Turquoise parrot

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Turquoise parrot

male

female

Conservation status
 Least Concern (IUCN 3.1) [1]

Scientific classification

Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Chordata

Class: Aves

Order: Psittaciformes

Family: Psittaculidae

Genus: Neophema

Species: N. pulchella

Binomial name

Neophema pulchella

(Shaw, 1792)

Turquoise parrot range

 Synonyms

Psittacus edwardsii Bechstein, 1811

Lathamus azureus Lesson, 1830
Neophema pulchella
dombraini Mathews, 1915

The turquoise parrot (Neophema pulchella) is a species of parrot in the

genus Neophema native to Eastern Australia, from southeastern Queensland,
through New South Wales and into North-Eastern Victoria. It was described by George
Shaw in 1792. A small lightly built parrot at around 20 cm (8 in) long and 40 g (1+1⁄2 oz)
in weight, it exhibits sexual dimorphism. The male is predominantly green with more
yellowish underparts and a bright turquoise blue face. Its wings are predominantly blue
with red shoulders. The female is generally duller and paler, with a pale green breast
and yellow belly, and lacks the red wing patch.
Found in grasslands and open woodlands dominated by Eucalyptus and Callitris trees,
the turquoise parrot feeds mainly on grasses and seeds and occasionally flowers, fruit
and scale insects. It nests in hollows of gum trees. Much of its habitat has been altered
and potential nesting sites lost. Predominantly sedentary, the turquoise parrot can be
locally nomadic. Populations appear to be recovering from a crash in the early 20th
century. The turquoise parrot has been kept in captivity since the 19th century, and
several colour variants exist.

Contents

 1Taxonomy and naming

 2Description
 3Distribution and habitat
 4Conservation status
o 4.1New South Wales
o 4.2Victoria
 5Behaviour
o 5.1Breeding
o 5.2Feeding
 6Pathogens
 7Aviculture
 8See also
 9References
o 9.1Cited texts
 10External links
Taxonomy and naming[edit]

Illustration by Jacques Barraband in François Levaillant's Histoire Naturelle des Perroquets (1805)

Well known around the Sydney district at the time of European settlement in 1788, the
turquoise parrot was described by George Shaw as Psittacus pulchellus in 1792.[2] He
called it the Turquoisine after its turquoise face patch. [3] The holotype likely ended up in
the Leverian collection in England, and was lost when the collection was broken up and
sold. German naturalist Johann Matthäus Bechstein gave it the scientific
name Psittacus edwardsii in 1811, based on François Levaillant's description of the
species as la Perruche Edwards in his 1805 work Histoire Naturelle des Perroquets.
[4]
 Levaillant named it in honour of the English naturalist George Edwards.[5] William
Swainson used Shaw's name in 1823 in his work Zoological Illustrations, noting that it
was "impossible to represent this superb little creature in its full beauty". [6] Drawing on
the previous works, René Primevère Lesson described it as Lathamus azureus in 1830,
[4][7]
 the species name being the Medieval Latin word azureus meaning "blue".[8]
Italian ornithologist Tommaso Salvadori defined the new genus Neophema in 1891,
placing the turquoise parrot within it and giving it its current scientific name. [9] There is
little geographical variation, with some minor local differences in the amount of orange
on the belly.[10] In 1915, Gregory Mathews described a subspecies dombrainii from
Victoria on the basis of more prominent red on the scapulars; however, this distinction
was not confirmed on review with New South Wales specimens, [4][11] and hence no
subspecies are recognised. One of six species of grass parrot in the genus Neophema,
it is most closely related to the scarlet-chested parrot.[12] The two are
an allopatric species pair,[13] and are the only two species in the genus to exhibit
marked sexual dimorphism—where the male and female are different in appearance. [12]
The English common name of the turquoise parrot has varied between chestnut-
shouldered parakeet, chestnut-shouldered grass-parakeet, chestnut-shouldered grass-
parrot, chestnut-winged grass-parakeet, chestnut-winged grass-parrot, [14] and turquoisine
grass parrot, this last name commonly used in aviculture.[15] The name red-shouldered
parakeet was incorrectly applied to this species, [16] as it was an alternative name for
the paradise parrot.[17]
Description[edit]
Ranging from 20 to 22 cm (8–83⁄4 in) long with a 32 cm (12+1⁄2 in) wingspan, the
turquoise parrot is a small and slightly built parrot weighing around 40 g (1+1⁄2 oz). Both
sexes have predominantly green upperparts and yellow underparts. The male has a
bright turquoise-blue face which is darkest on the crown and slightly paler on the lores,
cheeks and ear coverts. The neck and upperparts are grass-green, and the tail is grass-
green with yellow borders. The wing appears bright blue with a darker leading edge
when folded, with a band of red on the shoulder. The underparts are bright yellow,
slightly greenish on the breast and neck. Some males have orange patches on the
belly, which may extend to the breast. When extended, the wing is dark blue with red on
the trailing edge on the upper surface, and black with dark blue leading coverts
underneath. The upper mandible of the bill is black and may or may not fade to grey at
the base, while the lower mandible is cream with a grey border in the mouth.
The cere and orbital eye-ring are grey and the iris is dark brown. The legs and feet are
grey.[3]
Generally duller and paler, the female has a more uniform and paler blue face, with
highly contrasting cream bare skin around the eye. It lacks the red shoulder band, and
the blue shoulder markings are darker and less distinct. The throat and chest are pale
green and the belly is yellow. The upper mandible is paler brown-grey with a darker tip,
and has been recorded as black while nesting. The lower mandible is pale grey to
almost white. When flying, the female has a broad white bar visible on the underwing. [3]
Juvenile birds of both sexes have less extensive blue on their faces, the coloration not
extending past the eye. The upperparts resemble those of the adult female. [18] Both
sexes have the white wing-stripe, which disappears with maturity in males. [19] The
immature male has a red patch on the wing and may also have an orange wash on the
belly.[18]

