to grunts or low hisses. Tucuruí, Pará

The greater yellow-headed vulture feeds on carrion and locates Conservation status
carcasses by sight and by smell, an ability which is rare in birds.
It is dependent on larger vultures, such as the king vulture, to
open the hides of larger animal carcasses, as its bill is not strong
enough to do this. Like other New World vultures, the greater
Least Concern (IUCN 3.1)[1]
yellow-headed vulture utilizes thermals to stay aloft with
minimal effort. It lays its eggs on flat surfaces, such as the floors Scientific classification
of caves, or in the hollows of stumps. It feeds its young by
Domain: Eukaryota
regurgitation.
Kingdom: Animalia
Taxonomy Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
The greater yellow-headed and the lesser yellow-headed vulture
were distinguished as separate species and described in 1964 by Order: Accipitriformes
Alexander Wetmore; both species had earlier been known as
Family: Cathartidae
yellow-headed vultures. The greater yellow-headed vulture's
genus is Cathartes, which means "purifier", and is Latinized Genus: Cathartes
from the Greek kathartēs/καθαρτης.[5] The common name,
Species: C. melambrotus
vulture, is derived from the Latin word vulturus, meaning
"tearer," in reference to its feeding habits.[6] Binomial name
Cathartes melambrotus
The exact taxonomic placement of the greater yellow-headed
vulture and the remaining six species of New World vultures Wetmore, 1964
remains unclear.[7] Although they are similar in appearance and
have similar ecological roles, the New World and Old World
vultures evolved from different ancestors in different parts of the
world. Just how different the two are is currently under debate,
with some earlier authorities suggesting that the New World
vultures are more closely related to storks.[8] More recent
authorities assert their overall position in the order Falconiformes
along with the Old World vultures[9] or place them in their own
order, Cathartiformes.[10] The South American Classification
Committee has removed the New World vultures from
Ciconiiformes and instead placed them in Incertae sedis, but
notes that a move to Falconiformes or Cathartiformes is
possible.[7]

Description

range/distribution map of the greater

yellow-headed vulture IUCN data.[2]
Sacha Lodge - Ecuador
The greater yellow-headed vulture is 64–75 centimetres (25–30 in)
in length, with a wingspan of 166–178 centimetres (65–70 in), a
tail length of 25–29 centimetres (9.8–11.4 in)[11] and a weight
averaging 1.65 kilograms (3.6 lb).[12] Its plumage is black with a
green or purple sheen. The throat and the sides of the head are
featherless. The skin on the head ranges in color from deep yellow
to pale orange with a blue crown.[13] The nape and the area near
the nostrils are pale pinkish. The undersides of the wings are black,
while the flight feathers are a lighter shade. The quills of the eleven
primary feathers appear to be white when seen from above.[14] The
tail is rounded and long for a vulture, extending to or slightly
beyond the tip of the closed wing. The sexes are outwardly
similar.[15] The head is dull greyish in juveniles, which otherwise
resemble adults.

The irises of its eyes are red, its feet are black, and its beak is flesh-
colored.[16] The eye has a single incomplete row of eyelashes on
the upper lid and two rows on the lower lid.[17] Its beak is thick,
rounded, and hooked at the tip.[18] Because of its habit of
Diagram showing general coloration
urohidrosis, the scaly portions of its legs are often streaked white
with uric acid. The front toes are long with small webs at their
bases and are not adapted to grasping. The opening of the nostril is longitudinal and set in a soft cere, and
the nostril lack a septum. Like all New World vultures, the greater yellow-headed vulture lacks a syrinx,
and is therefore unable to make any sound other than grunts or a low hiss.[19]

