Egyptian vulture

The Egyptian vulture (Neophron percnopterus), also called

the white scavenger vulture or pharaoh's chicken, is a small Egyptian vulture
Old World vulture and the only member of the genus Neophron.
It is widely distributed from the Iberian Peninsula, North Africa,
West Asia and India. The contrasting underwing pattern and
wedge-shaped tail make it distinctive in flight as it soars in
thermals during the warmer parts of the day. Egyptian vultures
feed mainly on carrion but are opportunistic and will prey on
small mammals, birds, and reptiles. They also feed on the eggs
of other birds, breaking larger ones by tossing a large pebble
onto them.

The use of tools is rare in birds and apart from the use of a
pebble as a hammer, Egyptian vultures also use twigs to roll up
wool for use in their nest. Egyptian vultures that breed in the
temperate regions migrate south in winter while tropical
populations are relatively sedentary. Populations of this species
declined in the 20th century and some island populations are
endangered by hunting, accidental poisoning, and collision with
power lines. Adult N. p. percnopterus in northern
India
Taxonomy and systematics Conservation status

The Egyptian vulture was formally described by the Swedish

naturalist Carl Linnaeus in 1758 in the tenth edition of his
Systema Naturae under the binomial name Vultur
percnopterus.[3] The genus Neophron was created by Jules- Endangered (IUCN 3.1)[1]
César Savigny in the first natural history volume of the
Scientific classification
Description de l'Égypte' (1809).[4] The genus Neophron contains
only a single extant species. A few prehistoric species from the Domain: Eukaryota
Neogene period in North America placed in the genus Kingdom: Animalia
Neophrontops (the name meaning "looks like Neophron") are
believed to have been very similar to these vultures in lifestyle, Phylum: Chordata
but the genetic relationships are unclear.[5][6] A fossil species Class: Aves
Neophron lolis has been described from the late Miocene of
Spain.[7] The genus Neophron is considered to represent the Order: Accipitriformes
oldest branch of the vultures which consists of separated (or Family: Accipitridae
polyphyletic) clades.[8] Along with its nearest evolutionary
Subfamily: Gypaetinae
Genus: Neophron
Savigny, 1809

Species: N. percnopterus
relatives, the lammergeier (Gypaetus barbatus) and the palm-nut Binomial name
vulture (Gypohierax angolensis), they are sometimes placed in a
separate subfamily, the Gypaetinae.[9][10] Neophron percnopterus
(Linnaeus, 1758)

Subspecies Subspecies[2]

There are three widely recognised subspecies of the Egyptian N. p. ginginianus (Latham,
vulture, although there is considerable gradation due to 1790)
movement and intermixing of the populations.[11] The nominate
N. p. majorensis Donázar et al.,
subspecies, N. p. percnopterus, with a dark grey bill, has the
largest range, occurring in southern Europe, northern Africa, the 2002
Middle East, Central Asia, and north-western India. Populations N. p. percnopterus (Linnaeus,
breeding in the temperate zone migrate south during winter.
1758)

N. p. ginginianus in flight, India Distribution of the three subspecies

Synonyms
The Indian subcontinent is the range of subspecies N. p.
ginginianus, the smallest of the three subspecies, which is
Vultur percnopterus
identifiable by a pale yellow bill.[12][13] The subspecies name is
Linnaeus, 1758
derived from Gingee in southern India from where the French
explorer Pierre Sonnerat described it as Le Vautour de Gingi and
it was given a Latin name by John Latham in his Index Ornithologicus (1790).[14][15]

A small population that is found only in the eastern Canary Islands was found to be genetically distinct and
identified as a new subspecies, N. p. majorensis in 2002. Known locally as the guirre they are genetically
more distant from N. p. percnopterus, significantly greater even than N. p. ginginianus is from N. p.
percnopterus. Unlike neighbouring populations in Africa and southern Europe, it is non-migratory and
consistently larger in size. The subspecies name majorensis is derived from "Majorata", the ancient name
for the island of Fuerteventura. The island was named by Spanish conquerors in the 15th century after the
"Majos", the main native Guanche tribe there.[11][16] One study in 2010 suggested that the species
established on the island about 2,500 years ago when the island was first colonized by humans.[17]