Distribution and habitat[edit]

Adult male, Twycross Zoo

The turquoise parrot is found in the foothills of the Great Dividing Range and

surrounding areas.[20] The northern limit of its range is 26° south in southeastern
Queensland, around Cooloola, Blackbutt and Chinchilla, extending westwards to the
vicinity of St George. Before 1945, it had been recorded as far north as the Suttor
River and Mackay. In New South Wales, it is found in a broad band across the central
and eastern parts of the state, with its western limits delineated
by Moree, Quambone, Hillston, Narrandera and Deniliquin. There have been
unconfirmed sightings in the far west of the state. In Victoria it is found in the vicinity
of Wangaratta as well as East Gippsland and around Mallacoota.[21] Sightings in South
Australia are likely to have been the scarlet-chested parrot, [21] the similar appearance of
the females leading to confusion and misidentification. [12]
The turquoise parrot inhabits open woodland and savanna woodland composed either
of native cypress (Callitris species) or eucalypts, particularly white box (Eucalyptus
albens), yellow box (E. melliodora), Blakely's red gum (E. blakelyi), red box (E.
polyanthemos), red stringybark (E. macrorhyncha), bimble box (E. populnea), or mugga
ironbark (E. sideroxylon), and less commonly Angophora near Sydney, silvertop ash
forest (E. sieberi) in Nadgee Nature Reserve, and stands of river red gum (E.
camaldulensis), mountain swamp gum (E. camphora) or western grey box (E.
microcarpa) in flatter more open areas. Within this habitat, it prefers rocky ridges or
gullies, or transitional areas between different habitats, such as between woodland and
grassland or fields in cultivated areas.[20]
The turquoise parrot is considered sedentary and does not migrate, though its
movements are not well known. Birds are present in some areas all year, though in
northern Victoria they are thought to move into more open areas outside the breeding
season. Some populations may be locally nomadic, following availability of water. [22]

