THEORY OF ARCHITECTURE

SCOPE OF TOA
Module 1: Introduction to Theory and Architecture
Module 2: Elements of Architecture and Principles of Design
Module 3: Design Perception
Module 4: Tropical Architecture
Module 5: Master of Architecture
MODULE 1: INTRODUCTION TO THEORY AND ARCHITECTURE
OVERVIEW OF THE MODULE
Module 1: Introduction to Theory and Architecture
Part 1.1: Definition of theory and architecture
Part 1.2: Architectural system and orders
Part 1.3: Processes in architectural design

PART 1.1 Definition of Theory and Architecture

WHAT IS THEORY?
Theory
Abstract thought or speculation resulting in a system of assumption or principles used in
analyzing, explaining, or predicting phenomena, and proposed or followed as a basis of
action.
TYPES OF THEORY

Descriptive: simply explains events or

phenomena.

Prescriptive: prescribes guidelines.

WHAT IS ARCHITECTURE?
Architecture
The art and science of designing and constructing buildings.
ART
The conscious use of skill, craft, and creative imagination
in the production of what is beautiful, appealing, or of more
than ordinary significance.
SCIENCE
A branch of knowledge dealing with a body of facts or truths obtained by direct observation,
experimental investigation, and methodical study, systematically arranged, and showing the
operation of general laws.
PART 1.2 Architectural Systems and Orders

ARCHITECTURAL SYSTEMS
The architecture of space, structure, and o Organizational pattern,
enclosure relationships, hierarchy
o Qualities of shape, color, texture,
scale, proportion
o Qualities of surfaces, edges, and
openings
Experienced through movement in space o Approach and entry
and time o Path configuration and access
o Sequence of spaces
o Light, view, touch, hearing, and
smell
Achieved by means of technology o Structure and enclosure
o Environmental protection and
comfort
o Health, safety, and welfare
o Durability
Accommodating a program o User requirements, needs,
aspirations.
o Socio-cultural factors
o Economic factors
o Legal restraints
o Historical tradition and precedents
Compatible with its context o Site and environment
o Climate: sun, wind, temperature,
and precipitation
o Geography: soils, topography,
vegetation, and water
o Sensory and cultural characteristics
of the place

VILLA SAVOYE
Poissy, east of Paris. Le Corbusier.
This graphic analysis will illustrate the way architecture embodies the
harmonious integration of interacting and interrelated parts into a
complex and unified whole.
 SPATIAL SYSTEMS
The three-dimensional integration of program elements and spaces
accommodates the multiple functions and relationships of a house.

STRUCTURAL SYSTEM
A grid of columns supports horizontal beams and slabs.
The cantilever acknowledges the direction of approach along the
longitudinal axis.

ENCLOSURE SYSYEM
Four exterior wall planes define a rectangular volume that contains the
program elements and spaces.

CIRCULATION SYSTEM
The stairs and ramp penetrate and link the three levels and heighten the
viewer’s perception of forms in space and light.
The curved form of the entrance foyer reflects the movement of the
automobile.
CONTEXT
A simple exterior form wraps around a complex interior
organization of forms and spaces.
Elevating the main floor provides a better view and avoids the
humidity of the ground.
A garden terrace distributes sunlight to the spaces gathered
around it.
 ARCHITECTURAL ORDERS
Physical o Solids and voids o Space
o Interior and exterior o Structure
o Enclosure
o Machines
Perceptual o Sensory perception o Approach and Departure
and recognition of o Entry and Egress
the physical o Movement through the order of
elements by spaces
experiencing them o Functioning of and activities within
sequentially in time spaces
o Qualities of light, color, texture, view,
and sound.
Conceptual o Comprehension of o Images
the ordered and o Patterns
disordered o Signs
relationships among o Symbols
a building’s elements o Context
and systems and
responding to the
meanings they
evoke.

PART 1.3 PROCESSES IN ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN

Design process
A purposeful activity aimed at devising a plan for changing an existing situation into a future
preferred state.
DESIGN PHASES
Initiation
Identifying a problem and its social, economic, and physical context.
Preparation
Collecting and analyzing relevant information and establishing goals and criteria for
an acceptable solution.
Synthesis
Discovering constraints and opportunities and hypothesizing possible alternative
solutions.
Evaluation
Simulating, testing, and modifying acceptable alternatives according to specified
goals and criteria.
Action
Selecting and implementing the most suitable solution.
Reevaluation
Assessing how well an implemented solution in use satisfies the specified goals and
criteria.
MODULE 2: ELEMENTS OF ARCHITECTURE AND PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN
OVERVIEW OF THE MODULE
Module 2: Elements of Architecture and Principles of Design
Part 2.1: Primary Elements of Design
Part 2.2: Form Articulation
Part 2.3: Circulation
Part 2.4: Principles of Design

PART 2.1: Primary Elements of Design

Each element is first considered as a conceptual element, then
as a visual element in the vocabulary of architectural design.
When made visible to the eye or paper or in three dimensional
space, these elements become form with characteristics of
substance, shape, size, color, and texture.

o Point
It marks a position in space. Conceptually, it has no length,
width, or depth, and is therefore static, centralized, and
directionless.
o Line
An extended point. Conceptually, a line has length, but no
width or depth. It is capable of visually expressing direction,
movement, and growth.
o Plane
An extended line in a direction other than its intrinsic
direction. Conceptually, a plane has length and width, but no
depth.
o Volume
A plane extended in a direction other than its intrinsic
direction. Conceptually, a volume has three dimensions:
length, width, and depth.
 POINT
As the prime element in the vocabulary of form, a point can
serve to mark:
o the two ends of a line;
o the intersection of two lines;
o meeting of the lines at the corner of a plane or
volume; and
o the center of a field.

POINT ELEMENTS
A point has no dimension. To visibly mark a position in
space or on the ground plane, a point must be projected
vertically into a linear form, as a column, obelisk, or tower.
Any such columnar element is seen in plan as a point and
therefore retains the visual characteristics of a point.

Piazza del Campidoglio

Rome. Michelangelo Buonarroti.
The equestrian statue of Marcus
Aurelius marks the center of this urban
space.

TWO POINTS
Two points describe a line that connects them.
Two points further suggest an axis perpendicular to the line they
describe and about which they are symmetrical.
Torii, Ise Shrine
Mie Prefecture, Japan
In a plan, two points can denote a gateway signifying passage from
one place to another. Extended vertically, the two points define both
a plane of entry and an approach perpendicular to it.
 The National Mall
Washington, D.C.
This lies along the axis established by
the Lincoln Memorial, the Washington
Monument, and the United States
Capitol Building.

LINE
An extended point. Conceptually, a line has length, but no width or depth. It is capable of
visually expressing direction, movement, and growth.

A line can serve to:

o join, support, surround, or intersect other visual elements;
o describe the edges of and give shape to planes; and
o articulate the surfaces of planes.
Linear elements
Vertical linear elements, such as columns, obelisks, and
towers, have been used throughout history to commemorate
significant events and establish particular points in space.

Menhir
A prehistoric monument consisting of an upright megalith, usually
standing alone but sometimes aligned with others.