Nikolai Zarudny and Härms described a subspecies, rubripersonatus, from Baluchistan in 1902. This was
described as having a deeper reddish orange skin[18] on the head and a yellow-tipped dark bill. This has
rarely been considered a valid subspecies but the intermediate pattern of bill colouration suggests
intermixing of subspecies.[19][13]

Etymology
The genus name is derived from Greek mythology. Timandra was the mother of Neophron. Aegypius was
a friend of Neophron and about the same age. It upset Neophron to know that his mother Timandra was
having a love affair with Aegypius. Seeking revenge, Neophron made advances towards Aegypius' mother,
Bulis. Neophron succeeded and enticed Bulis into entering the dark chamber where his mother and
Aegypius were to meet soon. Neophron then distracted his mother, tricking Aegypius into entering the
chamber and sleeping with his own mother Bulis. When Bulis discovered the deception she gouged out the
eyes of her son Aegypius before killing herself. Aegypius prayed for revenge and Zeus, on hearing the
prayer, changed Aegypius and Neophron into vultures.[20] "Percnopterus" is derived from Greek for "black
wings": "περκνός" (perknos, meaning "blue-black") and πτερόν (pteron, meaning wing).[21][22]

Description
Adult N. percnopterus in captivity
showing white plumage.
The adult's plumage is white, with black flight feathers in the
wings. Wild birds usually appear soiled with a rusty or brown
shade to the white plumage, derived from mud or iron-rich soil.
Captive specimens without access to soil have clean white
plumage.[23][24] It has been suggested as a case of cosmetic
colouration.[25] The bill is slender and long, and the tip of the upper
mandible is hooked. The nostril is an elongated horizontal slit. The
neck feathers are long and form a hackle. The wings are pointed,
with the third primary being the longest; the tail is wedge shaped.
The legs are pink in adults and grey in juveniles.[26] The claws are
long and straight, and the third and fourth toes are slightly webbed
at the base.

The bill is black in the nominate subspecies but pale or yellowish in adults of the smaller Indian
ginginianus. Rasmussen and Anderton (2005) suggest that this variation may need further study,
particularly due to the intermediate black-tipped bill described in rubripersonatus.[13][27] The facial skin is
yellow and unfeathered down to the throat. The sexes are indistinguishable in plumage but breeding males
have a deeper orange facial skin colour than females.[23] Females average slightly larger and are about 10–
15% heavier than males.[26] Young birds are blackish or chocolate brown with black and white patches.[28]
The adult plumage is attained only after about five years.[23]

The adult Egyptian vulture measures 47–65 centimetres (19–26 in)

from the point of the beak to the extremity of the tail feathers. In
Measurements
the smaller N. p. ginginianus males are about 47–52 centimetres Nominate[28][26]
(19–20 in) long while females are 52–55.5 centimetres (20.5–
Culmen 31–34 mm (1.2–
21.9 in) long.[13] The wingspan is about 2.7 times the body
1.3 in)
length.[26] Birds from Spain weigh about 1.9 kilograms (4.2 lb)
while birds of the Canary Island subspecies majorensis, Wing 470–536 mm (19–
representing a case of island gigantism, are heavier with an 21 in)
average weight of 2.4 kilograms (5.3 lb).[24] The Egyptian vulture 460–545 mm (18–
is one of the smallest true Old World vulture, the only smaller 21 in)
species appears to be the marginally lighter palm-nut vulture
(which may be an outlier from other vultures).[29][30] Additionally, Tail 220–251 mm (8.7–
the hooded vulture is only scarcely larger than the Egyptian 9.9 in)
species.[30] 240–267 mm (9.4–
11 in)
Distribution and movements Tarsus 75–87 mm (3.0–
3.4 in)
Egyptian vultures are widely distributed across the Old World with Weight 1,600–2,400 g (56–
their breeding range from southern Europe to northern Africa east 85 oz)
to western and southern Asia. They are rare vagrants in Sri
ginginianus[28][26]
Lanka.[28] They occur mainly on the dry plains and lower hills. In
the Himalayas, they go up to about 2,000 metres (6,600 ft) in Wing 393–490 mm (15–
summer. In Armenia, breeding pairs have been found up to 2,300 19 in)
meters a.s.l.[31]
455–505 mm (18–
Most Egyptian vultures in the subtropical zone of Europe migrate 20 in)
south to Africa in winter. Vagrants may occur as far south as in Tail 228–251 mm (9.0–
South Africa although they bred in the Transkei region prior to 9.9 in)
1923.[32] They nest mainly on rocky cliffs, sometimes adopting
Tarsus 72–85 mm (2.8–
ledges on tall buildings in cities and on large trees.[28] Like many
3.3 in)
other large soaring migrants, they avoid making long crossings
over water.[33][34] Italian birds cross over through Sicily and into majorensis[24]
Tunisia making short sea crossings by passing through the islands
Wing 485–554 mm (19–
of Marettimo and Pantelleria with rare stops on the island country
22 in)
of Malta.[35][36] Those that migrate through the Iberian Peninsula
cross into Africa over the Strait of Gibraltar while others cross Tail 240–285 mm (9.4–
further east through the Levant.[37][38][26] In summer, some 11 in)
African birds fly further north into Europe and vagrants have been Tarsus 73.5–93 mm (2.9–
recorded in England,[39][40] Ireland,[41] and southern Sweden.[42] 3.7 in)