It differs in appearance from the similar lesser yellow-headed vulture in several ways. It is larger than the
lesser yellow-headed vulture, with a longer, broader tail. The plumage is a dark, glossy black in contrast to
the lesser yellow-headed vulture's browner plumage. Its legs are darker in color and its head is more yellow
and less orange/pink than that of the lesser yellow-headed vulture. Its wings are broader and its flight is also
steadier.[11] Unlike the other members of the genus Cathartes, the greater yellow-headed vulture has
relatively dark inner primaries, which contrast slightly with the paler secondaries and outer primaries. The
greater yellow-headed vulture prefers to live in forests while the lesser yellow-headed vulture prefers to
inhabit savannas, and it is more heavily built than the lesser yellow-headed vulture.[20] The greater yellow-
headed vulture is also somewhat larger than the turkey vulture. It can be distinguished from that species
only at relatively close range by the differing head coloration. The underwing coloration is similar to the
turkey vulture but the greater yellow-headed usually has a faint but broad and dark band vertically down
the middle of the wings.[21]

Distribution and habitat

The greater yellow-headed vulture is found in the Amazon Basin of tropical South America; specifically in
south-eastern Colombia, southern and eastern Venezuela, Guyana, French Guiana, Suriname, northern and
western Brazil, northern Bolivia, eastern Peru and eastern Ecuador. It is not found in the Andes, in the
lowlands west or north of the Andes, in the relatively open regions of northern South America, eastern
South America, or in the southern subtropical regions. It has a large range, with an estimated global extent
of occurrence of 6,700,000 square kilometers (2,586,884.5 sq mi). Its natural habitat is tropical moist
lowland forests. It is not generally found in high-altitude regions.[1] It is common in heavily forested
regions. It may wander over grasslands, but rarely strays far from forested areas, which provide shelter and
nesting areas.[14]

Ecology and behavior

The greater yellow-headed vulture roosts on high, exposed dead trees to observe surrounding terrain. When
flying, it travels in pairs or alone and is rarely found in groups. Flight is heavy and steady. It flies with its
wings held flat or very slightly above horizontal, in what is called the dihedral position.[14] The flight of the
greater yellow-headed is an example of static soaring flight, which uses thermals to maintain altitude
without the need to flap its wings.[18] The greater yellow-headed vulture also has the unusual habit of
urohidrosis, in which it urinates or defecates on its legs to cool them evaporatively. This behavior is
exhibited by storks and New World vultures.[9]

Breeding

Greater yellow-headed vultures do not build nests, but rather lay their eggs directly on cliffs, the floors of
caves, the ground, or in the hollows of stumps. Eggs are cream-colored and blotched with brown spots,
particularly around the larger end.[14] Clutch size ranges from one to three, though two is the norm.[18] The
chicks are altricial—blind, naked and relatively immobile upon hatching, and grow down feathers later. The
parents feed their young by regurgitating pre-digested food into their beak, where the chicks then drink
it.[18] Young fledge after two to three months.[22]

Feeding

The greater yellow-headed vulture is a scavenger and subsists entirely on carrion.[16] It will eat roadkill or
other animal carcasses. Forest diet is likely to include high proportion of carcasses of the abundant sloths
(Choloepus/Bradypus), whose combined total range coincides largely with those of this species and the
lesser yellow-headed vulture.[23] It prefers fresh meat, but often cannot make the first cut into the carcass of
a larger animal as its beak is not strong enough to tear into the tough hide. After a few days, the greater
yellow-headed vulture will no longer feed on a piece of carrion, as the meat will begin to decay and
become contaminated with microbial toxins.[24] It will drink water from a pool, pond, or any receptacle
provided.[18] Like other vultures, they play an important role in the ecosystem by disposing of carrion
which could otherwise be a breeding ground for disease.[25]

The greater yellow-headed vulture forages using its keen eyesight to locate carrion on the ground, but also
uses its sense of smell, an ability which is uncommon in the avian world. It locates carrion by detecting the
scent of ethyl mercaptan, a gas produced by the beginnings of decay in dead animals. The olfactory lobe of
its brain responsible for processing smells is particularly large compared to other animals.[24] This
characteristic of New World vultures has been used by humans: ethyl mercaptan is injected into pipelines,
and engineers looking for leaks then follow the vultures.[26]

