REVIEWER IN SCIENCE

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) is a biomolecule that has

an essential role in how our cells produce proteins. Every
organism has DNA. DNA contains the gene that carries
the genetic information that can be passed on from one
generation to another. It is made up of chains of
nucleotides. Each nucleotide consists of a five-carbon
sugar called deoxyribose (deoxy means ‘’without
oxygen’’) and a sugar-phosphate backbone group, which
make up the nitrogenous bases of DNA. DNA is described
as a ‘’double helix’’ whose structure is similar to a twisted
ladder.

4 TYPES OF NITROGENOUS BASES ARE FOUND IN DNA.

 CYTOSINE (C)
 GUANINE (G)
 ADENINE (A)
 THYMINE (T)

Adenine and Guanine are considered ‘’purines’’ because their structure has two rings, whereas
cytosine and thymine are ‘’pyrimidines’’ because their structure only has one ring. A
pyrimidine always pairs with a purine. So, cytosine pairs with guanine, and adenine pairs with
thymine.

DNA REPLICATION
Replication is the process wherein DNA produces new copies of itself. This process is
described as ‘’semiconservative’’ because, after DNA replication, the new copies
contain both the old strand and the new strand. A helicase (an enzyme) will attach to
one part of the DNA and opens it up (unzip), exposing the nitrogenous bases. The
unzipped parts will constitute the leading strand and the lagging strand. To stabilize
the unzipped part of the DNA, the molecules of a single-strand binding protein will
attach to the open strands.
RIBONUCLEIC ACID
The ribonucleic acid primer will attach to one part of the leading strand 5’ to 3’ direction (the
apostrophe is read as prime). It will be synthesized continuously by DNA polymerase (another
enzyme). This happens simultaneously with the lagging strand of the DNA in a 3’ to 5’ direction.

PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
The process of protein synthesis doesn’t start and end in the ribosome though. It starts inside the
nucleus when the ribonucleic acid (RNA) copies the nucleotide sequence of DNA. Protein
synthesis starts with transcription. It happens when the mRNA enters the nucleus and copies the
nucleotide sequence of DNA. During transcription, an enzyme called RNA polymerase attaches
to one part of the DNA, where the promoter is located. It then separates the strand of DNA.
Only one strand of DNA is used by RNA as a template for copying the nucleotides.
TRANSCRIPTION IS DIVIDED INTO 3 PHASES IN ORDER:
 INITIATION
 ELONGIATION
 TERMINATION

3 MAIN TYPES OF RNA:

 MESSENGER RNA (mRNA) acts as a ‘’messenger’’ that copies the nucleotide
sequence of the DNA inside the nucleus and carries it out to the cytoplasm.
 RIBOSOMAL RNA (rRNA) is the site where the proteins are assembled.
 TRANSFER (tRNA) carries amino acids and transfers them to the ribosome.

RNA
RNA is single-stranded and is made up of a phosphate group and a five-carbon sugar called
‘’ribose’’. It is made of nitrogenous bases: cytosine, guanine, adenine, and uracil (U). During
‘’Initiation’’, the RNA polymerase attaches to the promoter in the DNA, which will signal the
start of RNA synthesis. In this phase, the mRNA copies the nucleotide sequences in the DNA
following the base pairing rule; however, instead of thymine, mRNA uses uracil to pair with
adenine. During elongation, mRNA strands start to separate from the DNA template, carrying
with it the copied nucleotide sequences. This will let the
two strands of the template be called the terminator. This
indicates the end part of the DNA to be copied, allowing
the polymerase to detach from the RNA and the DNA
strands. The mRNA carrying the DNA sequence will leave
the nucleus, going to the cytoplasm.
MUTATIONS
In the process of replication, any incorrect pairing of the base may lead to mutation. There are
two types of mutation: gene mutation and chromosomal mutation. A gene is a sequence of
DNA that determines a trait, whereas a chromosome, which can be found inside the nucleus,
contains the genes, which are transmitted from one generation to another, especially during cell
production. In chromosomal mutation, either the structure of the chromosome is affected. Gene
mutation affects the nucleotide sequence in a gene, it is classified into several types.

CAUSES OF MUTATION
Mutations do not happen overnight. Usually, a mutation is caused by exposure to radiation and
chemicals.
 Exposure to high-energy radiation such as X-rays and gamma rays. These kinds of
radiation can cause damage to ions. When combined with the nitrogenous bases in DNA,
it can result in errors during DNA replication, which may lead to mutations
 Excessive exposure to chemicals, especially radioactive ones, This can alter the base
pairs in DNA, which can cause frameshift mutations.
EVOLUTION

Lamarck
Lamarck’s theory of evolution was based on how organisms (e.g. animals, and plants) change
during their lifetime, then pass these changes onto their offspring.

For example, Lamarck believes that the giraffe had a long neck because its neck grew longer
during its lifetime, as it stretched to reach leaves in high-up trees; meaning that each generation
of giraffes had a longer neck than previous generations.
Darwin
Darwin’s theory, known as natural selection, believed that organisms possessed variation (each
individual was slightly different from one other), and these variations led to some being more
likely to survive and reproduce than others. Therefore, features that made an organism more
likely to survive or reproduce are more likely to appear in each generation.

For example, in terms of the giraffe, Darwin’s theory would state that longer-necked giraffes
were more likely to survive. This would be because they could eat leaves from taller trees, so
more long-necked giraffes will be born, which eventually caused all giraffes to have longer
necks. Longer-necked giraffes survived because they were a better fit for their environment. It is
from this idea that we get the phrase ‘survival of the fittest’.
Darwin’s theory became accepted because it had more evidence that supported it. Lamarck’s
theory suggests that all organisms become more complicated over time, and therefore don’t
account for simple organisms, such as single-cell organisms. We also know that,
through observation, characteristics inherited during an individual’s lifetime do not get passed
onto their offspring.

Darwin’s theory became even stronger when, many years after his death, the study
of genetics emerged. Genetics ultimately showed that all inherited traits were passed on
through genes, which are unaffected by the outside world, as Lamarck would predict, and are
instead naturally varied, as Darwin predicted.