PRE HISTORY TO HARSHA

1
 TIME FRAME OF PRE-HISTORIC CULTRES IN INDIA

• Old stone Age, Palaeolithic Age (2MYA/5,00,000−12000 BCE/10,000

BCE)

• Late OR Middle Stone Age, Mesolithic Age (10,000−7000 BCE)

• New Stone Age, Neolithic Age (7,000−1000 BCE)

qNOTE: Great variations in TIMELINES

2
 PALEOLITHIC

• PALEO:OLD
• LITHIC MEANS : STONE
• OLD STONE AGE
• Also ice age/pleistocene period

• Early evidence of HUMANS living in INDIA

• Racially : Negrito (probably)

3
 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

• What did they eat ..?

• fruits
• Vegetable
• meat

• How did they get their food..?

• HUNTING AND GATHERING

4
 GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS

• Where did they live ..? or Resided ..?

• CAVES AND OPEN AIR

• were they choosing their residing places in any specific geography.. ?

• Near water bodies like rivers

5
 SUB DIVISIONS OF PALEOLITHIC AGE
• INTO 3 PHASES

• On the basis tools they used

EARLY/LOWER PALEOLITHIC MIDDLE PALEOLITHIC LATE/UPPER PALEOLITHIC

100,000 BCE- 39,000BCE -23,000 23,000 BCE -10,000

50,000/39,000BCE

6
 EARLY PALEOLITHIC
qFEATURES :

q Type of tools they used

qHAND AXE

qMan, during this period, used

tools of UNPOLISHED.
qCovers the greater part of the
Ice Age-EARLY PALEOLITHIC

7
 OTHER TOOLS
• CLEAVERS
• CHOPPERS

qUNPOLISHED

8
 WHICH STONE THEY ARE MADE OF ..?
• QUARTZITE

• SO THEY ARE CALLED :QUARTZITE MEN

• Basalt also used

9
 USE OF TOOLS
• HUNTING

• CHOPPING

• DIGGING

• SKINNING

10
 FEATURES
• Did they stay at one place ..?

• NO, THEY ARE MOVERS

• wanderers
• Small communities or Large communities ..?
• SMALL

11
 FEATURES
• DRESSING STYLE..?

• Animal skin
• Bark
• Leaves

• FIRE USED FOR THE FIRST TIME(Fire marks in Kurnool caves)

• BY :HOMO ERECTUS
• homo erectus means:UPRIGHT MAN
• WHETHER THEY SPOKE..?
• iT IS UNCLEAR/BUT ANATOMICALLY POSSIBLE TO SPEAK
12
 WHAT THEY DID NOT KNOW..?
• House building /construction
• agriculture, pottery,
• metal.
• WRITING

• That’s why this culture is called :PRE-HISTORY

13
 WHERE THEY ARE FOUND..?
• Found in Soan and Sohan river valley (now in Pakistan),
• D.N.WADIYA excavated soan sites
• Thar Desert -Didwana, Rajasthan
• it referred as:INDIA’S OLDUVAI GORGE(TANZANIA-the place known for
PALEOANTHRO EXCAVATION)
• Hiran Valley (Gujarat),

• Belan Valley Mirzapur (UP)

• KASHMIR

14
 SPECIAL SITE
• rockshelters of Bhimbetka (MP),-

• SOUTHERN EDGE OF VINDHYAS

• It is inside the RATAPANI Wildlife Sanctuary, and
• ONE OF THE 7 HILLS IN THE REGION-

• BHIMA used to rest here during exile hence the name

• V.S.WAKANKAR -1957 called it a paleolithic site

• (1888-W.CINCAID -called it as Buddhist site)(BRITISH OFFICER)

• Dickinsonia (means :ANIMAL KINGDOM -EXTINCT NOW) fossils found at Bhimbetka

15
 MIDDLE PALOELITHIC
• on the basis of tools this classification

• H.D. Sankalia establsihed Middle

paleolithic in India

• New stone style

• called: FLAKES(CHIP/SCRAP)