Column of Marcus Aurelius

Piazza Colonna, Rome
The cylindrical shaft commemorates the emperor’s victory over
Germanic tribes north of the Danube.
Obelisk of Luxor
Place de la Concorde, Paris
The obelisk, which marked the entrance to the Amon Temple at Luxor,
was given by the viceroy of Egypt, Mohamed Ali, to Louis Phillipe and
was installed in 1836.
Selim Mosque
Edirne, Turkey
Vertical linear elements can also define a transparent volume of
space.
The four minaret towers outline a spatial field from which the dome
of the Selim Mosque rises in splendor.
Linear Elements
Linear members that possess the necessary material strength can
perform structural functions.
In these examples, linear elements:

• express movement across space;

• provide support for an overhead plane; and
• form a three-dimensional structural frame for architectural
space.
Salginatobel Bridge
Switzerland. Robert Maillart.
In this example, linear elements express movement across space.
Beams and girders have the bending strength to span the space
between their supports and carry transverse loads.
Caryatid Porch, The Erechtheion
Athens. Mnesicles.
An example showing linear elements providing support for an
overhead plane.
The sculpted female figures stand as columnar supports for the
entablature.
 Katsura Imperial Villa
Kyoto, Japan
In this example, linear elements form a three-dimensional structural
frame for architectural space.
Linear columns and beams together form a three-dimensional
framework for architectural space.
Plane
An extended line in a direction other than its intrinsic direction. Conceptually, a plane has
length and width, but no depth.
Shape is the preliminary identifying characteristic of a plane. It is
determined by the contour of the line forming the edges of a plane.
The supplementary properties of a plane
- its surface, color, pattern, and texture - affect its visual weight and
stability.
Planar Elements
In architectural design, we manipulate three generic types of planes:
o Overhead plane, which can be either the roof or the ceiling
plane;
o Wall plane; and the
o Base plane, which can be either the ground or floor plane.

Scala de Spagna
(Spanish Steps) Rome. Alessandro Specchi.
Along with climate and other environmental conditions of a site,
the topographical character of the ground plane influences the
form of the building that rises from it.
Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut
Der el-Bahari, Thebes. Senmut.
Three terraces approached by ramps rise toward the base of the
cliffs where the chief sanctuary is cut deep into the rock.
 S. Marria Novella
Florence, Italy. Alberti.
As a design element, the plane of an exterior wall can be articulated as the
front or primary facade of a building.
Piazza San Marco
Venice
In urban situations, these facades serve as walls that define courtyards,
streets, and such public gathering places as squares and marketplaces.
Robie House
Chicago. Frank Lloyd Wright.
The roof plane is the essential sheltering element that protects the interior
of a building from the climatic elements.
Fallingwater
(Kaufmann House) Pennsylvania. Frank Lloyd Wright.
Reinforced concrete slabs express the horizontality of the floor and roof
planes as they cantilever outward from a central vertical core.

Volume
A plane extended in a direction other than its intrinsic direction. Conceptually, a volume has
three dimensions: length, width, and depth.
All volumes can be analyzed and understood to consist of:
points or vertices where several planes come together;
lines or edges where two planes meet; and
planes or surfaces that define the limits or boundaries of a volume.

Form is the primary identifying characteristic of a volume. It is established

by shapes and interrelationships of the planes that describe the boundaries
of the volume.

Volumetric
 Building forms that stand as objects in the landscape can be read as
occupying volumes in space.

Notre Dame du Haut

Ronchamp, France. Le Corbusier.
Palazzo Thiene
Vicenza, Italy. Andrea Palladio.
Building forms that serve as containers can be read as masses that define
volumes of space.
In this structure, the interior rooms surround a cortile - the principal
courtyard of an Italian palazzo.

Part 2.2: Form Articulation

Form
The formal structure of a work—the manner of arranging and coordinating the elements
and parts of a composition so as to produce a coherent image.
Articulation
A method or manner of jointing that makes the united parts clear, distinct, and precise in
relation to each other.
Vissual Properties of form
o Shape
The characteristic outline or surface configuration of a particular
form.
In architecture, we are concerned with the shapes of:
floor, wall, and ceiling planes that enclose space;
door and window openings within a spatial enclosure; and
silhouettes and contours of building forms.
Villa Garches
Vaucresson, France. Le Corbusier.
This architectural composition illustrates the interplay
between the shapes of planar solids and voids.
 o Size
The physical dimensions of length, width, and depth of a form. While
these dimensions determine the proportions of a form, its scale is
determined by its size relative to other forms in its context.
o Texture
The visual and especially tactile quality given to a surface by the size,
shape, arrangement, and proportions of the parts. Texture also
determines the degree to which the surfaces of a form reflect or
absorb incident light.
o Color
A phenomenon of light and visual perception that may be described
in terms of an individual’s perception of hue, saturation, and tonal
value.
Color is the attribute that most clearly distinguishes a form from its
environment. It also affects the visual weight of a form.
o Hue: another word for color;
o Value: describes how light or dark the color is;
o Temperature: relates to the feeling of warmth or coolness the color evokes;
and
o Intensity: measures the range of a color from dull to vivid. Also called chroma
and saturation.
Color Wheel
o Primary: red, blue, and yellow
o Secondary: violet, green, and orange.
o Tertiary: red-violet, blue-violet, yellow-green, blue-green, red-orange, and
yellow-orange.
Colors used to convey emotions:
o Warm colors: exhibit energy and joy (best for personal messages). They have
a tendency to appear larger.
o Cool colors: convey calmness and peace (best for office use). They have a
tendency to appear smaller next to a warm color. They often work well as a
background color.
Basic Color Schemes
o Complementary
o Analogous
o Triadic
o Split complementary
o Tetradic, or double complementary
Complementary
Any two colors opposite each other on the wheel. For example, blue and
orange, or red and green.
Split complementary.
Use three colors. The scheme takes one color and matches it with the two
colors adjacent to its complementary color. For example, blue, yellow-orange
and red- orange.
Analogous
Any three colors next to each other on the wheel. For example, orange,
yellow- orange, and yellow.
Triadic
Any three colors that are equally apart on the color wheel. For example, red,
yellow, and blue.
Tetradic or Double complementary
Uses four colors together, in the form of two sets of complementary colors.
For example, blue and orange is paired with yellow and violet.
Tints: come from adding white to hues;
Shades: come from adding black to hues;
Tones: mixing the hue with grey.
Achromatic: use no color, just shades of grey, black and white. Also
known as greyscale.
Relational properties of form
o Position
The location of a form relative to its environment or the visual field
within which it is seen.
 o Orientation
The direction of a form relative to the ground plane, the compass
points, other forms, or to the person viewing the form.
o Visual Inertia
The degree of concentration and stability of a form. The visual inertia
of a form depends on its geometry as well as its orientation relative
to the ground plane, the pull of gravity, and our line of sight.
Milwaukee Art Museum, USA. Santiago Calatrava.

Proposed library in Kazakhstan. BIG Architects.

Form Articulation
A form can be articulated by:
o Change in material, color, texture, or pattern;
o Developing corners as distinct linear elements;
o Removing corners; and
o Lighting the form.
Hoffman house, New York. Richard Meier.
The color, texture, and pattern of surfaces articulate the existence of planes
and influence the visual weight of a form.

Palazzo Medici-Ricardo Florence, Italy. Michelozzi.

John Deere & Company Building, Moline, Illinois. Eero Saarinen.

Linear patterns have the ability to emphasize the height or length of form,
unify its surfaces, and define its textural quality.
The linear sun-shading devices accentuate the horizontality of the building
form.
CBS Building
New York. Eero Saarinen.
Linear columnar elements emphasize the verticality of this high-rise
structure.
IBM Research Center
La Guade, Var, France. Marcel Breuer.
The three-dimensional form of the openings creates a texture of light, shade,
and shadows.
First Unitarian Church
Rochester New York. Louis Kahn.
The pattern of openings and cavities interrupts the continuity of the exterior
wall planes.
Everson Museum
Syracuse, New York. I.M. Pei.
The unadorned corners of the forms emphasize the volume of their mass.

Einstein Tower
Potsdam, Germany. Eric Mendelsohn.
Rounded corners express continuity of surface, compactness of volume, and
softness of form.
Laboratory Tower
Johnson Wax Building, Wisconsin. Frank Lloyd Wright.

Kaufmann Desert House

California. Richard Neutra.
Openings at corners emphasize the definition of planes over volume.
Part 2.3 Circulation
Circulation
The passage of persons or things from one place to another or through an area.