Migrating birds can sometimes cover 500 kilometres (310 mi) in a Weight 1,900–2,850 g (67–
single day until they reach the southern edge of the Sahara, 3,500 100 oz)
to 5,500 kilometres (2,200 to 3,400 mi) from their summer home.
Young birds that have not reached breeding age may overwinter in
the grassland and semi-desert regions of the Sahel.[38]

Behaviour and ecology

The Egyptian vulture is usually seen singly or in pairs, soaring in
thermals along with other scavengers and birds of prey, or perched
on the ground or atop a building. On the ground, they walk with a
waddling gait.[28] They feed on a range of food, including mammal N. p. percnopterus in flight (Israel)
faeces (including those of humans[43]), insects in dung, carrion, showing the characteristic wing and
vegetable matter, and sometimes small animals. [44] When it joins tail shape.
other vulture species at a dead animal, it tends to stay on the
periphery and waits until the larger species leave.[26] Pairs may also
scrounge for food from other vultures, particularly griffons. Recently fledged young will sometimes fly to
other nests, competing with young vultures for food, stealing or even soliciting food from the (unrelated)
adults bringing food.[45] Wild rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) form a significant part of the diet of Spanish
vultures.[46] In the Iberian Peninsula, landfills are an important food source, with the vultures more likely to
occupy territories close to landfill sites.[47] Studies suggest that they feed on ungulate faeces to obtain
carotenoid pigments responsible for their bright yellow and orange facial skin. The ability to assimilate
carotenoid pigments may serve as a reliable signal of fitness.[48]

Egyptian vultures are mostly silent but make high-pitched mewing or hissing notes at the nest and
screeching noises when squabbling at a carcass. Young birds have been heard making a hissing croak in
flight.[13] They also hiss or growl when threatened or angry.[49]
Egyptian vultures roost communally on large trees, buildings or on
cliffs.[13] Roost sites are usually chosen close to a dump site or
other suitable foraging area. In Spain and Morocco,[50] summer
roosts are formed mainly by immature birds. The favourite roost
trees tended to be large dead pines.[51][52] The number of adults at
the roost increases towards June. It is thought that breeding adults
may be able to forage more efficiently by joining the roost and
following others to the best feeding areas. Breeding birds that failed
to raise young may also join the non-breeding birds at the roost
during June.[53] Allopreening has been observed in Canarian
Egyptian vultures between mated pairs of individuals as well as
pairs of unrelated and same-sex individuals, particularly
females.[45]

Breeding

The breeding season is in spring.[28] During the beginning of the

breeding season, courting pairs soar high together and one or both
Immature (behind) and adult (from
may make steep spiralling or swooping dives.[26] The birds are
John Gould's Birds of Europe)
monogamous and pair bonds may be maintained for more than one
breeding season and the same nest sites may be reused each year.
The nest is an untidy platform of twigs lined with rags and placed on a cliff
ledge,[54] building, or the fork of a large tree. Old nest platforms of eagles may
also be taken over.[28][13] Nests placed on the ground are rare but have been
recorded in subspecies N. p. ginginianus and N. p. majorensis.[55][56][57]