• MEANS: point scrapers and blade like

tools
• FLINT INDUSTRIES-HARD SILICA 16
 WHERE THEY FOUND ..?
• Found in Soan,

• Narmada and Tungabhadra river valleys,Luni valley

• Sanghao Cave(near peshawar,Pakistan)

• Nevasa, in MH(on banks of Pravara-trib. of Godavari)

• here used LAVALLOIS technique-Hammering a block of stone

• some sparse sites in Chota Nagpur plateau, Deccan plateau and Eastern Ghats
17
 UPPER PALEOLITHIC
• HOMO SAPIENS ARE COMPLETLY
EVOLVED BY THIS TIME
• Climate was becoming warm and
humid

• Tools called: BURINS

• Used for engraving

• Also used :BONE TOOLS

18
 WHERE THEY ARE FOUND ..?
• Found in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka,
• Maharashtra,
• Central MP,
• Southern UP
• Chhotanagpur Plateau.(JH,BH,ODI,CHH,WB)

• Bone tools found only at

• cave sites of Kurnool and Muchchatla Chintamani Gavi in Andhra
Pradesh

19
 SPECIFIC SITES
• Hunsgi - Karnataka
• Attirrampakam & Kortallayar-Tamil Nadu
• Pahalgam-Kashmir
• Didwana-Rajasthan
• Hathnora, Bhimbetaka, Adamgarh-MP
• Singrauli -Uttar Pradesh
• Mayurbhanj -Odisha

20
 HATHNORA
• Narmada banks
• skull discovered
• called :NARMADA MAN
• So a fossil site
• belongs to the category of Homo erectus

21
 HOBBIES OF PALEOLITHIC PEOPLE
• CALLED : ARTISTIC ACTIVTIES
• Practiced painting
• upper Paleolithic beginning

• seen at : BHIMBETKA in MP
• painted subjects..?

• Man, Animal, and Geometric

symbols.
• line drawings
• snake animal is absent in paintings
22
 SOME FACTS
• ROBERT BRUCE FOOT
• he began the first systematic research of human prehistoric remains
in India,
• making the first discovery of hand axes (PALLAVARAM)
• 1863.

23
 MESOLITHIC
• Also called : MIDDLE STONE AGE
• Belong to HOLOCENE PERIOD
• 10,000 BCE -7000 BCE
• Transitional phase between PALEO AND NEOLITHIC

24
 MAIN FEATURES
• Reduction in size of stone tools
• called as : MICROLITHS

• not more than: 5 cm

• made of : silica and

chert/chalcedony

• pointed tools or sharp edges

25
 OTHER TOOLS
• used Microliths as composite tools such as spearheads and arrow
heads

• Started using BOW AND ARROW

• Make hunting easier and can be done from a distance

26
 SUBSISTENCE
• HUNTING

• GATHERING

• FISHING

• FOR THE FIRST TIME STARTED DOMESTICATION OF ANIMALS

27
 DID THEY START SETTLING AT ONE PLACE..?
• not yet

• But tendency to settle for quite longer than paleolithic times

• Pottery is absent at most Mesolithic sites, but it is present at Langhnaj

in Gujarat and in the Kaimur region of Mirzapur (UP)

28
 ARTISTIC ACTIVITIES
• More paintings of this period compared to paleolithic
• Where these are found ..?
• On rocks in CAVES

• what these paintings show ..?

• HUNTING
• FISHING
• BURIALS
• → show : Thier social,ecnomic and religious activities
29
 MESOLITHIC ART SITES
• OVER 150 ACROSS INDIA
• Sohagighat (Kaimur Hills, UP).
• here In 1867, the first rock paintings in India were discovered
• by archaeologist Archibald Carlleyle

• Central India such as the Bhimbetka Caves, Kharwar, Jaora, and

Kathotia (M.P.),
• Sundargarh and Sambalpur (Orissa),
• Ezhuthu Guha (Kerala).
• Azamgarh, Pratapgarh and Mirzapur (U.P)
30
 OTHER MESOLITHIC SITES
• BAGOR in RAJASTHAN (on the banks of KOTHARI river)

• ONE OF THE BEST EXCAVATED SITES OF MESOLITHIC(most radio carbon dates

objects-so most securely dated)