Since we move in time through a sequence of spaces, we experience a space in relation to

where we’ve been and where we anticipate going.
Circulation Elements

• Approach
• Entrance
• Configuration of the path
• Path-space relationships

o Approach
▪ The distant view.
▪ Prior to actually passing into the interior of a building, we approach its entrance
along a path. This is the first phase of the circulation system, during which we
are prepared to see, experience, and use the spaces within a building.
Kinda of Approach
▪ Frontal
Leads directly to the entrance of a building along a straight, axial path. The
visual goal that terminates the approach is clear.
Quian Men-Beijing, China.
Link between the Forbidden City to the north and the Outer City to the South.
Portals and gateways have traditionally served as means of orienting us to
the path beyond and welcoming or guarding against our entry.
Villa Barbaro
Maser, Italy. Andrea Palladio.

▪ Oblique
Enhances the effect of perspective on the front facade and form of a
building.
 Buseoksa Temple-Gyeongsangdo, Korea.
Glass House-New Canaan, Connecticut. Philip
Johnson.

▪ Spiral
Prolongs the sequence of the approach and emphasizes the three-
dimensional form of a building as we move around its perimeter.

Acropolis
Athens, Greece.
Dotted line indicates the path through the Propylaea to the east end
of the Parthenon.
Falling Water
Pennsylvania. Frank Lloyd Wright.

o Entrance
▪ From outside to inside.
▪ Entering a building, a room within a building, or a defined field of exterior space,
involves the act of penetrating a vertical plane that distinguishes one space from
another and separates “here” from “there.”
Entrances may be grouped formally into the following categories:

• flush;
Maintains the continuity of the surface of a wall and can be deliberately
obscured.

Morris Gift Shop

California. Frank Lloyd Wright.
Elaborated openings within vertical planes mark the entrance to this
building.
• projected; and
Forms a transitional space, announces its function to the approach, and
provides overhead shelter.

Basilica di Sant'Andrea
Mantua, Italy. Leon Battista Alberti.

• recessed.
Also provides shelter and receives a portion of exterior space into the realm
of the building.
Dr. Currutchet’s House
La Plata, Argentina. Le Corbusier.
A portal marks the entrance for pedestrians within a larger opening that
includes space for a carport.

The notion of an entrance can be visually reinforced by:

o making the opening lower, wider, or narrower than anticipated;
o making the entrance deep or circuitous; or
o articulating the opening with ornamentation or decorative
embellishment.

JFK Memorial-Dallas, Texas. Philip Johnson.

Vanna Venturi House

Chestnut Hill, Pennsylvania. Robert Venturi.
A vertical break or separation in the facade defines the entrances to these
buildings.
 Piazza San Marco-Venice.
View of the sea framed by the Doge’s Palace on the left and Scamozzi’s
Library on the right. The entrance to the piazza from the sea is marked by
two granite columns, the Lion’s Column and the Column of St. Theodore.

o Configuration of the path

• The sequence of spaces.
• All paths of movement are linear in nature. And all paths have a starting
point, from which we are taken through a sequence of spaces to our destination.
Kinds of Linear Configuration
o Linear
o Radial
o Spiral
o Grid
o Network
o Composite
Linear
All paths are linear. A straight path, however, can be the primary
organizing element for a series of spaces. In addition, it can be
curvilinear or segmented, intersect other paths, have branches, or
form a loop.

Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut-Der-el Bahari, Thebes. Senmut.

Toshogu Shrine-Tochigi Prefecture, Japan.

Radial
A radial configuration has linear paths extending from r terminating at a
central, common point.
Eastern State Penitentiary-Philadelphia. John Haviland.

University Art Museum

University of California-Berkeley. Mario J. Ciampi and Associates.

Spiral
A spiral configuration is a single, continuous path that originates from a
central point, revolves around it, and becomes increasingly distant from it.

Museum of Western Art

Tokyo, Japan. Le Corbusier.

Burubodor
Java, Indonesia.
A Buddhist stupa monument.
In circumambulating the monument, pilgrims passed walls ornamented with
reliefs illustrating the life of buddha and the principles of his teaching.

Guggenheim Museum-New York City. Frank Lloyd Wright.

Grid
A grid configuration consists of two sets of parallel paths that intersect at
regular intervals and create square or rectangular fields of space.
 Intramuros
Manila.
The cuadricula, a system of streets and blocks laid out in gridiron form. This
method was efficient in maximizing space and in the supervision of colonial
subjects.
Network
A network configuration consists of paths that connect established points in
space.

Washington DC-Plan by Pierre L’Enfant.

Composite
Employing a combination of the preceding patterns.
To avoid the creation of a disorienting maze, a hierarchical order among the
paths and nodes of a building should be established by differentiating their
scale, form, length, and placement.

o Path-space relationships
Edges, nodes, and terminations of the path.
Paths may be related to the spaces they link in the following ways:

• Pass by Spaces
▪ The integrity of each space is maintained;
▪ The configuration of the path is flexible;
▪ The mediating spaces can be used to link the path with the
spaces.

Bolssonas House-France. Philip Johnson.

 • Pass through Spaces
▪ The path may pass through a space axially, obliquely, or along its
edge;
▪ In cutting through a space, the path creates patterns of rest and
movement within it.
• Terminate in a Space
▪ The location of the space establishes the path;
▪ This path-space relationhip is used to approach and enter
functionally or symbolically important spaces.

Neur Vahr Apartment-Germany. Alvar Aalto.

Form of the Circulation Space

Corridors, halls, galleries, stairways, and rooms.
The form of a circulation space varies according to how:

• its boundaries are defined;

• its form relates to the form of the spaces it links;
• its qualities of scale, proportion, light, and view are articulated;
• entrances open onto it; and
• it handles changes in level with stairs and ramps.
A circulation space may be:
o Enclosed;
o Open on One Side; or
o Open on Both Sides.
Enclosed
Forming a public galleria or private corridor that relates to the spaces it links
through entrances in a wall plane.

Open on One Side

Forming a balcony or gallery that provides visual and spatial continuity with
the spaces it links.
 Open on Both Sides
Forming a colonnaded passageway that becomes a physical extension of the
space it passes through.

Part 2.4 Principles of Design

Design is the creation and organization of formal elements in a work

of art.

Design principle is a fundamental and comprehensive concept of

visual perception for structuring and aesthetic composition.

Principles of Design
o Proportion and Scale
The proper harmonious relation of one part to another or to the whole.
Proportioning systems
They can visually unify the multiplicity of elements in an architectural design by
having all of its parts belong to the same family of proportions.
They can provide a sense of order in, and heighten the
continuity of, a sequence of spaces.
They can establish relationships between the exterior and interior elements of a
building.
▪ Golden Section
▪ Regulating Lines
▪ Classical Orders
▪ Renaissance Theories
▪ Modulor
▪ Ken
▪ Anthropometry
The Golden Section can be defined as the ratio between two sections
of a line, or the two dimensions of a plane figure, in which the lesser
of the two is to the greater as the greater is to the sum of both.
The Greeks recognized the dominating role the Golden Section played
in the proportions of the human body.
Renaissance architects also explored the Golden Section in their
work.
In more recent times, Le Corbusier based his Modulor system on the
Golden Section.
Parthenon
Athens, Greece. Ictinus and Callicrates.
The proportioning begins by fitting the facade into a Golden
Rectangle. Each analysis then varies from the other in its approach
to proving the existence of the Golden Section and its effect on the
dimensions and distribution of elements across the facade.
Regulating Lines
If the diagonals of two rectangles are either parallel or perpendicular
to each other, they indicate that the two rectangles have similar
proportions.
These diagonals, as well as lines that indicate the common alignment
of elements, are called regulating lines.

Palazzo Farnese
Rome. Antonio da Sangallo the Younger.