Conservation status[edit]
Around 90% of the turquoise parrot population resides in New South Wales. The
species is not listed as threatened on the Commonwealth Environment Protection and
Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999, though a status of near threatened was proposed
by Stephen Garnett and Gabriel Crowley in their 2000 work The Action Plan for
Australian Birds on account of the significant reduction in distribution. [23] Its population
and range have varied wildly; widely distributed across eastern Australia from Mackay
to Melbourne up to the 1880s, it vanished from much of its range to the extent that it
was presumed extinct in 1915. It was not recorded from Queensland between 1923 and
1950, and Victoria between the mid-1880s and 1949. However, numbers in New South
Wales began increasing in the 1930s and the species had repopulated East Gippsland
by the 1960s.[22] Tentatively estimated at 20,000 breeding birds in 2000, the population is
thought to be still rising.[23]
New South Wales[edit]
The turquoise parrot was once common across the Sydney region, and particularly
abundant between the localities of Parramatta and Penrith. It dramatically declined in
numbers between 1875 and 1895, although rare sightings in western Sydney and the
Blue Mountains were recorded in the mid-twentieth century. [2] The turquoise parrot was
trapped for the aviary trade and used as pie-filling. Almost all of its preferred habitat,
the Cumberland Plain, across western Sydney, had disappeared with development.
  Over half the woodland in New South Wales, and 80% across Australia has been
[24]

cleared, and the remaining habitat is fragmented. [25] A key issue is removal of mature
eucalypts with resulting loss of hollows available for nesting. [26] The species is thus listed
as a Vulnerable species under Schedule 2 of the New South Wales Threatened Species
Conservation Act, 1995 because of habitat destruction (TSC Act).[25] Fire-burning
regimes may be resulting in the regeneration favouring shrubs rather than grasses,
which are the preferred food source for the species. [23] Feral cats and foxes are a threat,
particularly to nesting birds and young.[25]
Victoria[edit]
Although formerly common in its range, the species was on the brink of extinction in
Victoria by 1917. However, numbers have built up again since the 1930–40s as it
reestablished in its former territory.[27] On the 2007 advisory list of threatened vertebrate
fauna in Victoria, this species is listed as near threatened.[28]

Behaviour[edit]

Adult female on ground

Foraging among grasses. Grass seed forms an important part of the diet

Turquoise parrots are encountered in pairs or small groups consisting of parents and
several offspring, though they may congregate into larger flocks of up to 75
predominantly juvenile birds outside the breeding season. As the breeding season
nears, pairs separate out from these flocks. [29] Turquoise parrots roost together
communally in autumn and winter.[30] At night they roost among the foliage of trees such
as gums or wattles,[21] anywhere from 1 to 8 m (3–25 ft) above the ground.[30] They retreat
to trees near their feeding areas during the day. [21] The calls of the turquoise parrot have
been little-studied; birds give a high-pitched soft contact call when feeding or in flight,
while the alarm call has been described as a high-pitched zitting call. Turquoise parrots
also chatter when settling to roost in the evening. [31]
Breeding[edit]

