Additional Reading

(Circulatory System)
 Lymph: Clear fluid that helps remove waste and toxins from the
body.
 Lymphatic ducts and filtration: Ducts collect lymph and lymph
nodes filter out harmful substances before returning it to the
bloodstream.

Oxyhemoglobin is a complex formed when oxygen molecules
(O2) bind to hemoglobin, a protein found in red blood cells. It is
a bright red pigment that gives oxygenated blood its
characteristic color. When oxygen is inhaled, it diffuses into the
lungs, where it binds to hemoglobin in red blood cells to form
oxyhemoglobin. Oxyhemoglobin then carries oxygen through
the arteries to various tissues and organs in the body, where it
releases the oxygen for cellular respiration. The release of
oxygen from oxyhemoglobin and the binding of carbon dioxide
(CO2) are essential processes in the exchange of gases between
the respiratory system and the body's tissues.
 The binding occurs due to the specific chemical structure of
hemoglobin and the affinity it has for oxygen
 The binding of oxygen to hemoglobin is relatively stable,
meaning that once oxygen binds to hemoglobin, it tends to
remain bound until it reaches the body's tissues. This stability
allows for efficient oxygen transport from the lungs to the cells.

The binding of carbon dioxide (CO2) to hemoglobin is more
reversible compared to oxygen binding because the affinity of
hemoglobin for CO2 is lower. This means that CO2 can easily
bind to and dissociate from hemoglobin, depending on the
conditions.
 Carbon monoxide (CO) poisoning occurs when an individual
inhales high levels of carbon monoxide gas. Carbon monoxide is
 a colorless, odorless, and tasteless gas that is produced by the
incomplete combustion of carbon-based fuels such as wood,
gasoline, coal, propane, and natural gas.
 When carbon monoxide is inhaled, it enters the bloodstream and
binds to hemoglobin in red blood cells. The binding affinity of
carbon monoxide to hemoglobin is much higher than that of
oxygen. As a result, carbon monoxide displaces oxygen from
hemoglobin, leading to the formation of carboxyhemoglobin.
This reduces the blood's ability to transport oxygen to the body's
tissues.
 Red blood cells, also known as erythrocytes, do not have nuclei
because they undergo a process called enucleation during their
maturation. Enucleation is the removal of the nucleus from the
cell.
 More space for oxygen-carrying molecules: Without a nucleus,
red blood cells have more room to accommodate haemoglobin,
the protein responsible for carrying oxygen. This allows for a
higher oxygen-carrying capacity in each red blood cell.
 When red blood cells die and break down, the iron part of
haemoglobin is typically recycled and reused by the body. The
iron is a crucial component of haemoglobin and is essential for
the transportation of oxygen.
 White blood cells (WBCs) do not actually squeeze through the
walls of capillaries by producing pseudopodia. Instead, they
employ a process called diapedesis or extravasation to leave the
bloodstream and enter tissues.
 Immune Surveillance: One of the primary functions of WBCs is
to provide immune surveillance throughout the body. They
constantly circulate in the bloodstream, monitoring for any signs
of infection, inflammation, or tissue damage. By entering the
tissues, WBCs can directly encounter and respond to foreign
pathogens, damaged cells, or other immune triggers.
 Infection and Inflammation Response: When an infection or
inflammation occurs, various signals are released from the
affected tissues, including chemotactic factors. These chemical
 signals attract and guide WBCs to the site of infection or
inflammation. The WBCs are directed towards the source of
these signals, which helps them locate and combat the infection
or contribute to the inflammatory response.


 Leukemia: Leukemia is a type of cancer that affects the bone
marrow and blood-forming cells, leading to an abnormal
production of white blood cells. In leukemia, the bone marrow
produces an excessive number of immature or abnormal white
blood cells, which can crowd out healthy cells. These abnormal
cells, known as leukemic cells, are unable to function properly,
leading to impaired immune function. Leukemia can be
classified into different types based on the specific type of white
blood cells affected
 Leukopenia: Leukopenia, on the other hand, refers to a decrease
in the number of white blood cells in the bloodstream,
specifically a lower-than-normal count of total leukocytes or
specific subtypes of leukocytes. It is a condition characterized
by abnormally low levels of white blood cells.
Neutrophils are a type of white blood cell. Neutrophils play a
critical role in the innate immune response, which is the body's
immediate defense mechanism against infections. They are
highly efficient at phagocytosis, which is the process of
engulfing and destroying foreign particles, such as bacteria,
fungi, and cellular debris.
 Inflammation is the body's way of protecting itself from harm,
like infections or injuries. White blood cells, called leukocytes,
are a crucial part of the immune system's response to
inflammation. Their role is to detect the problem, travel to the
affected area, and fight off the harmful substances.
 Leukocytes can recognize and destroy harmful pathogens and
damaged cells. They move from the bloodstream to the site of
inflammation, guided by chemical signals. Once there, they
engulf and destroy the invaders through a process called
phagocytosis. Leukocytes also release signaling molecules that
help coordinate the immune response and promote healing.
 Diapedesis, also known as extravasation, refers to the process by
which white blood cells (leukocytes) exit the bloodstream and
migrate into the surrounding tissues. It is a crucial step in the
immune response, allowing leukocytes to reach sites of
infection, inflammation, or tissue damage.