Classical Orders
To the Greeks and Romans of classical antiquity, the Orders
represented in their proportioning of elements the perfect
expression of beauty and harmony. The basic unit of dimension was
the diameter of the column.
 ✓ Tuscan
✓ Doric
✓ Ionic
✓ Corinthian
✓ Composite

Tuscan Doric Ionic Corinthian Composite

Renaissance Theories
The architects of the Renaissance, believing that their buildings had
to belong to a higher order, returned to the Greek mathematical
system of proportions.
Seven Ideal Plan Shapes for Rooms.
Andrea Palladio (1508–1580) was probably the most influential
architect of the Italian Renaissance. In The Four Books on
Architecture, first published in Venice in 1570, he followed in the
footsteps of his predecessors, Alberti and Serlio, and proposed these
seven “most beautiful and proportionable manners of rooms.”
Determining the Heights of Rooms.
Palladio also proposed several methods for determining the height of
a room so that it would be in proper proportion to the room’s width
and length.
Determining the Heights of Rooms.
The height of rooms with flat ceilings would be equal to their width.
The height of square rooms with vaulted ceilings would be one-third
greater than their width.
For other rooms, Palladio used Pythagoras’ theory of means to
determine their heights.
Villa Capra (The Rotunda)
Vicenza, Italy. Andrea Palladio.
Room sizes: 12 x 30, 6 x 15, 30 x 30

Modulor
Le Corbusier developed this proportioning system to order “the
dimensions of that which contains and that which is contained.”
He based the Modulor on both mathematics (the aesthetic
dimensions of the Golden Section and the Fibonacci Series), and the
proportions of the human body (functional dimensions).
The basic grid consists of three measures, 113, 70, and 43
centimeters, proportioned according to the Golden Section.
Le Corbusier saw the Modulor as a system of measurements that
could govern lengths, surfaces, and volumes, and “maintain the
human scale everywhere.”

Unite’ d’Habitation
Marseille, France. Le Corbusier.
The principal work of Le Corbusier that exemplified the use of the
Modulor.
It uses 15 measures of the Modulor to bring human scale to a
building.
Le Corbusier used these diagrams to illustrate the diversity of panel
sizes and surfaces that could be obtained with the proportions of the
Modulor.
Ken
Although it was originally used simply to designate the interval
between two columns and varied in size, the ken was soon
standardized for residential architecture.
The ken evolved into an aesthetic module that ordered the structure,
materials, and space of Japanese architecture.
 The tokonoma is a shallow, slightly raised alcove for the display of a
kakemono or flower arrangement. As the spiritual center of a
traditional Japanese house, the tokonoma is located in its most
formal room.
Anthropometry refers to the measurement of the size and
proportions of the human body.
It is predicated on the theory that forms and spaces in architecture
are either containers or extensions of the human body and should
therefore be determined by its dimensions.
Average dimensions must always be treated with caution since
variations from the norm will always exist due to the difference
between men and women, among various age and racial groups,
even from one individual to the next.
A special field that has developed from a concern with human factors
is ergonomics—the applied science that coordinates the design of
devices, systems, and environments with our physiological and
psychological capacities and requirements.
The dimensions of the human body also affect the volume of space
we require for movement, activity, and rest.
The fit between the form and dimensions of a space and our own
body dimensions can be:

• Static;
• Dynamic; or
• Based on social distances and personal space.

Scale
The size of something compared to a reference standard or to the size of something else.

Scale refers to how we perceive or judge the size of something in

relation to something else. In dealing with the issue of scale,
therefore, we are always comparing one thing to another.
Two types:
Visual scale; and
Human scale.
Visual Scale
It refers to how small or large something appears to be in relation to
its normal size or to the size of other things in its context.

Reims Cathedral
Reims, France.
The recessed entry portals of Reims Cathedral are scaled to the
dimensions of the facade and can be seen and recognized at a
distance.
As we get closer, however, we see that the actual entrances are really
simple doors within the larger portals and are scaled to our
dimensions, to a human scale.

Human scale in architecture is based on the dimensions and

proportions of the human body.
Of a room’s three dimensions, its height has a greater effect on its
scale than either its width or length.
In addition to the vertical dimension of a space, other factors that
affect its scale are:
▪ the shape, color, and pattern of its bounding surfaces;
▪ the shape and disposition of its openings; and
▪ the nature and scale of the elements placed within it.
 o Contrast
Opposition or juxtaposition of dissimilar elements in a work of art to
intensify each element’s properties and produce a more dynamic
expressiveness.
A contrast in form, geometry, or orientation can also visually reinforce
the identity and independence of the sunken field from its larger
spatial context.
Contrast create visual variety, excitement and interest to the building
and can be achieved by:
✓ using different sizes;
✓ different material, texture, and colors; or
✓ manipulating the light, shade, and shadow of masses.

o Balance
A state of equilibrium between contrasting, opposing, or interacting elements. Also the
pleasing or harmonious arrangement or proportion of parts or elements in a design or
composition.
Symmetry
The exact correspondence in size, form, and arrangement of parts on opposite sides
of a dividing line or plane, or about a center or axis.
Two Types of Symetry
▪ Bilateral
Refers to the balanced arrangement of similar or equivalent elements on
opposite sides of a median axis so that only one plane can divide the whole into
essentially identical halves.
▪ Radial

Montecillo-Virginia. Thomas Jefferson.

 Unity Temple- Oak Park, Illinois. Frank Lloyd Wright.
Multiple symmetries, both major and minor, can add complexity and
hierarchy to a composition as well as accommodate programmatic and
contextual requirements.

Radial Symmetry
The balanced arrangement of similar, radiating elements such that the composition can be
divided into similar halves by passing a plane at any angle around a centerpoint or along a
central axis.
Great Stupa- Sanchi, India.

o Hierarchy
The articulation of the importance or significance of a form or space by its size, shape,
or placement relative to the other forms and spaces of the organization.
For a form or space to be articulated as being important or significant to an organization,
it must be made uniquely visible.
This visual emphasis can be achieved by endowing a form or shape
with:

• exceptional size;
A form or space may dominate an architectural composition
by being significantly different in size from all the other
elements in the composition.
Normally, this dominance is made visible by the sheer size of
an element.

• a unique shape; or
A form or space can be made visually dominant and thus
important by clearly differentiating its shape from that of the
other elements in the composition. A discernible contrast in
shape is critical, whether the differentiation is based on a
change in geometry or regularity.
 • a strategic location.
A form or space may be strategically placed to call attention
to itself as being the most important element in a
composition.

o Rhythm
Movement characterized by a patterned repetition or alternation of formal elements or
motifs in the same or a modified form.

Repetition
The act or process of repeating formal elements or motifs in a design.
The simplest form of repetition is a linear pattern of
redundant elements. They may be grouped according to:
▪ size;
▪ shape; or
▪ detail characteristics.

Classification of Temple
From Vitruvius’ Ten Books of Architecture.
Temples classified according to arrangements of the colonnades.

Salisbury Cathedral -England.

Structural patterns often incorporate the repetition of vertical
supports at regular or harmonious intervals which define modular
bays or divisions of space.
Salisbury Cathedral -England.
Structural patterns often incorporate the repetition of vertical
supports at regular or harmonious intervals which define modular
bays or divisions of space.

Katsura Imperial Village -Kyoto, Japan.

As in music, a rhythmic pattern may be legato, continuous and
flowing, or staccato and abrupt in its pace or cadence.

Olympic Arena-Tokyo, Japan. Kenzo Tange.

As in music, a rhythmic pattern may be legato, continuous and
flowing, or staccato and abrupt in its pace or cadence.

Residential Care Unit -Hokkaido, Japan. Sou Fujimoto.