Female in captivity

The turquoise parrot is monogamous.[29] The male perches upright on a tree stump and
extends its wings to show off its red and blue markings when courting a female. [30] Once
paired, both sexes look for a nesting site, which is ultimately chosen by the female.
[30]
 Breeding has been reported from Girraween National Park on the New South Wales–
Queensland border in the north to Wangaratta and Mallacoota in Victoria. [21] Birds use
vertical or nearly vertical hollows of live and dead trees, generally eucalypts, as nesting
sites. Occasionally old fence posts have been used. The turquoise parrot competes with
—and may be ousted by—the eastern rosella (Platycercus eximius), red-rumped
parrot (Psephotus haematonotus) and brown treecreeper (Climacteris picumnus) for
suitable breeding sites. The tree containing the hollow is often located in open
woodland, and the hollow itself is generally at least 1 m (3 ft) above the ground.
Fieldwork in northern Victoria yielded average dimensions of 10 by 6 cm (4 by 3 in) for
the hollow entrance, and a depth of around 50 cm (20 in) for the depth of the hole.
Elsewhere the average depth is around 76 cm (30 in).[32]
Breeding takes place over the warmer months with eggs laid from August to January.
The clutch is laid on a bed of wood dust or leaves and consists of two to five (or rarely
up to eight) round or oval glossy white eggs, each of which is generally 21 to 22 mm
long by 18 mm (0.8 by 0.7 in) wide. Clutches tend to have more eggs in earlier rather
than later clutches, and in nests located further from cleared land. Eggs are laid at an
interval of two to three days.[32] Incubation takes 18 to 21 days.[32] The female incubates
the eggs and broods the young, and feeds them for their first few days before the male
begins helping.[29] She leaves to feed and drink twice a day, once in the morning and
once in the afternoon.[32] Both parents take part in feeding the young, on a diet
predominantly of seeds with some fruit.[29] The chicks are altricial and nidicolous; that is,
they are born helpless and blind and remain in the nest for an extended period. Covered
in silvery-white down,[32] they have pink skin and darker blue-grey skin around the eye.
[18]
 By seven days they open their eyes, and are well-covered in grey down with pin
feathers emerging from their wings on day six. They are almost covered in feathers by
day 21, and fledge (leave the nest) at around 23 days of age in the wild and up to
30 days of age in captivity.[32]
Around 56% of eggs lead to successful fledging of young, with fieldwork in northeastern
Victoria yielding an average of 2.77 young leaving the nest. The lace monitor (Varanus
varius) and red fox (Vulpes vulpes) are nest predators. Baby birds may perish by
overheating in very hot weather, or by being drowned in the hollows after heavy rain. [32]
Feeding[edit]
The turquoise parrot is a predominantly ground-based seed eater, [24] foraging in
clearings in open woodland, forest margins, and near trees in more open areas such as
pastures. It occasionally feeds along road verges and rarely ventures onto lawns.
[20]
 Birds forage in pairs or small troops of up to thirty or even fifty individuals.
Observations at Chiltern in Victoria indicated seasonal variation in flock size, with
turquoise parrots foraging in groups of 5–30 in winter and 6–8 in spring and summer.
Foraging takes place from early in the morning till late afternoon, with a break between
midday and mid-afternoon.[22] Birds prefer to feed in shaded areas, where they are better
camouflaged in the grass.[30]
Grass and shrub seeds form the bulk of the diet, and leaves, flowers, fruit and scale
insects are also eaten.[22] The turquoise parrot has been recorded feeding on seeds of
various plant species; more commonly consumed items include the fruit of common
fringe-myrtle (Calytrix tetragona), seeds and fruit of erect guinea-flower (Hibbertia
riparia), daphne heath (Brachyloma daphnoides), seeds of common raspwort
(Gonocarpus tetragynus), Geranium species, black-anther flax-lily (Dianella revoluta)
and grass species such as the introduced big quaking grass (Briza maxima) and little
quaking grass (B. minor) and members of the genus Danthonia,[29] members of the pea
genus Dillwynia, and small-leaved beard-heath (Leucopogon microphyllus). Seed of the
introduced common chickweed (Stellaria media) and capeweed (Arctotheca calendula)
are also consumed.[27] Nectar of Grevillea alpina,[29] and spores from moss have been
recorded as food items.[2]
A female was observed placing leaves of the flaky-barked tea-tree (Leptospermum
trinervium) underneath its feathers, leading the observers to wonder whether they were
being used to deter or kill insects.[2]

Pathogens[edit]
In 1966, a paramyxovirus with some antigenic similarity to Newcastle disease was
isolated from the brain of a turquoise parrot in the Netherlands. That year, many aviary
species including several species of Australian parrot and members of the
genus Neophema had exhibited neurological symptoms reminiscent of Newcastle
disease.[33] Like other members of the genus, the turquoise parrot is highly sensitive
to avian paramyxovirus infection.[34] It is one of many species of parrot that can host
the nematode Ascaridia platyceri.[35]
Aviculture[edit]
Initially popular as a caged bird in the 19th century, [36] the turquoise parrot was rarely
seen in captivity between 1928 and 1956, the main problem being the high rate of
infertile eggs. It has become more common since, and has adapted readily to aviculture.
A quiet species, it likes to bathe in captivity.[15] There is a possibility of interbreeding with
other members of the genus Neophema if caged together.[37] Specimens with more
prominent orange bellies have been bred, sourced from wild birds in New South Wales
and not from breeding with scarlet-chested parrots. [37] A yellow form, where the blue
pigment is lost and yellow and red pigments are conserved, first appeared in the 1950s
in aviculture. It is a recessive mutation.[38] Other colour forms seen are a red-fronted and
pied form (both recessive), and jade and olive (dominant).[39]