 These blood platelets are like tiny sticky patches. When they
see a damaged blood vessel, they rush to the rescue and stick to
the injured area. It's like they're creating a seal to stop the blood
from flowing out too much.
 Once the platelets stick to the wound, they change their shape
and become bumpy. This helps them stick together and make a
bigger patch. They call their friends to join them, and together
they form a strong wall at the site of the injury.
 But that's not all! The platelets also release special stuff from
inside them. This stuff attracts more platelets and helps make
the patch even stronger. It's like they're building a wall using
building blocks.
 As more platelets gather and stick together, they create a sort of
net that holds everything in place. This net is made of something
called fibrin, which is like a special string that keeps the
platelets together and makes the patch really strong.
 Once the cut has healed and you're all better, the body doesn't
need the patch anymore. So, the platelets and the net start to
break down and disappear, just like when you clean up after
playing with blocks.
 When you get a cut, blood clotting is a crucial process that helps
to stop bleeding and promote healing. Blood clotting involves
the work of many different components, including platelets,
thrombokinase, prothrombin, and fibrinogen. Here's how they
all come together:
 Platelets: Platelets are small cell fragments found in the blood.
When you get a cut, platelets rush to the site of injury. They
stick to the damaged blood vessel walls and form a plug. Think
of them as tiny superheroes creating a wall to block the hole and
prevent excessive bleeding.
 Thrombokinase: When the platelets come into contact with the
damaged blood vessel, they release a substance called
thrombokinase. Thrombokinase is like a signal that starts a chain
reaction.
 Prothrombin: Thrombokinase triggers an inactive protein called
prothrombin, which is floating in your blood, to change into an
active form called thrombin. Think of prothrombin as a sleeping
superhero that gets awakened by thrombokinase.
 Fibrinogen: Thrombin then acts on another protein called
fibrinogen. Fibrinogen is also present in your blood, and it's like
long strands of string. When thrombin acts on fibrinogen, it
changes it into a sticky mesh-like substance called fibrin.
 Fibrin Mesh: The fibrin strands form a mesh, just like a net or a
web, around the platelet plug. This mesh traps red blood cells
and more platelets, making the clot stronger and more stable.
The fibrin mesh holds everything together, almost like a
bandage.
 vitamin K is a fat-soluble vitamin that plays a crucial role in the
production of several clotting factors, including prothrombin.
 When blood clots, the liquid portion of the blood called plasma
undergoes a change. The clotting process leads to the formation
of a solid mass, which consists of a mesh of fibrin strands along
with trapped platelets and other blood cells. This solid mass is
called a blood clot or thrombus.
 As the blood clot forms, a clear, straw-colored fluid called
serum is released. Serum is essentially plasma without the
 clotting factors. It is the liquid portion of the blood that remains
after the clotting process has taken place. The clotting factors,
such as fibrinogen, are consumed during clot formation, leaving
behind serum
 Red blood cells (RBCs) have antigens on their surface, while
plasma contains antibodies that can recognize and bind to
specific antigens. This relationship forms the basis of blood
typing and compatibility.

The Rh system, also known as the Rhesus system, is a blood
group system that categorizes individuals based on the presence
or absence of a specific antigen called the Rh factor on the
surface of their red blood cells (RBCs).
 In the Rh system, there are two main Rh antigens: RhD antigen
and RhCE antigen. The most significant and commonly
discussed antigen is the RhD antigen, which is the basis for
classifying individuals as Rh-positive (Rh+) or Rh-negative
(Rh-).
 If an individual has the RhD antigen on their RBCs, they are
considered Rh-positive (Rh+). If they lack the RhD antigen,
they are classified as Rh-negative (Rh-). In addition to the RhD
antigen, there are other minor Rh antigens (C, c, E, and e),
which are collectively referred to as RhCE antigens.
 The presence or absence of the Rh antigen is important in
various medical contexts, including blood transfusions and
pregnancy. Here are a few key points related to the Rh system:
 Blood Transfusions: In blood transfusions, it is crucial to match
the Rh type of the donor's blood with the recipient's blood type.
Rh-positive individuals can generally receive both Rh+ and Rh-
blood, while Rh-negative individuals should receive Rh- blood
to prevent potential immune reactions.
 Rh Incompatibility in Pregnancy: Rh incompatibility may occur
during pregnancy when an Rh-negative mother carries an Rh-
positive fetus. If the fetal blood enters the mother's bloodstream,
her immune system may produce antibodies against the Rh
antigen, which can pose risks in subsequent pregnancies. To
 prevent complications, Rh-negative mothers are typically given
a medication called Rh immunoglobulin (RhIg) to prevent the
formation of these antibodies.