Rhythm is a natural outcome of the way we lay out the repetitive units
of housing complexes.
Module 3: Design Perception
Part 3.1: Space Articulation
Part 3.2: Proxemics
Part 3.3: Architectural Styles

Part 3.1: Space Articulation

Space
Space is the three-dimensional field in which objects and events occur and have relative
position and direction, especially a portion of that field set apart in a given instance or for
a particular purpose.
Spatial Relationship
Spaces may be related to each other in several fundamental ways:
o Space within a space;
o Interlocking spaces;
o Adjacent spaces; and
o Spaces linked by a common space.
Space within a space
In this type of spatial relationship, the larger, enveloping space serves as a three-
dimensional field for the smaller space contained within it.

More House-California, US. Charles Moore.

Interlocking spaces
An interlocking spatial relationship results from the overlapping of two spatial fields and the
emergence of a zone of shared space.
Plan for St. Peter
Second Version. Donato Bramante and Baldassare Peruzzi.
Adjacent Spaces
Adjacency is the most common type of spatial relationship.
It allows each space to be clearly defined and to respond, each in its own way, to specific
functional or symbolic requirements.
Chiswick House
London, England. Lord Burlington and William Kent.
The spaces are individualistic in size, shape, and form. The walls that enclose
them adapt their forms to accommodate the differences between adjacent
spaces.

Space Linke by a Common Space

Two spaces that are separated by distance can be linked or related to each other by a third,
intermediate, space.

One-Half House-John Hejduk.

Spatial Organization
o Centralized
A centralized organization is a stable, concentrated composition that consists of a
number of secondary spaces grouped around a large, dominant, central space.
Taj Mahal-Agra, India.
The pattern of circulation and movement within a centralized
organization may be radial, loop, or spiral in form. In almost every
case, however, the pattern will terminate in or around the central
space.
o Linear
A linear organization consists essentially of a series of spaces. These spaces can either
be directly related to one another or be linked through a separate and distinct linear
space.
Residential Expansion
St. Andrew’s University, Scotland. James Stirling.
Linear Sequences of Spaces
o Radial
A radial organization of space combines elements of both centralized and linear
organizations. It consists of a dominant central space from which a number of linear
organizations extend in a radial manner.
Guggenheim Museum
Bilbao, Spain. Frank Gehry.
The central space of a radial organization is generally regular in form.
The linear arms, for which the central space is the hub, may be similar
to one another in form and length and maintain the regularity of the
organization’s overall form.
H. F. Johnson House
Wind Point, Wisconsin. Frank Lloyd Wright.
A specific variation of a radial organization is the pinwheel pattern
wherein the linear arms of the organization extend from the sides of
a square or rectangular central space.

o Clustered
A clustered organization relies on physical proximity to relate its spaces to one another.
It often consists of repetitive, cellular spaces that have similar functions and share a
common visual trait such as shape or orientation.
Yeni-Kaplica
(Thermal Bath) Bursa, Turkey.
Spaces Organized by Geometry
 o Grid
A grid organization consists of forms and spaces whose positions in space and
relationships with one another are regulated by a three-dimensional grid pattern or
field.

Shodhan House-Ahmedabad, India. Le Corbusier.

Part 3.2: Proxemics

Personal Space
The variable and subjective distance at which one person feels comfortable talking to
another. Also called personal distance.
Levels of Distance
o Intimate Distance
0-18 inches (0-450mm).
Voluntarily selected gap between people who are drawn to each other. At this close
range, vision is distorted and any vocalization is a whisper, moan, or grunt.
o Personal Distance
18 inches to 4 feet (450mm-1.20m)
The sense of body heat is lost. Eyesight begins to focus, and vocalization comes into
play. Although only ritualized touch is typical, the other person is still at arm’s length,
available to be grasped, held, or shoved away.
o Social Distance
4 to 10 feet (1.20m - 3.00m)
This is the zone of impersonal transaction. We now have to rely solely on what we
can see and hear.
 By the middle of the range, the eye can focus on an entire face. When the distance
is more than eight feet, it’s OK to ignore another’s presence and it’s easy to
disengage from a conversation.
o Public Distance
10 feet to infinity (3 meters and beyond)
This is the zone where we can no longer pick up subtle nuances of meaning from
the face or tone of voice. The eye can take in the whole body at a glance.
It’s the distance of the lecture hall, mass meetings, and interactions with powerful
figures until such time as they bid you to come closer.

Semi-mixed Furniture Space

Furniture arrangement in public places has a distinct relationship to the degree of
conversation.
o Sociopetal- Spaces which tend to bring people together.
o Sociofugal- Tend to keep people apart and discourage conversations.
Proxemics
Proxemics is the study of the symbolic and communicative role of the spatial separation
individuals maintain in various social and interpersonal situations, and how the nature and
degree of this spatial arrangement relates to environmental and cultural factors.

Part 3.3: Architectural Styles

Style
A particular or distinctive form of artistic expression characteristic of a person, people, or
period.
Moorish
o prevalent in Spain and Morocco;
o influences were Mesopotamian brick and stucco techniques;
o frequent use of horseshoe arch, and Roman columns and capitals.
Alhambra- Andalusia, Spain.
Classical- derived from the principles of Greek and Roman architecture.
Colosseum- Rome, Italy

Romanesque- emerged from Roman and Byzantine elements;

characterized by massive articulated wall structures, arches and powerful vaults.
Piazza del Doumo-Piazza dei Miracoli. Pisa, Italy.

Gothic
o revolutionary style of construction;
o emerged from Romanesque and Byzantine forms;
o characterized by a delicate balance of forces, with thrusts directed throughout a rigid
structural lattice.
o features were height and light, achieved through a mixture of skeletal structures and
ever increasing windows.
Chartres Cathedral-Chartres, France.

Renaissance
o developed during the rebirth of classical art and learning in Europe;
o characterized by the use of classical orders, round arches, and symmetrical
proportions.
S. Maria Novella-Florence, Italy. Alberti.
Baroque
o more ornate than the Renaissance style;
o deliberate in its attempt to impress, and was lavish of all styles, both in its use of
materials and in the effects it achieves.

Miag-ao Church-Iloilo

Rococo
o final phase of the Baroque;
o characterized by a profuse, semi-abstract ornamentation;
o associated with lightness, swirling forms, flowing lines, ornate stucco work, and
arabesque ornament.

Catherine Palace-St. Petersburg, Russia.

Neoclassicism
o characterized by monumentality, strict use of the orders, and sparing application of
ornament;

Unied States Capitol-Washington, D.C.

Expressionism
o buildings were treated not only as functional structures but also as sculptural
objects;

Einsteins Tower- Potsdam, Germany. Erich Mendelsohn.

Art Nouveau
o style of fine and applied art characterized by fluid, undulating motifs, often derived
from natural forms.

Sagrada Familia- Barcelona, Spain.

Art Deco
o Style Moderne;
o marked by geometric motifs, streamlined and curvilinear forms, sharply defined
outlines, often bold colors.

Metropolitan Theater-Manila. Juan Arellano.

International Style
o functional architecture devoid of regional characteristics;
o characterized by simple geometric forms, large untextured, often white surfaces,
large areas of glass, and general use of steel or reinforced concrete construction.

Barcelona Pavilion-Spain. Mies van der Rohe.

Bauhaus
o The concepts and ideas were characterized chiefly by the synthesis of
technology, craft, and design aesthetics;
o emphasizes on functional design.
Bauhaus School and Faculty- Dessau, Germany. Walter Gropius.
Brutalism
o emphasizes the aesthetic use of basic building processes, especially of cast-in-place
concrete, with no apparent concern for visual amenity.

Unite d’Habitation-Marseille, France. Le Corbusier.

Post-modernism
o reaction against International style and Modernism.
o encourages use of elements from historical vernacular styles and often playful
illusion, decoration, and complexity.

Sony Tower-New York City. Philip Johnson.

Organic Architecture
o expression of personal freedom;
o harmony between structure and the environment;
o integration of individual parts to the whole concept;
o all forms should express the natural use of materials.

Fallingwater-Pennsylvania. Frank Lloyd Wright.