See also[edit]
 Australia portal

 Birds portal

 List of birds of Australia

References[edit]
1. ^ BirdLife International (2012).  "Neophema pulchella". IUCN
Red List of Threatened Species. 2012. Retrieved  26
November 2013.
2. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Chaffer, Norman; Miller, G. (1946). "The
Turquoise Parrot Near Sydney". Emu.  46  (3): 161–
67.  doi:10.1071/mu946161.
3. ^ Jump up to:a b c Higgins 1999, p. 573.
4. ^ Jump up to:      Australian Biological Resources Study (1 March
a b c

2012). "SpeciesNeophema  (Neophema)  pulchella  (Shaw,

1792)". Australian Faunal Directory. Canberra, Australian
Capital Territory: Department of the Environment, Water,
Heritage and the Arts, Australian Government. Archived
from  the original on 29 October 2013. Retrieved 23
May 2013.
5. ^ Levaillant, François (1805).  Histoire Naturelle des
Perroquets  (in French). 1. Paris, France: Levrault, Schoell &
Ce. p. 130.
6. ^ Swainson, William John (1823). Zoological illustrations, or,
Original figures and descriptions of new, rare, or interesting
animals  : selected chiefly from the classes of ornithology,
entomology, and conchology, and arranged on the principles
of Cuvier and other modern zoologists.  2. London, United
Kingdom: Baldwin, Cradock & Joy. pp.  pl. 67.
7. ^ Lesson, René Primevère (1830).  Traité d'Ornithologie, ou
Tableau Méthodique des ordres, sous-ordres, familles, tribus,
genres, sous-genres et races d'oiseaux (in French).  1. Paris,
France: F.G. Levrault. p.  205.
8. ^ Gray, Jeannie; Fraser, Ian (2013). Australian Bird Names:
A Complete Guide. Collingwood, Victoria: CSIRO Publishing.
p. 155.  ISBN  978-0-643-10471-6.
9. ^ Salvadori, Tommaso (1891). Catalogue of the Birds in the
British Museum. Catalogue of the Psittaci, or Parrots. London,
United Kingdom: British Museum. pp. 570, 575.
10. ^ Higgins 1999, p. 583.
11. ^ Cain, A.J. (1955). "A Revision of  Trichoglossus
haematodus  and of the Australian Platycercine
Parrots". Ibis. 97 (3): 432–79. doi:10.1111/j.1474-
919X.1955.tb04978.x.
12. ^ Jump up to:a b c Lendon 1973, p. 253.
13. ^ Forshaw, Joseph M. (2010).  Parrots of the World.
Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
p. 134.  ISBN  978-1-4008-3620-8.
14. ^ MacDonald, James David (1987).  The Illustrated Dictionary
of Australian Birds by Common Name. Frenchs Forest, New
South Wales: Reed Books. ISBN 0-7301-0184-3.
15. ^ Jump up to:a b Shephard 1989, p. 69.
16. ^ Lendon 1973, p. 282.
17. ^ Lendon 1973, p. 234.
18. ^ Jump up to:a b c Higgins 1999, p. 582.
19. ^ Lendon, Alan (1940). "The "Wing-stripe" as an Indication of
Sex and Maturity in the Australian Broad-tailed
Parrots". South Australian Ornithologist. 15: 87–94
[93].  ISSN  0038-2973.
20. ^ Jump up to:a b c Higgins 1999, p. 574.
21. ^ Jump up to:          Higgins 1999, p. 575.
a b c d e

22. ^ Jump up to:        Higgins 1999, p. 576.