King vultures, which lack the ability to smell carrion, follow the greater yellow-headed vultures to
carcasses, where the king vulture tears open the skin of the dead animal. This allows the smaller greater
yellow-headed vulture access to food, as it does not have a bill strong enough to tear the hide of larger
animals. This is an example of mutual dependence between species.[27] It is generally displaced from
carcasses by both turkey vultures and king vultures, due to their larger size.[25]

Conservation
The greater yellow-headed vulture is listed as a species of least concern by the International Union for
Conservation of Nature (IUCN). It has an estimated global range of 6,700,000 square kilometers
(2,600,000 sq mi) and a population of between 100,000 and 1,000,000 individuals.[28] There is evidence
that suggests a decline in the species' population, but it is not significant enough to warrant an upgrade in
conservation status.[1]

References
1. BirdLife International (2016). "Cathartes melambrotus" (https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/2
2697633/93626176). IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2016:
e.T22697633A93626176. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22697633A93626176.en (h
ttps://doi.org/10.2305%2FIUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22697633A93626176.en). Retrieved
23 December 2022.
2. BirdLife International (2012). "Cathartes melambrotus" (https://www.iucnredlist.org/details/22
697633/0). IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2012. Retrieved 26 November 2013.
3. "Species account: Greater Yellow-headed Vulture Cathartes melambrotus" (https://web.archi
ve.org/web/20160305023653/http://www.globalraptors.org/grin/SpeciesResults.asp?specID
=8027). Global Raptor Information Network. 2014-05-08. Archived from the original (http://w
ww.globalraptors.org/grin/SpeciesResults.asp?specID=8027) on 2016-03-05. Retrieved
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4. Wetmore, Alexander (1964). "A revision of the American vultures of the genus Cathartes" (htt
ps://archive.org/stream/smithsonianmisce146196364smit#page/14/mode/2up). Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collections. 146 (6): 15–17.
5. Liddell, Henry George; Robert Scott (1980). Greek-English Lexicon, Abridged Edition (http
s://archive.org/details/lexicon00lidd). Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-910207-4.
6. Holloway, Joel Ellis (2003). Dictionary of Birds of the United States: Scientific and Common
Names (https://books.google.com/books?id=41knpiVqnKYC&pg=PA59). Timber Press.
p. 59. ISBN 0-88192-600-0.
 7. Remsen, J. V., Jr.; C. D. Cadena; A. Jaramillo; M. Nores; J. F. Pacheco; M. B. Robbins; T. S.
Schulenberg; F. G. Stiles; D. F. Stotz & K. J. Zimmer. 2007. A classification of the bird
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e.com/books?id=hlIztc05HTQC&pg=PA86). Houghton Mifflin Field Guides. p. 86. ISBN 0-
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vulture.html).
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s.google.com/books?id=fcM9AAAAIAAJ). McGraw-Hill. p. 178. ISBN 1-55521-472-X.
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d=1k5fV_hQqE8C&pg=PA88). Princeton University Press. p. 88. ISBN 0-691-08372-X.
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=YP0AX3LW8jYC&pg=RA2-PA262). University of Chicago Press. p. 262. ISBN 0-226-
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greateryellowheadedvulture.shtml). The Hawk Conservancy. Retrieved 2007-10-02.
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hive.org/details/audubonsocietyen00terr/page/957). New York, NY: Knopf. p. 957 (https://arc
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lt/files/journals/condor/v079n04/p0413-p0416.pdf) (PDF). Condor. 79 (4): 413–416.
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vultures Cathartes melambrotus as scavengers in neotropical forest" (https://web.archive.or
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28. BirdLife International (2007) Greater Yellow-headed Vulture Cathartes melambrotus (http://w
ww.birdlife.org/datazone/speciesfactsheet.php?id=3820).

External links
Greater yellow-headed vulture pictures (http://www.arthurgrosset.com/sabirds/greater%20yel
low-headed%20vulture.html)

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