Extra-pair copulation with neighbouring birds has been recorded and may be a
reason for adult males to stay close to the female before and during the egg
laying period.[58] Females may sometimes associate with two males and all
three help in raising the brood.[59] The typical clutch consists of two eggs
which are incubated in turns by both parents. The eggs are brick red with the
broad end covered more densely with blotches of red, brown, and black.[49]
The parents begin incubating soon after the first egg is laid leading to Eggs showing colour
asynchronous hatching. The first egg hatches after about 42 days. [28] The variation,
second chick may hatch three to five days later and a longer delay increases chromolithographs by
the likelihood that it will die of starvation. [60] In cliffs where the nests are Georg Krause
located close to each other, young birds have been known to clamber over to
neighbouring nests to obtain food.[61] In the Spanish population, young fledge
and leave the nest after 90 to 110 days.[62] Fledged birds continue to remain dependent on their parents for
at least a month.[26] Once the birds begin to forage on their own, they move away from their parents'
territory; young birds have been found nearly 500 km away from their nest site.[63][52] One-year-old
European birds migrate to Africa and stay there for at least one year. A vulture that fledged in France stayed
in Africa for three years before migrating north in spring.[38][37] After migrating back to their breeding
areas, young birds move widely in search of good feeding territories and mates. The full adult plumage is
attained in the fourth or fifth year. Egyptian vultures have been known to live for up to 37 years in captivity
and at least 21 years in the wild. The probability of survival in the wild varies with age, increasing till the
age of 2 and then falling at the age of 5. Older birds have an annual survival probability varying from 0.75
for non-breeders to 0.83 for breeding birds.[64]

Tool use

The nominate population,

especially in Africa, is known
for its use of stones as tools.
When a large egg, such as that
of an ostrich or bustard, is
located, the bird walks up to it
with a large pebble held in its 18-days-old chick.
bill and tosses the pebble by
swinging the neck down over
the egg. The operation is repeated until the egg cracks from the
blows.[65] They prefer using rounded pebbles to jagged rocks. This
behaviour, although believed to have been first reported by Jane
Goodall in 1966, was actually already known to Africans and was first
reported by J. G. Wood in 1877.[66][67] However, this has only been
reported in Africa and has not been recorded in N. p. ginginianus.[13]
Egyptian vulture using a stone Tests with both hand-reared and wild birds suggest that the behaviour is
to crack a large egg. innate, not learnt by observing other birds, and elicited once they
associate eggs with food and have access to pebbles.[68] Their ability to
deal with ostrich eggs is utilized by brown-necked ravens which form
groups that wait for the eggs to be broken before collectively mobbing the vultures and engaging in
kleptoparasitism.[69] Another case of tool-use described from Bulgaria involves the use of a twig as a tool
to roll up and gather strands of wool to use for lining the nest.[70]

Threats and conservation

Healthy adults do not have many predators, but human activities
pose many threats. Collisions with power lines, hunting, intentional
poisoning, lead accumulation from ingesting gunshot in carcasses,
and pesticide accumulation take a toll on populations. Young birds
at the nest are sometimes taken by golden eagles, eagle owls,[71]
and red foxes.[72] Only rarely do adult birds attempt to drive away
predators.[73] Young birds that fall off of cliff ledges may be preyed
on by mammalian predators such as jackals, foxes and wolves.[74]
Migratory and resident vultures at an
Like all birds they serve as hosts for ectoparasitic birdlice including
urban garbage dump site in
Aegypoecus perspicuus[75] as well as organisms that live within
northwestern India
them such as mycoplasmas.[76]

Egyptian vulture populations have declined in most parts of its

range. In Europe and most of the Middle East, populations in 2001 were half of those from 1980. In India,
the decline has been rapid with a 35% decrease each year since 1999.[77] In 1967–70, the area around
Delhi was estimated to have 12,000–15,000 of these vultures, with an average density of about 5 pairs per
10 km2 .[78][79] The exact cause of the decline is not known, but has been linked with the use of the
NSAID Diclofenac, which has been known to cause death in Gyps vultures.[77]
In Italy, the number of breeding pairs declined from 30 in 1970 to 9
in the 1990s. Nearly all breeding failures were due to human
activities.[80] In Spain, which holds about 50% of the European
population suggested causes of decline include poisoning by
accumulation of lead,[81] pesticides (especially due to large-scale
use in the control of Schistocerca gregaria locust swarms), and
electrocution.[24][82][83] Windfarms may also pose a threat.[84][46]
Poorly designed power transmission lines in east Africa electrocute
many wintering vultures.[85] A shortage of carrion resulting from The "sacred pair" at
new rules for disposal of dead animals following the outbreak of Thirukalukundram in 1906
Bovine Spongiform Encephalitis in parts of Europe during 2000
may have also had an effect on some populations.[86][46] In
Armenia direct persecution for trophy and for local illegal trade of animals as pets has been recorded.[31]