a b c d

23. ^ Jump up to:      Garnett, Stephen T.; Crowley, Gabriel M.  "The
a b c

Action Plan for Australian Birds 2000". Threatened species &

ecological communities. Canberra, Australian Capital
Territory: Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water,
Population and Communities, Commonwealth of Australia.
Archived from  the original on 2013-12-27. Retrieved 21
May 2013.
24. ^ Jump up to:a b "Turquoise Parrot". Birds in Backyards. Birdlife
Australia. 2013. Retrieved  21 May  2013.
25. ^ Jump up to:a b c NSW Scientific Committee (June
2009). "Turquoise Parrot  Neophema pulchella: Review of
Current Information in NSW"  (PDF). New South Wales
Government. Retrieved 28 May 2013.
26. ^ Landcare NSW (2013). "Turquoise
Parrot"  (PDF). Communities in Landscapes. Archived
from  the original  (PDF)  on 29 October 2013. Retrieved  28
May 2013.
27. ^ Jump up to:a b Tzaros, Chris (2005). Wildlife of the Box-Ironbark
Country. Collingwood, Victoria: CSIRO Publishing.
p. 95.  ISBN  978-0-643-09983-8.
28. ^ Victorian Department of Sustainability and Environment
(2007).  Advisory List of Threatened Vertebrate Fauna in
Victoria – 2007. East Melbourne, Victoria: Department of
 Sustainability and Environment. p. 15.  ISBN  978-1-74208-
039-0.
29. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f Higgins 1999, p. 577.
30. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e Higgins 1999, p. 578.
31. ^ Higgins 1999, p. 579.
32. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g Higgins 1999, p. 580.
33. ^ Smit, Th.; Rondhuis, P.R. (1976). "Studies on a Virus
Isolated from the Brain of a Parakeet (Neophema sp)".  Avian
Pathology.  5 (1): 21–
30.  doi:10.1080/03079457608418166. PMID 18777326.
34. ^ Jung, Arne; Grund, Christian; Müller, Inge; Rautenschlein,
Silke (2009). "Avian Paramyxovirus Serotype 3 Infection
in  Neopsephotus, Cyanoramphus,
and Neophema  species".  Journal of Avian Medicine and
Surgery.  23  (3): 205–08.  doi:10.1647/2008-
022.1. JSTOR 27753673.  PMID  19999764. S2CID  5900169.
35. ^ Mawson, Patricia M. (1985). "Nematodes
(Ascaridia Species) from Some Captive and Feral
Parrots". South Australian Ornithologist. 29: 190–
91.  ISSN  0038-2973.
36. ^ Lendon 1973, p. 285.
37. ^ Jump up to:    Shephard 1989, p. 70.
a b

38. ^ Sindel, Stan (1986).  "Mutations of Australian Parrots".

Panania, New South Wales: The Avicultural Society of New
South Wales. Retrieved  5 September 2014.
39. ^ Anderson, Troy (1996).  "Neophemas – Care and
Management". Parrot Society of Australia. Archived from the
original on 2015-04-17. Retrieved 14 June  2013.

Cited texts[edit]

 Higgins, P.J. (1999). Handbook of Australian, New

Zealand and Antarctic Birds. Volume 4: Parrots to
Dollarbird. Melbourne, Victoria: Oxford University
Press. ISBN 0-19-553071-3.
 Lendon, Alan H. (1973). Australian Parrots in Field
and Aviary. Sydney, New South Wales: Angus &
Robertson. ISBN 0-207-12424-8.
 Shephard, Mark (1989). Aviculture in Australia:
Keeping and Breeding Aviary Birds. Prahran,
Victoria: Black Cockatoo Press. ISBN 0-9588106-0-
5.

External links[edit]
  Media related to Neophema pulchella at
Wikimedia Commons
  Data related to Neophema pulchella at
Wikispecies
a

rot

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 IUCN Red List least concern species
 Neophema
 Birds of Queensland
 Birds of New South Wales
 Birds of Victoria (Australia)
 Endemic birds of Australia
 Birds described in 1792
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