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Convection
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Objectives
When you finish studying this chapter, you should be able to:
• Obtain average velocity from a knowledge of velocity profile, and
average temperature from a knowledge of temperature profile in
internal flow,
• Have a visual understanding of different flow regions in internal flow,
such as the entry and the fully developed flow regions, and calculate
hydrodynamic and thermal entry lengths,
• Analyze heating and cooling of a fluid flowing in a tube under
constant surface temperature and constant surface heat flux conditions,
and work with the logarithmic mean temperature difference,
• Obtain analytic relations for the velocity profile, pressure drop,
friction factor, and Nusselt number in fully developed laminar flow,
and
• Determine the friction factor and Nusselt number in fully developed
turbulent flow using empirical relations, and calculate the pressure
drop and heat transfer rate.
Introduction
• Pipe ─ circular cross section.
• Duct ─ noncircular cross section.
• Tubes ─ small-diameter pipes.
• The fluid velocity changes from zero at the surface
(no-slip) to a maximum at the pipe center.
• It is convenient to work with an
average velocity, which remains
constant in incompressible flow
when the cross-sectional area
is constant.
Average Velocity
• The value of the average velocity is determined from
the conservation of mass principle
m Vavg AC u r dAC
Ac
(8-1)
u r dA
C
R
u r 2 rdr 2
R
Vavg 2 u r rdr
Ac 0
AC R 2 R 0
(8-2)
Average Temperature
• It is convenient to define the value of the mean
temperature Tm from the conservation of
energy principle.
• The energy transported by the fluid through a
cross section in actual flow must be equal to
the energy that would be transported through
the same cross section if the fluid were at a
constant temperature Tm
E fluid mc pTm c pT r m c T r u r VdA
p c
(8-3)
m Ac
• For incompressible flow in a circular pipe of radius R
c pT r m c T r u r 2 rdr
p
Tm
m Ac
mc p Vavg R 2 c p (8-4)
R
2
2
T r u r rdr
Vavg R 0
• The mean temperature Tm of a fluid changes during
heating or cooling.
Idealized Actual
Laminar and Turbulent Flow in
Tubes
• For flow in a circular tube, the Reynolds number is
defined as
Vavg D Vavg D (8-5)
Re
• For flow through noncircular tubes D is replaced by
the hydraulic diameter Dh.
4 Ac
Dh (8-6)
P
• laminar flow: Re<2300
• fully turbulent: Re>10,000.
The Entrance Region
• Consider a fluid entering a circular pipe at a uniform
velocity.
• Because of the no-slip condition a velocity gradient
develops along the pipe.
• The flow in a pipe is divided into two regions:
– the boundary layer region, and
– the and the irrotational (core) flow region.
• The thickness of this
boundary layer Irrotational Boundary
layer
flow
increases in the flow
direction until it
reaches the pipe
center.
• Hydrodynamic entrance region ─ the region from
the pipe inlet to the point at which the boundary layer
merges at the centerline.
• Hydrodynamically fully developed region ─ the
region beyond the entrance region in which the
velocity profile is fully developed and remains
unchanged.
• The velocity profile in the fully developed region is
– parabolic in laminar flow, and
– somewhat flatter or fuller in turbulent flow.
Thermal Entrance Region
• Consider a fluid at a uniform temperature entering a circular
tube whose surface is maintained at a different temperature.
• Thermal boundary layer along the tube is developing.
• The thickness of this boundary layer increases in the flow
direction until the boundary layer reaches the tube center.
• Thermal entrance region.
• Thermally fully developed region ─ the region beyond the
thermal entrance region in which the dimensionless
temperature profile
expressed as
(Ts-T)/(Ts-Tm)
remains unchanged.
– Hydrodynamically fully developed:
u r , x
0 u u r (8-7)
x
– Thermally fully developed:
Ts x T r , x
0
x Ts x Tm x
(8-8)
Ts T T r r R
f x (8-9)
r Ts Tm r R Ts Tm
• Surface heat flux can be expressed as
T k T r r R
qs hx Ts Tm k hx (8-10)
r r=R Ts Tm
• For thermally fully developed region From (Eq. (8-9))
T r r R
f x
Ts Tm
Turbulent flow
– Hydrodynamic
Lh,turbulent 1.359D Re1 4 (8-13)
– Thermal (approximate)
Lh ,turbulent Lt ,turbulent 10 D (8-14)
Turbulent flow Nusselt Number
• The Nusselt numbers are much
higher in the entrance region.