Decostruction
o “Neo-modern” or “post-structuralism”;
o questions traditional assumptions and takes modernist abstraction to an extreme
and exaggerates already known motifs.
Imperial War Museum North-Greater Manchester, England. Daniel
Libeskind.
Evolutionary Architecture
o Eugene Tsui, major proponent;
o design that grows and develops based on climatic and ecological elements, as well
as advances in technology;
o approached as a living organism as if natural forces had shaped the structure.

Fish House-Berkeley, California. Eugene Tsui.

Conceptual Architecture
o “invisible” or “imaginary” architecture;
o represents plans and drawings for buildings and cities that have never been
constructed;
o pure research or speculation.
MODULE 4: TROPICAL ARCHITECTURE
Part 4.1 Elements, factors, and concepts of climatic design

Climate Basics
Climate
A measure of the average pattern of variation in temperature, humidity, atmospheric
pressure, wind, precipitation, atmospheric particle count and other meteorological
variables in a given region over long periods of time.

Climate vs. Weather

o Climate is different from weather, in that weather only describes the short-term
conditions of these variables in a given region.
Tropical Climate (A)
o Found in a nearly unbroken belt around the Earth at low latitudes, mostly within 15°
N and S.
Climate of the Philippines
o The climate of the Philippines is tropical and maritime.
o It is characterized by relatively high temperature, high humidity and abundant
rainfall.
o It is similar in many respects to the climate of the countries of Central America.
El Nido Palawan, Samal Island Davao, Siargao Islands Surigao del Norte, Panglaon Bohol,
Caramon Camarines Sur, Bantyan Island Cebu, Boracay Island Aklan, Plaaui Island Cagayan
Valley, Pagudpud Ilocus Norte, Great Santa Cruz Island Zamboanga,

The most important elements of the country's weather and climate are the following:
o Temperature
• Excluding Baguio, the mean annual temperature in the Philippines is 26.6 °C.
• The coolest months fall in January with a mean temperature of 25.5 °C while the
warmest month occurs in May with a mean temperature of 28.3 °C.
• The difference between the mean annual temperature of the southernmost
station in Zamboanga and that of the northernmost station in Laoag is
insignificant.
 • In other words, there is essentially no difference in the mean annual temperature
of places in Luzon, Visayas or Mindanao measured at or near sea level.

Baguio City
The temperature of Baguio is comparable with those in the temperate climate
and because of this, it is known as the summer capital of the Philippines.
o Humidity
• Humidity refers to the moisture content of the atmosphere.
• Due to high temperature and the surrounding bodies of water, the Philippines
has a high relative humidity.
• The average monthly relative humidity varies between 71% in March and 85% in
September.
o Rainfall
• Rainfall is the most important climatic element in the Philippines.
• Rainfall distribution throughout the country varies from one region to another,
depending upon the direction of the moisture-bearing winds and the location
of the mountain systems.
SEASONS
Using temperature and rainfall as bases, the climate of the country can be divided into two
major seasons: rainy and dry.

• The rainy season, from June to November

• The dry season, from December to May, which may be subdivided further into:
▪ The cool dry season, from December to February
▪ The hot dry season, from March to May
Climate Types
There are four recognized climate types in the Philippines, and they are based on the
distribution of rainfall.

• Type I. Two pronounced seasons: dry from November to April and wet during the rest
of the year.
• Type II. No dry season with a pronounced rainfall from November to January.
• Type III. Seasons are not very pronounced, relatively dry from November to April,
and wet during the rest of the year.
• Type IV. Rainfall is more or less evenly distributed throughout the year.
Four recognized climate types in the Philippines, based on the distribution of rainfall.
Source: PAGASA
PREVAILING WINDS
o Hanging amihan (northeast), November-April
o Hanging habagat (southwest), May- October
MONSOON
A monsoon is a seasonal shift in the prevailing wind direction, that usually brings with it a
different kind of weather.

PART 4.2: Theories And Principles Of Tropical Design

Basics of passive design

PASSIVE DESIGN
Design that works with the environment to exclude unwanted heat or cold and take
advantage of sun and breezes (inducing comfort conditions in the building interiors),
therefore avoiding or minimizing the need for mechanical heating or cooling.
PASSIVE COOLING
The use of passive cooling principles in the tropics results in a building that is comfortable,
energy efficient and results in substantial savings in running costs of both cooling and
lighting.
ACTIVE COOLING
A building design approach that addresses the problem of inducing comfort by means of
equipment that consume energy.
PRINCIPLES OF PASSIVE DESIGN
o Avoid heat gain
1. Orient the building to reduce exposure to midday sun, particularly summer sun.
2. Use materials with low thermal mass as a general rule.
3. Shade walls and windows, particularly any walls with high thermal mass.
4. Use glazing on windows that cannot be effectively shaded.
5. Use insulation, light colors, and heat-reflective surfaces.
o Encourage natural ventilation
1. Orient the building and windows towards prevailing winds.
 2. Include operable windows and ceiling vents that enable the building to naturally
ventilate.
o Make use of natural light
1. Install shaded windows.
2. Install shaded skylights, light tubes, and other natural lighting devices.
o Create cool outdoor areas
1. Use verandas and deep balconies to shade and cool incoming air.
2. Use landscaping to provide shade without blocking cooling breezes and use
planting to reduce ground temperature and minimize reflected heat.
PASSIVE DESIGN CONSIDERATION
MAIN CONSIDERATION
1. Orientation
Orientation concerns the position of the building on the site as well as the arrangement
of the rooms within it.
There are two main goals to consider when considering the building orientation:
▪ Orientation for minimal solar heat gain.
▪ Orientation for maximum air flow.
Sun Path Diagram
▪ Azimuth Lines - Azimuth angles run around the edge of the diagram.
▪ Altitude Lines - Altitude angles are represented as concentric circular dotted
lines that run from the center of the diagram out.
▪ Date Lines - Date lines start on the eastern side of the graph and run to the
western side and represent the path of the sun on one particular day of the
year.
▪ Hour Lines/Analemma - Hour lines are shown as figure-eight-type lines that
intersect the date lines and represent the position of the sun at a specific
hour of the day.
How to read sun path diagrams: At 9:00AM,
On April 1,
the azimuth is 62 degrees, and the altitude is 30 degrees.
2. Ventilation
Ventilation, circulation of air or to replace stale air with fresh air.
Stack Ventilation
Uses the principle of convection to induce air flow.
3. Landscaping
Reducing the extent of paving and other hard surfaces with vegetation.
▪ The hard surfaces of pavement around buildings absorb and re-radiate heat,
creating a hotter microclimate
▪ Thus, it is smart to minimize the extent of paving and replace them with
vegetation
Urban Heat Island
▪ A city or metropolitan area that is significantly warmer than its surrounding
rural areas due to human activities.
▪ Planting areas around the building creates a cooler environment due to a
plant’s ability to transpire or lose moisture, which cools the air
▪ External temperatures can be reduced by over 5°C by using ground cover or
lawn instead of paving
▪ Denser vegetation provides a greater cooling effect
▪ Air that is drawn from planted areas is much cooler than air drawn from paved
areas
4. Thermal Mass
Thermal mass is the ability of building materials to absorb, store, and release heat.
Trombe Wall
A trombe wall is a system for indirect solar heat gain. It consists of a dark colored
wall of high thermal mass facing the sun, with glazing spaced in front to leave a
small air space. The glazing traps solar radiation like a small greenhouse.
▪ In tropical climates, the use of materials with low thermal mass is preferable
particularly on walls that are directly exposed to the sun.
▪ This is because lightweight construction such as timber respond quickly to
cooling breezes, allowing the building to cool down faster
5. Insulation
Insulation controls the rate at which a building loses or gains heat, keeping warmer air
in during winter and excluding external heat in summer.
▪ Insulation is one of the most effective ways to reduce heat input to a building
and can be installed in the roof, ceiling and walls of the building.
6. Windows
Windows are an important way to encourage and direct air flow into a building.
▪ Louvers and casement style windows allow building users to control how much
natural air enters the building.
 ▪ Well-placed louvers or windows, at floor level and at the highest point of the
room, create convection air flow which draws air into the building and creates
breezes to cool occupants.
▪ Tinted glass has a tint applied to the glass during manufacture, to reduce the
amount of heat transmitted through it.
▪ Reflective coatings are thin films of metal or metal oxide that are applied to
standard glass.
▪ They stop greater amounts of heat gain than some toned glass, however, they
have the potential to create glare problems for neighbouring properties, and
can significantly reduce the quantity of light admitted through the glass.
Solar Shading
Shading devices shield windows and other glazed areas from direct sunlight in order to
reduce glare and excessive solar heat gain in warm weather.
▪ Horizontal overhangs are most effective when they have southern orientations.
▪ Horizontal louvers parallel to a wall permit air circulation near the wall and reduce
conductive heat gain.
▪ Louvers may be operated manually or controlled automatically with time or
photoelectric controls to adapt to the solar angle.
▪ Slanted louvers provide more protection than those parallel to a wall.
▪ Angle varies according to the range of solar angles.
▪ Louvers hung from a solid overhang protect against low sun angles.
▪ Louvers may interfere with view.
▪ Vertical louvers are most effective for eastern or western exposures.
▪ Louvers may be operated manually or controlled automatically with time or
photoelectric controls to adapt to solar angle.
▪ Separation from wall reduces conductive heat gain.
▪ Eggcrates combine the shading characteristics of horizontal and vertical louvers and
have a high shading ratio.
▪ Eggcrates, sometimes referred to as brise-soleil, are very efficient in hot climates.
▪ Solar blinds and screens can provide up to a 50% reduction in solar radiation,
depending on their reflectivity.
▪ Heat-absorbing glass can absorb up to 40% of the radiation reaching its surface.