• only SITE IN INDIA -HORIZONTALLY EXCAVATED

• it also has SAND DUNES

• It gives EARLIEST evidence about domestication(DOG)

• discovered by:L.S.Leshnik in 1967(German)
• Excavated by: V.N.MISHRA and VASANT SHINDE
31
 SARAI NAHAR RAI
• Sarai Nahar Rai, near Allahabad/PRAYAG RAJ, Pratapgarh area

• oldest POTTERY IN THE WORLD found here around 9000 BCE

• used as A BURIAL OBJECT

• FOSSILS OF HOMO SAPIENS-said to be the oldest remains of H.S. in

south Asia-called as;SARAI NAHAR RAI MAN

32
 OTHER SITES
• South of River Krishna, Tinnevelly in Tamil Nadu
• Birbhanpur in West Bengal

• Mahadaha, U.P., -bone artifacts are found, including arrowheads and

bone ornaments.

33
 NEOLITHIC
• NEW STONE AGE

• 7000 BCE ONWARDS

• Also called : NEOLITHIC REVOLUTION

• Because : New innovations of these people

34
 NEW INNOVATIONS
1. Started producing their own
food
• agriculture began

2. New stone tools

• POLISHED AND LONG STONE
TOOLS
• BLADES AND KNIVES

• how they probably polished ..?

• May be using water or some
kind of powder while rubbing
35
 NEW INNOVATIONS
3. TO STORE FOOD WHAT THEY NEEDED..?

• POTTERY APPEARED ON LARGE SCALE

• BLACK AND GREY WARE
• BURNISHED (polished)AND IMPRESSED WARE(impressions over
pottery like clay or shells)

• How it was made ..?

• FIRST HAND MADE AND THEN WHEEL MADE

36
 NEW INNOVATION
• Should we say natural tendency ..?

4. that is : STARTED SETTLING IN ONE PLACE

• AND EMERGENCE OF VILLAGE COMMUNITIES

5. WHAT THEY NEEDED TO SETTLE ..?

• HOUSES
• OF MUD AND REED(GRASS)
• CIRCULAR AND RECTANGULAR SHAPES
37
 DRESSING INNOVATION
5. COTTON and WOOL

• Therfore , knew the art of weaving cloths

38
 NEW
6. Division of labour based on sex and age
• As society was progressing,
• the need for additional labour
• labour was procured from other non kin groups too.

39
 FIRST NEOLITHIC SETTLEMENT
• MEHRGARH

• In Baluchistan (PAK)

• first agricultural settlement in SOUTH ASIA

• WHEAT, BARLEY, COTTON

40
 LITTLE VARIATIONS
• In emergence of Neolithic culture

• SOUTH INDIA : 2500 BCE

• EASTERN INDIA : 1000 BCE

41
 CROPS THEY PRODUCED
• RICE
• WHEAT
• BARLEY
• RAGI
• HORSE GRAM

• OTHER SUBSISTENCE ?
• DOMESTICATION OF ANIMALS

42
 UNIQUE NEOLITHIC
SETTLEMENTS
• IN KASHMIR
• Can see : DWELLING PITS
• Also : variety of stone and bone
toos
• Graveyards within the household
• buried with their tools

• sites :BURZAHOM AND GUFKRAL

43
 KASHMIR SITES
• Gufkraal in Jammu andKashmir
• famous for pit dwelling, stone tools, and graveyards located within
households

• BURZAHOM-means place of Birth

• lake side pits found here
• dog buried with masters

44
 UNIQUE NEOLITHIC
SETTLEMENTS
• CHIRAND (NEAR PATNA)
• BONE TOOLS AND ANTLERS
TOOLS

45
 UNIQUE NEOLITHIC SITES
• KOLDIHWA AND MAHAGARA -IN U.P.

• KNOWN FOR RICE CULTIVATION

• Chopani – Mando, Belan valley (earliest evidence of use of pottery)

46
 UNIQUE NEOLITHIC SETTLEMENTS
• Maski, Brahmagiri, Piklihal(Raichur) (proof of cattle herding),

• Budihal(kalburgi) and Tekkalakota(Bellary) (community food

preparation and feasting)

• KARNATAKA

47
 MASKI
• on the banks of Maski
• discovery of a minor rock edict of Emperor Ashoka
• by C. Beadon in 1915.
• It was the first edict of Emperor Ashoka that contained the name
Ashoka

48
 CHALCOLITHIC AGE
• 3000 BCE -800/500 BCE
• FIRST METAL WAS USED IN THIS TIME

• WHICH METAL ..?