The population of Egyptian vultures in the Canary Islands has been isolated from those in Europe and
Africa for a significant period of time leading to genetic differentiation. The vulture population there
declined by 30% in the ten years between 1987 and 1998.[87] The Canarian Egyptian vulture was
historically common, occurring on the islands of La Gomera, Tenerife, Gran Canaria, Fuerteventura, and
Lanzarote. It is now restricted to Fuerteventura and Lanzarote, the two easternmost islands. The total
population in 2000 was estimated at 130 individuals, including 25–30 breeding pairs.[24][88] Island birds
also appear to accumulate significant amounts of lead from scavenging on hunted animal carcasses. The
long-term effect of this poison at a sub-lethal level is not known, though it is known to alter the
mineralization of their bones.[89] In order to provide safe and uncontaminated food for nesting birds,
attempts have been made to create "vulture restaurants" where carcasses are made available. However,
these interventions may also encourage other opportunist predators and scavengers to concentrate at the site
and pose a threat to vultures nesting in the vicinity.[90]

In culture
The Bible makes a reference to the Egyptian vulture under the Hebrew name of
rachamah/racham which has been translated into English as "gier-eagle".[21][91]

In Ancient Egypt, several hieroglyphs include the Egyptian vulture including what is Egyptian Vulture
listed as G1 in the Gardiner's sign list - U+1313F 𓄿 .[92] The bird was held sacred in hieroglyphs
to Isis and Mut in ancient Egyptian religion. The use of the vulture as a symbol of
royalty in Egyptian culture and their protection by Pharaonic law made the species
common on the streets of Egypt and gave rise to the name "pharaoh's chicken".[93][94][95][96] The habit of
coprophagy in Egyptian vultures gives them the Spanish names of "churretero" and "moñiguero", which
mean "dung-eater".[48] British sportsmen in colonial India considered them to be among the ugliest birds,
and their habit of feeding on faeces was particularly despised.[97] In British India they were known as
"shawks" a contraction[98] of shit-hawk.[99] A southern Indian temple at Thirukalukundram near
Chengalpattu was famed for a pair of birds that reputedly visited the temple for "centuries". These birds
were ceremonially fed by the temple priests and arrived before noon to feed on offerings made from rice,
wheat, ghee, and sugar. Although normally punctual, the failure of the birds to turn up was attributed to the
presence of "sinners" among the onlookers.[28][100][101] Legend has it the vultures (or "eagles")
represented eight sages who were punished by Shiva, with two of them leaving in each of a series of
epochs.[102][103][104]
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External links
BTO BirdFacts – Egyptian Vulture (http://blx1.bto.org/birdfacts/results/bob2470.htm)
Egyptian Vulture species text in The Atlas of Southern African Birds (http://sabap2.adu.org.z
a/docs/sabap1/120.pdf).
Egyptian Vulture – Global Raptor Information Network (http://www.globalraptors.org/grin/Spe
ciesResults.asp?specID=8353)
Ageing and sexing (PDF; 5.6 MB) by Javier Blasco-Zumeta & Gerd-Michael Heinze (https://
web.archive.org/web/20160305010602/http://aulaenred.ibercaja.es/wp-content/uploads/108
_Neophron_percnopterus.pdf)
"Egyptian vulture media" (https://www.hbw.com/ibc/species/egyptian-vulture-neophron-perc
nopterus). Internet Bird Collection.
Egyptian vulture photo gallery (http://vireo.acnatsci.org/search.html?Form=Search&SEARC
HBY=Common&KEYWORDS=Egyptian+Vulture&showwhat=images&AGE=All&SEX=All&
ACT=All&Search=Search&VIEW=All&ORIENTATION=All&RESULTS=24) at VIREO
(Drexel University)
Armenian Bird Census Council (https://web.archive.org/web/20171004140206/http://www.ab
cc-am.org/)

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