• The Nusselt number reaches
a constant value at a distance
of less than 10 diameters.
• The Nusselt numbers for the
uniform surface temperature and uniform surface heat
flux conditions are identical in the fully developed
regions, and nearly identical in the entrance regions.
Nusselt number is insensitive to the type of
thermal boundary condition.
General Thermal Analysis
• In the absence of any work interactions, the conservation
of energy equation for the steady flow of a fluid in a tube
d Ts Tm hp
dx (8-28)
Ts Tm mc p
• Integrating Eq. 6-28 from x=0 (tube inlet
where Tm=Ti) to x=L (tube exit where Tm=Te)
gives
Ts Te hAs
ln (8-29)
Ts Ti mc p
• Taking the exponential of both sides and
solving for Te
Te Ts Ts Ti exp hpL mc p (8-30)
• or
Tm x Ts Ts Ti exp hpx mc p
• The temperature difference between the fluid and the
surface decays exponentially in the flow direction, and the
rate of decay depends on the magnitude of the exponent
hAs mc p
• This dimensionless parameter is
called the number of transfer
units (NTU).
– Large NTU value – increasing tube
length marginally increases heat
transfer rate.
– Small NTU value – heat transfer increases
significantly with increasing tube length.
• Solving Eq. 8–29 for mcp gives
hAs
mc p (8-31)
ln Ts Te Ts Ti
where
Ti Te DTe DTi
DTln (8-33)
ln Ts Te Ts Ti ln DTe DTi
DTln is the logarithmic mean temperature
difference.
Laminar Flow in Tubes
Assumptions:
• steady laminar flow, • The velocity profile u(r)
• incompressible fluid, remains unchanged in
• constant properties, the flow direction.
• fully developed region, • no motion in the radial
and direction.
• straight circular tube. • no acceleration.
• Consider a ring-shaped
differential volume element.
• A force balance on the volume
element in the flow direction
gives
2 rdrP x 2 rdrP x dx
2 rdr r 2 rdr r dr 0
(8-34)
64 64
– Circular tube, laminar: f
DVavg Re (8-46)
Temperature Profile and the Nusselt
Number
• Energy is transferred by mass in the
x-direction, and by conduction in the
r-direction.
• The steady flow energy balance for a
cylindrical shell element can be
expressed as mc pTx mc pTx dx Qr Qr dr 0 (8-49)
• Substituting
m uAc u 2 rdr
and dividing by 2rdrdx gives, after rearranging
Tx dx Tx 1 Qr dr Qr
c pu (8-50)
dx 2 rdx dr
T 1 Q
• Or u (8-51)
x 2 c p rdx r
Q T T
• Since k 2 rdx 2 kdx r
r r r r r
(8-52)
Eq 8-51 becomes
T T k
u r ; (8-53)
x r dr r cp
Constant Surface Heat Flux
• Substituting Eqs. 8-24 and 8-41 into Eq. 8.53
r2 T 2 qs
u r 2Vavg 1 2 constant
R x Vavg c p R
(8-41) (8-24)
T T
u r
(8-53)
x r dr r
4 qs r 2 1 d dT (8-55)
1 2 r
kR R r dr dr
• Separating the variables and integrating twice
qs 2 r 4
T r 2 C1r C2 (8-56)
kR 4R
• Boundary conditions
T r 0 C1=0
– Symmetry at r=0: 0
r
C2
– At r=R: T(r=R)=Ts
qs R 3 r 2 r4
T Ts 2 4
(8-57)
k 4 R 4R
• The bulk mean temperature Tm is determined by substituting
the velocity and temperature profile relations (Eqs. 8–41
and 8–57) into Eq. 8–4 and performing the integration
qs h Ts Tm
11 qs R
(8-58) Tm Ts
24 k
24 k 48 k k
h 4.36 (8-59)
11 R 11 D D
Constant heat flux (circular tube, laminar)
hD
Nu 4.36 (8-60)
k
Constant Surface temperature (circular tube, laminar)
hD
Nu 3.66 (8-61)
k
Laminar Flow in Noncircular Tubes
0.03 Dh L Re Pr
Nu 7.54 (8-64)
1 0.016 Dh L Re Pr
23
Turbulent flow in Tubes
• Most correlations for the friction and heat transfer
coefficients in turbulent flow are based on experimental
studies.
• For smooth tubes, the friction factor in turbulent flow can
be determined from the explicit first Petukhov equation