• COPPER
• occassionally Bronze

• SO CALLED : COPPER STONE AGE

• STONE TOOLS AS WELL AS COPPER TOOLS

49
 TIME LINE
• PRE-HARAPPA :EXAMPLES:Ganeshwar AND Kalibangan in Rajasthan,
Banawali in Haryana, Kot Diji in Sindh (Pakistan).

• SOME ARE CONTEMPORARY OF HARAPPA

• IN SOME AREAS EMRGED AFTER HARAPPA-

• MOST OF THE SITES BELONG TO THESE PERIOD

50
 SUBSISTENCE PATTERN
• Wheat
• Rice
• bajra,
• pulses such as lentil, black gram, green gram, and grass pea,
• while those living in eastern regions lived on fish and rice.

• ANIMALS :
• cows, sheep, goats, pigs
• buffaloes, and hunted deer.
• domesticated mainly for food rather than dairying
51
 OTHER FEATURES
• RURAL FARMING COMMUNITIES/slash and burn
• SETTLED LIFE MAINLY
• OCHRE COLOURED POTTERY (ORANGE AND YELLOW)(RED AND BLACK
ALSO)
• SOME DESIGN ON POTTERY : LINES
• DID NOT KNOW WRITING
• CLOTHES (weaving)
• GRAVE GOODS
• BURIED UNDER THE FLOOR OF THE HOUSE IN NORTH-SOUTH
DIRECTION IN MOST SITES and South India -EAST-WEST
• MOTHER GODESS WORSHIP : NUDE CLAY FIGURES ARE FOUND
52
 VARIETY OF COPPER
TOOLS
• RINGS
• SPEARHEAD
• HARPOONS
• SMALLAXE
• SWORDS

• WHICH PROFESSION CAN BE

SEEN .?
• COPPER SMITHS

53
 OTHER FACTS
• Mud bricks instead of Burnt bricks
• ornaments of shell and bone
• bull -terracotta-probably religious
• SOCIAL INEQUALITY may have emerged due to slightly materialistic
objects
• infants burial in some areas(MH)
• FRACTIONAL BURIAL-only part of the body is interred(placed in
grave)like head

54
 SITES
• Ahar and Gilund in Banas Valley, Rajasthan
• Nevasa, Jorwe , Navdatoli , Daimabad,Songaon, Inamgaon and Nasik,
in Maharashtra
• Chirand, Senuar, Sonpur in Bihar,
• Mahishdal ,Pandu Rajar Dhibi in West Bengal
• Kayatha , Malwa , Eran,in M.P.

55
 JORWE CULTURE-1400 BCE-1000 BCE
• largest settlement in this area is DAIMABAD
• mud fortification here
• CHIEFDOM evidences (heirarchy in kinship may be or politics)
• planning in the layout of rectangular houses and streets or lanes.
• CHIEFS LIVED IN LARGE HOUSES (Indicates chiefdom)
• wheat barley with MILLETS
• dead were buried with FEET CUT OFF-in urns-inside houses
• little bit trade evidences
• preceded by MALWA culture
• INAMGAON,PRAKASH,WALKI -other sites
56
ASHMOUNDS

57
 NEOLITHIC ASHMOUNDS
• Mand made landscape features
• Found in southern India
• mianly in and around BELLARY AND BAGALAKOTE-KA
• Time -3000 BCE -1200BCE
• ASH-BUDI,in kannada
• PLACES:BUDIHAL, BUDITIPPA, BUDIGUNTA
• Budigunta near Bellary - the largest and recorded as being 46 feet in
height and 420 feet in circumference

58
ASHMOUND IN KAPPAGALLU(BELLARY)

59
 WHAT ARE THEY..?
• They are believed to be of ritual significance
• produced by early pastoral and agricultural communities
• by the burning of wood, dung and animal matter.