QUESTION ANSWERS
Question 1: Why is circulatory system also known as transport system ?
Answer: Circulatory system is also called transport system because it transports food, water,
hormones,
enzymes, electrolytes, antibodies and respiratory gases to or away from the body tissues.

Question 2: Write about origin and functions of Red Blood Corpuscles.

Answer: Origin: R.B.Cs. or erythrocytes are minute biconcave disc-like structures, flat in the
centre and thick and round at periphery in blood formed in red bone marrow of the long
bones and bregot bone.
Function: They help in the transportation of oxygen and carbon dioxide to the different parts
of body.

Question 3: Define the following terms Diapedesis.

Answer: The process in which the leucocytes or white blood cells squeeze out through the
walls of blood capillaries at the site of injury to fight against pathogens.

Question 4: State any five functions of blood.

Answer: (i) It transports oxygen from lungs to body tissues.
(ii) It transports carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs partly in combination with
haemoglobin and partly as solution in blood plasma.
(iii) It transports digested food to different organs of the body which is utilized by cells.
(iv) It helps in keeping the temperature of the body uniform by distributing heat.
(v) It forms a clot wherever there is a cut in a blood vessel. The clot not only prevents further
loss of blood but also prevents the entry of disease germs.

Question 6: Why are capillaries thin walled ?

Answer: The capillaries are thin walled, because they help in the exchange of gases and
diffusion of materials into the cells. This diffusion is possible due to the thinness of its walls.

Question 7: Describe the role of lymph.

Answer: (i) Transport of nutrients and oxygen to the cells and tissues.
(ii) Removal of CO2 and nitrogenous wastes from the tissues and carry them to the blood.
(iii) It absorbs fatty acids and glycerol through lacteals.
(iv) It destroys harmful pathogens by its lymphocytes.
(v) It maintains body temperature.
(vi) It regulates protein level in the tissue fluid.
Question 8: Blood and Lymph.
Answer:

Blood Lymph

(i) Blood contains plasma, RBCs, WBCs and platelets. Lymph contains only the soluble parts of plasma.

(ii) It contains albumin, globulin and fibrinogen. It does not contain these substances.

(iii) It is a opaque red coloured fluid of alkaline It is a colourless fluid resembling blood in other

reaction. respects.

Question 9: Arteries and Veins.

Answer:

Arteries Veins

(i) These carry blood from the heart to different organs

These collect blood from different organs of the b
of the body.

(ii) These contain oxygenated blood (Pulmonary artery These contain deoxygenated blood. (Pulmonary v

contains deoxygenated blood) contains oxygenated bloods).

(iii) Blood flows rapidly with jerks under Blood flows slowly at a constant slow speed.
 pressure.

(iv) The walls are thick and elastic. The walls are thin and non-elastic.

(v) Valves are absent. Valves are present.

Question 10: Red blood cells and White blood cells.

Answer:

RBCs WBCs

(i) These are minute biconcave disc like structures, flat

These are amoeboid and can produce pseudopodi
in centre, thick and round at the periphery and nuclei
have a nucleus.
are absent in mature RBCs.

(ii) These contain a respiratory pigment haemoglobin. Haemoglobin is not present.

WBCs help in protection of the body against infe

(iii) RBCs help in transport of oxygen and CO2.
from the germs.
 (iv) The number of RBCs in adult male is 5 million per Their number is usually about 4000-8000 per cub

cu. millimeter. millimeter.

(vi) Their average life span is about 120 days. Their average life span is about two weeks.

Question 4: Open circulatory system and Closed circulatory system.

Answer:

Open circulatory system Closed circulatory system

(i) Blood may flow in vessels but also remains in direct Blood flows in definite vessels known as arteries

contact with tissues. veins.

(ii) Blood spaces or sinuses are present. Blood spaces or sinuses are absent.

(iii) Haemocoel is present. Haemocoel is absent.

(iv) Found in insects, e.g., cockroach, housefly, etc. Found in annelids and higher vertebrates.

Question 5: Diastole and Systole.

Answer:

Diastole Systole
 It is the condition of the heart when the chambers
It is the condition of the heart when the chambers relax.
heart contract.

It is the condition when the blood enters the chamber, It is the condition when the blood is pumped out

e,g., when left atrium relaxes, blood enters from the heart, e.g., when the left ventricle contracts, the b

pulmonary vein under low pressure. pumped to the body under high pressure.

Question 6: Blood plasma and Serum.

Answer:

Blood plasma Serum

It is a transparent fluid secreted from blood clot th

It is transparent fluid part of blood that contains blood
no contain blood corpuscles, fibrinogen and
corpuscles, fibrinogen and prothrombin.
prothrombin.