7. Natural lighting
Maximizing the amount of natural light that enters the building can lead to significant
energy savings by reducing the need for artificial lighting.
Maximizing Natural Light
o Skylights
Skylights can provide good quality light to work spaces that are away from
windows. But they need to be shaded and glazed to prevent heat transfer.
Some skylights are also vented to allow hot air to escape.
o Atria
An atrium is a large open space, often several stories high and having a glazed
roof and/or large windows.
The benefit of an atrium is that hot air can be vented at the top rather than
accumulating near the building users.
o Light shelves
A light shelf is an architectural element that allows daylight to penetrate deeper
into a building.
A light shelf is a horizontal light-reflecting overhang which is placed above eye-
level and has a high-reflectance upper surface.
o Clerestory windows
These are high, vertically placed windows that are ideally north facing.
Clerestory windows can be a good source of diffuse light, and can also be useful
in allowing hot air to leave the building.
o Light tubes
MODULE 5: Masters of Architecture

ALVARO AALTO
Born in Finland in 1898. He graduated with honors from Helsinki Polytechnic
in 1921 after which he opened his own practice.
He held the position of Professor of Architecture at MIT 1946 to 1948, and
was president of the Academy of Finland.
Auditurium
University of Helsinki, Finland.
Alvar Aalto generated a style of functionalism which avoided romantic excess
and neoclassical monotony. He utilized texture, color, and structure in
creative new ways.
Aalto's designs were particularly significant because of their response to site,
material and form.
Kunsten Museum
(Museum of Modern Art). Aalborg, Denmark.

ANTONI GAUDI
Born in Spain in 1852. He studied at the Escola Superior d'Arquitectura and
designed his first major commission for the Casa Vincens using a Gothic
Revival style.
La Sagrada Familia
Barcelona, Spain.
Gaudi developed a sensuous, curving, almost surreal design style which
established him as the leader of the Spanish Art Nouveau movement.
His characteristically warped form of Gothic architecture drew admiration
from other avant- garde artists.
Casa Batllo’
Barcelona, Spain.
FRANK GHERY
Born in Canada in 1929. He studied at the Universities of Southern California
and Harvard before he established his first practice.

Guggenheim Museum
Bilbao, Spain.
Gehry moved away from a conventional commercial practice to an artistically
directed atelier.
His deconstructed architectural style began to emerge in late 1970s when
he created collage- like compositions out of found materials. He created
pieces of functional sculpture.

Dancing House, Prague Vitra Design Museum, Germany

FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT

Born in Richland Center, Wisconsin in 1867. He was educated at Second
Ward School, Madison and at the University of Wisconsin where he took
some mechanical drawing and basic mathematics courses. He then
departed for Chicago where he spent several months in J. L. Silsbee's office
before seeking employment with Adler and Sullivan.
Guggenheim Museum, New York
Wright believed in designing structures that were in harmony with humanity
and its environment, a philosophy he called organic architecture.

Falling Water, (Kaufmann House) Pennsylvania.

Through experimentation, Wright developed the idea of the prairie house -
a long, low building with hovering planes and horizontal emphasis.
I.M. PEI
Ieoh Ming Pei, born in China in 1917. He studied architecture at MIT and
Harvard. He worked for several companies and as a professor at Harvard
before he founded his own architectural firm in 1960.

Louvre Pyramid, Paris, France.

Due to his reliance on abstract form and materials such as stone, concrete,
glass, and steel, he has been considered a disciple of Gropius.
Pei generally designs sophisticated glass clad buildings loosely related to the
high-tech movement.

Bank of China Tower, Hong Kong Essensa Towers, Taguig

Jorn Utzon
Born in Copenhagen in 1918. After studying at the Academy of Arts in
Copenhagen, he travelled through Europe, the United States and Mexico. He
established his own practice in Copenhagen in 1950 when he returned from
his travels.
Sydney Opera House
New South Wales, Australia.
Utzon has created a style which incorporates the sculptural quality of Alvar
Aalto, and the organic structures of Frank Lloyd Wright into his designs.
Influenced by architectural tradition, he attempts to create architecture for
living that adheres to a strict structural and constructive process.

National Assembly Building, Kuwait

KENZO TANGE
Born in Osaka, Japan in 1913. He graduated from the University of Tokyo in
1938 and studied city planning at the graduate school at the University of
Tokyo. He received a degree in engineering in 1959.
Two years later, he established his own firm. He also served as professor of
urban engineering at the University of Tokyo from 1963 to 1974.
St. Mary’s Cathedral, Tokyo.
Tange's early designs attempted to combine modernism with traditional
Japanese forms of architecture.
In the late 1960s he rejected this earlier regionalism in favor of an abstract
international style.

Peace Memorial Museum, Hiroshima

LE CORBUSIER
Charles-Édouard Jeanneret-Gris. Born in Switzerland in 1887.
Trained as an artist, he travelled extensively through Germany and the East.
In Paris, he studied under Auguste Perret and absorbed the cultural and
artistic life of the city.
Villa Savoye, Poissy, France.
From 1922 Le Corbusier worked with his cousin Pierre Jeanneret.
During this time, Le Corbusier's ideas began to take physical form, mainly as
houses which he created as "a machine for living in" and which incorporated
his trademark five points of architecture.
Unite d’Habitation, Marseille, France

Notre Dame du Haut, Ronchamp France

LOUIS SULLIVAN
Born in Boston, Massachusetts in 1856. He studied architecture at the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology for one year. He then worked as a
draughtsman for Furness and Hewitt in Philadelphia and for William Le
Baron Jenney in Chicago.
In 1874 he travelled to Europe where he studied at the Ecole des Beaux Arts
in Paris. He returned to Chicago a year later.
Wainwright Building, St. Louis, Missouri.
His designs generally involved a simple geometric form decorated with
ornamentation based on organic symbolism.
Form follows function.
The Sullivan Center
(Formerly Carson, Pirie, Scott and Company Building) Chicago.