• Why..? they did it

• probably sacrifices after a ritual
• or funeral after a war

60
 VARIOUS THEORIES OF THEIR ORIGIN
1. Mythology- RAKSASAS WERE BURNT BY GODS
2. FORESTED REGION SO BURNT FOR LIVESTOCKS GRAZING
3. VOLCANIC ORIGIN

qLot of conjectures/hypothesis/opinions

61
 MEGALITHIC 5000/2500 BCE-200 AD
• South India Mainly, ALSO across INDIA (INDUS VALLEY, EASTERN
STATES)

• Iron age culture

• MEGA-great
• LITH-Stone

• Therefore, Monuments built of large stones

62
 WHAT ARE THEY..?
1. But these stones have
ritulistic association

2. probably burial rituals OR

3. may be memorials

4. away from the

settlements area

63
MEGALITHS

64
 WHAT ALL DISCOVERED FROM THESE SITES
• iron objects
• animal bones
• pottery (RED AND BLACK)
• beads
• Roman coins also
• Gold and silver ornaments

65
 SITES
• Hire Benakal(Koppala) Nilasakal(shivamogga),Brahmagiri in KA
• Kudakkallu in KL
• Junapani in MH
• Amaravati in AP
• Adichanallur in TN

66
 THE HARAPPAN CIVILISATION
OR THE INDUS VALLEY CULTURE

67
 TIME LINE AND PLACE
• TIME PERIOD : 3500 BC TO 1750 BC (AROUND 5000 YEARS AGO)
• EVOLVED IN NORTH-WESTERN PART OF THE INDIAN SUB-CONTINENT
• TODAY’S : PARTS OF PAKISTAN, RAJASTHAN,GUJARAT,PUNJAB AND
HARYANA
• ON THE BANKS OF RIVERS INDUS AND RAVI
• SO CALLED :THE INDUS VALLEY CIVILISATION
• FIRST CITY DISCOVERED WAS:HARAPPA
• HENCE THE NAME:THE HARAPPAN CIVILISATION
• USED BRONZE:SO BRONZE AGE

68
 WHO DISCOVERED OR EXCAVATED ..?
• Alexander Cuningham-1873-Brief

• Seals by-J.fleet-1912-His work triggered an excavation campaign by

• Daya Ram Sahni-1920
• John Marshall-1921-22

69
 EXTENSION OF THE IVC
• NORTH- MANDU KASHMIR

• SOUTH-DAIMABAD-MH/MALAVAN-GJ

• WEST-SUTKAGAN DOR-PAK

• EAST-ALAMGIRPUR-UP

70
 PHASES
EARLY HARAPPAN MATURE HARAPPAN LATE HARAPPA

3500 BCE-2600 BCE 2600 BCE-1800 BCE 1800 BCE-1500 BCE

• FORMATIVE YEARS • CITY LIFE • DECLINE

• MORE SETTLEMENTS/VILLAGES • UNIFORMITY • MIGRATION

71
 SOURCES OF IVC
• Archeological evidences

• no literary(domestic)

• foreign literature,refrences to HARAPPAN CULTURE

• EXAMPLE: Mesopotamia

72
 TOWN/URBAN
PLANNING
q Known for unique and advanced
civic planning
q cities were divided into 2 or more
parts
qCan also be divided into Western
and Eastern parts
qWestern part was small but
higher from the ground called as
CITADEL-12mts
qEastern part is lower but larger
called as the LOWER TOWN

qCity parts were walled with baked

bricks therefore survived for 1000s
of years.
73
 TOWN PLANNING
• Common people in lower town
• on the citadel- Rulers ,n public buildings like Granries, bath
• lower towns are not generally fortified
• but evidences from: surkotada(GJ) n Kalibangan(RJ)

• ONE CITY is divided into 3 parts

• DHOLAVIRA(GJ)

74
UNIQUE FEATURES OF
DHOLAVIRA
q THREE parts
q lower town,citadel and middle
town
q system of water channels and
reservoirs
q made out of stones
q It is a WHS by UNESCO IN 2021

75
• Which one of the following ancient towns is well-known for its
elaborate system of water harvesting and management by building a
series of dams and channelizing water into connected
reservoirs?(2021)

A. Dholavira
B. Kalibangan
C. Rakhigarhi
D. Ropar
üANSWER:A

76
 ROADS PLANNING
WITHIN CITIES
q GRID PATTERN

q North -south streets direction

q cutting across one another at

right angles

q so it gives RECTANGULAR n
SQUARE SHAPE to the city
q 30 feet wide streets

q Streets not PAVED

77
 HOUSES IN THE CITY
• Burnt bricks were used for house construction
• one or two storeys
• had staircases(some of them are WOOD)
• separate waste collection pits/cess pits
• WINDOWS DID NOT FACE THE STREET/generally absent/small
windows on sides
• ABSENCE OF STONE STRUCTURES
• entrances from side

78
 HOUSES
• single rooms to multiple rooms
• floors were coated with COW DUNG and TILES evidence from
KALIBANGAN
• HOUSE SEPARATION WITH NEIGHBOURS BY NARROW NO-MAN’S
LAND
• pillars also used: square and rectangular OF BURNT BRICKS
• some had their own WELLS for water

79
 DRAINAGE SYSTEM
•Houses were connected with
drainage system of the city

•Drains were connected with

inspection holes or Man holes

•Underground Drainage system

•made of BURNT Bricks ,BUT in

KALIBANGAN MUD BRICKS

•Water tight with MORTAR of MUD

•Along with GYPSUM/LIME

80
 ASSUMPTIONS OUT OF TOWN PLANNING..?
• Not actual but opinion

• Town planning show some kind of minicipal governace and rulers

• uniformity further proves it

• some kind of organistaion or institution must be there

81
 SUBSISTENCE PATTERN OF HARAPPANS
• Hunting
• Gathering of fruits and vegetables
• Moreover, the important occupation was AGRICULTURE
• CROPS: Wheat, Barley,
• horse gram, peas, watermelon, sesame, dates, millets,
• grapes, henna (mehndi), garlic, mustard,
• rice (Lothal and Rangpur) in GJ
• COTTON : IN MOHENJADARO
• Earliest civilisation to produce COTTON

• Marine products like:FISH

82
 ANIMALS THEY REARED AND KNEW
• The Harappans domesticated animals on a large scale.
• cattle -oxen, buffaloes, goats, humped bulls, sheep, pigs, donkeys,
camels, cats and dogs
• Tigers, elephant, rhino

• HORSES SEEM TO HAVE UNKNOWN

• But horse bones found in : SURKOTADA (GJ)
• However, not enough to prove it was known on large scale

• NONETHELESS, it was a well diversified economy 83

• With reference to the difference between the culture of Rigvedic Aryans and
Indus Valley people, which of the following statements is/are correct?(2017)

1. Rigvedic Aryans used the coat of mail and helmet in warfare whereas the people of Indus
Valley Civilization did not leave any evidence of using them.
2. Rigvedic Aryans knew gold, silver and copper whereas Indus Valley people knew only
copper and iron.
3. Rigvedic Aryans had domesticated the horse whereas there is no evidence of Indus Valley
people having aware of this animal.
• Select the correct answer using the code given below:

A. 1 only
B. 2 and 3 only
C. 1 and 3 only
D. 1, 2 and 3
• Answer: C
84
 TOOLS AND IMPLEMENTS
• Stone tools continud
• copper tools
• mixed copper + tin = BRONZE
• bronze tools
• copper from : KHETRI mines in RJ
• Tin from: Afghan and BH
• but bronze tools are lesser in number compared to STONE tools
• UNIFORMITY IN TOOLS
• There was a stone tool factory in :SUKKUR (SIND, PAK)
• Probably, produced there and distributed across cities
85
 ARTS AND CRAFTS
• Metal workers
• Bronze smiths
• Copper smiths