LUDWIG MIES VAN DER ROHE

Born in Aachen, Germany in 1886. He worked in the family stone- carving
business before he joined the office of Bruno Paul in Berlin. He entered the
studio of Peter Behrens in 1908 and remained until 1912.

Seagram Building
In collaboration with Philip Johnson. New York City.
He developed a design approach based on advanced structural techniques.
He also developed a sympathy for the aesthetic credos of both Russian
Constructivism and the Dutch De Stijl group.
Less is more.
Farsworth House, Plano Illinois
MICHEAL GRAVES
Born in Indianapolis, Indiana in 1934. He studied at the University of
Cincinnati, Ohio and at Harvard University. After working as a Fellow at the
American Academy in Rome for two years, he started his own practice in
Princeton, New Jersey. He became a professor at Princeton University in
1972.
Disney’s Hotel, New York City.
He generates an ironic, vision of Classicism in which his buildings have
become classical in their mass and order. Graves also has become an an
opponent of modern works who uses humor as an integral part of his
architecture.
Humana Building, Louisville, Kentucky

NORMAN FOSTER
Born in Manchester, England in 1935. He received his architectural training
at Manchester University School of Architecture and Yale University. He
worked with Richard Rogers and Sue Rogers and his wife, Wendy Foster, as
a member of "Team 4" until Foster Associates was founded in London in
1967.
30 St. Mary Axe, (The Gherkin) London, England.
The "High Tech" vocabulary of Foster Associates shows an uncompromising
exploration of technological innovations and forms. Their designs emphasize
the repetition of industrialized "modular" units in which prefabricated off-
site- manufactured elements are frequently employed.
Hearst Tower, New York City
OSCAR NIEMEYER
Born in Rio de Janeiro Brazil in 1907. He graduated from the Escola Nacional
de Belas Artas in Rio de Janeiro and later joined the office of Lucio Costa. In
1936 he joined the team of Brazilian architects collaborating with Le
Corbusier on a new Ministry of Education and Health in Rio de Janeiro.

Brasilia Cathedral, Brasilia.

In his early career, his designs borrowed extensively from the Brazilian
Baroque style of architecture.
In 1956, Niemeyer was appointed architectural adviser to the organization
in charge of implementing Lucio Costa's plans for Brazil's new capital.

Penang State Mosque., Jelutong Malaysia

PHILIP JOHNSON
Born in Cleveland, Ohio in 1906. He graduated from Harvard University and
received an A. B. in architectural history, in 1930 and a B.Arch in 1943.
He served as Director of Architecture at MOMA. He worked with Richard
Foster and with John Burgee until his retirement. He became a trustee of
MOMA in 1958, received the AIA Gold Medal in 1978, and received the
Pritzker Architecture prize in
Glass House, New Canaan, Connecticut.
As an architect, Johnson is most widely respected for his work in the early
1950s.
He altered his architectural principles from Modernist to Postmodernist to
Anti- Postmodernist. He showed a keen interest in style and is remembered
as a stimulator of ideas.
Sony Tower, Formerly AT&T Building, New York City
REM KOOLHAAS
Born in Netherlands in 1944. Koolhaas studied at the Architectural
Association School of Architecture in London and at Cornell University in
Ithaca, New York.
He founded The Office for Metropolitan Architecture in 1975 together with
architects Elia Zenghelis, Zoe Zenghelis and Madelon Vriesendorp in London.
CCTV Headquarters, Beijing, China.
He has been considered a noted Deconstructivist since the major MOMA
exhibition in New York.
Although Koolhaas tends toward the more humanist, less absolute branch
of the Deconstructivist school.

Seattle Central Library, Seattle Washington

RENZO PIANO
Born in Genoa, Italy in 1937. From 1959 to 1964 he studied at the Milan
Politecnico, where he taught until 1968. In 1970, Piano established a
partnership with the English architect Richard Rogers.

Centre Georges Pompidou,

Together, Rogers and Piano designed a number of buildings in Italy and
England.
Their most famous building, the Pompidou Center in Paris, takes its form
from a metaphor of the 'cultural machine' with all color- coded service
elements and structure emphasized on the building's exterior.
The Shard
Also referred to as the Shard of Glass, Shard London Bridge and formerly
London Bridge Tower. London, England.
RICHARD MEIER
Born in Newark, New Jersey in 1934. He graduated from Cornell University
in 1957 then worked with a series of architects, including Skidmore, Owings,
and Merrill and Marcel Breuer. He established his own practice in 1963.

Jubilee Church, Tre Teste, Rome.

Meier usually designs white Neo- Corbusian forms with enameled panels
and glass. These structure usually play with the linear relationships of ramps
and handrails. Although all have a similar look, Meier manages to generate
endless variations on his singular theme.

The Getty Ccenter, Los Angeles

ROBERT VENTURI
Born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania in 1925. He attended the Episcopal
Academy in Philadelphia and graduated from Princeton University. He
worked with Eero Saarinen and Louis I. Kahn before he founded his own
practice in 1958. In 1964 he formed a partnership with John Rausch.

Vanna Venturi House,

In contrast to many modernists, Venturi uses a form of symbolically
decorated architecture based on precedents. He believes that structure and
decoration should remain separate entities and that decoration should
reflect the culture in which it exists.

Allen Art Museum, Oberlin Ohio

SANTIAGO CALATRAVA
Born in Valencia, Spain in 1951. He graduated from the Institute of
Architecture in Valencia and from the Federal Institute of Technology in
Zurich. Calatrava opened his own architecture and engineering office in
Zurich.

Turning Torso, Malmö Municipality, Sweden.

As both an architect and an engineer, Calatrava easily identifies with both
disciplines. He often creates innovative works that depend on a firm grasp
of both the creative and structural aspects of design. His skills as an engineer
allow him to create sculptural surfaces and unusual spaces.

Auditorio de Tenerife, Santa Cruz Tenerife, Spain

WALTER GROPIUS
Born in Berlin in 1883. He studied at the Technical Universities in Munich
and Berlin. He joined the office of Peter Behrens in 1910 and three years
later established a practice with Adolph Meyer.

Bauhaus School and Facility, Dessau, Germany.

Gropius created innovative designs that borrowed materials and methods of
construction from modern technology. This advocacy of industrialized
building carried with it a belief in teamwork and an acceptance of
standardization and prefabrication.

Fagus Factory, Alfeld Germany

QUOTES Charles Eames
Notable quotes by notable architects “Whoever said that pleasure wasn’t
functional?”
Eames moulded plastic chair
Frank Lloyd Wright
“An idea is salvation by atioimagination.”
Guggenheim Museum, New York.
Philip Johnson
“A doctor can bury his mistakes, but an
architect can only advise his clients to “Architecture is the art of how to waste
plant vines.” space.”
Price Tower Seagram Building.

Mies van der Rohe Frank Ghery

“God is in the details.” “Architecture is the art of how to waste
space.”
Seagram Building.
Seagram Building.
“Architecture is the will of an epoch
translated into space.”
S.R. Crown Hall in Illinois Institute of
Technology (Chicago)
Le Corbusier
“Less is more.”
“To create architecture is to put in order.”
Farnsworth House.
Radiant City Proposal
“A hundred times have I thought New York
is a catastrophe and 50 times: it is a
beautiful catastrophe.”
Louis Sulliva
“Architecture is the learned game, correct
“But the building’s identity resides in the
and magnificent, of forms assembled in
ornament.”
the light.”
Details of the Bayard Condict Building
Palace of Assembly, Chandigarh
“Form ever follows function.”
Wainwright Building.
Kenzo Tange Walter Grupius
“Architects today tend to depreciate “Architecture begins where engineering
themselves, to regard themselves as no ends.”
more than just ordinary citizens without
Temple Oheb Shalom, Baltimore
the power to reform the future.”
Hiroshima Peace Memorial Museum