• Stone and Brick cutters

• Seal cutting
• Jewellery makers: GOLD AND
SILVER were found
• Bead making :AT: CHANHUDARO
(SIND) n LOTHAL(GJ)
• Potters(RED AND BLACK) n PLAIN
• Cotton cloth makers
• Boat maker 86
 UNIQUE ITEMS

q TERRACOTTA q PRECIOUS STONE

87
 SEMI-PRECIOUS/PRECIOUS STONES
• LAPIS LAZULI- BLUE-AFGHAN
• TURQUOISE-BLUE/GREEN-IRAN
• JADE-GREEN/WHITE-CENTRAL ASIA
• AMETHYST-VIOLET-MH
• CARNELIAN-RED/ORANGE-SAURASHTRA

88
 TRADE LINKS
• With Mesopotamia
• how do we know ..?
• HARAPPAN SEALS ARE FOUND HERE

• Persian Gulf-BAHRAIN, KUWAIT,FAILAKA(an island)

• literary evidence: of SUMERIANS(MESOPOTAMIA)

• MELUHA -probaly, refers to IVC REGION /saurashtra/India
• MAKAN-probbaly, means MAKRAN COAST in PAK
89
 IMPORTS
• gold
• silver
• copper
• tin
• semi-precious stones

90
 EXPORTS
• Agri products (perishable)
• wheat, barley, peas
• cotton
• pottery
• beads
• ivory products
• terracotta

91
 WEIGHTS AND
MEASURES
q Uniform across the civilisation

q made of limestone and steatite

and chert

q must have had production and

distribution planned

q Measuremnt stick/scales are also

found

92
SEALS

93
 SEALS
• Made of : steatite, copper,shells,ivory,terracotta
• Two types :
• square shape
• rectangular shape

• EXAMPLE:PASUPATI SEAL-steatite
• FROM MOHENJADARO

94
 SEALS

SQUARE RECTANGULAR
• Inscription/writing • only inscription
• animal figures are carved

95
 LANGUAGE AND SCRIPT
• PICTOGRAPHIC
• and logosyllabic (each symbol stood for a word/syllable).
• Harappan writing was BOUSTROPHEDON, Means- right to left and left
to right in alternate lines.
• Short inscription
• The Harappan script has not been deciphered so far.

• Recent progress: some say its a DRAVIDIAN LANGUAGE

96
 SOCIETY
• Urban society
• Rulers (assumptions)
• Rich merchants-citadel
• Labourers-lower town

97
 RELIGIOUS BELIEFS
• On the basis of SEALS and TERRACOTTA figurines

• NUDE female figures show fertility and mother goddess

• Male deity on seals-pasupati
• PHALLUS(LINGAM) Worship

• Tree worship-pipal
• Animal worship-Unicorn/Humped bull
• Therefore, NATURE WORSHIP

98
 RELIGION
• FIRE ALTARS-in LOTHAL AND KALIBANGAN

• BURIAL practices also part of religion(COFFIN n PIT n JOINT )

• NO TEMPLES YET(found in EGYPT AND MESOPOTAMIA)

• AMULETS (worn as a protection against evils may be)

• These are continuing even today

99
 ANCIENT HISTORY
1.Regarding the Indus Valley Civilisation, consider the following statements: (2011)

(1) It was predominantly a secular civilization and the religious element, though present,
did not dominate the scene.
(2) During this period, cotton was used for manufacturing textiles in India
• Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

A. I only
B. 2 only
C. Both 1 and 2
D. Neither 1 nor 2

ANSWER: C 100
 EXPLANATION
• Is temple found in IVC..?
• religious structures or buildings very rare
• cotton from MOHENJADARO

• OBJECTIVE LESSON..?
• unique cloth items during different times of ancient India
• dressing pattern
• jewellery

101
• Which of the following characterizes/ characterize the people of Indus Civilization? (2013)

1. They possessed great palaces and temples.

2. They worshipped both male and female deities.
3. They employed horse-drawn chariots in warfare.

• Select the correct statement/ statements using the codes given below.

A. 1 and 2 only
B. 2 only
C. 1, 2 and 3
D. None of the statements given above is correct

üSOLUTION:B
102
 THEORIES OF DECLINE
1. FLOODING and EARTHQUAKE - R.L.RAIKES and GEORGE F.DALES

2. SHIFTING OF RIVER COURSE- H.T.LAMBRICK

3. ARIDITY AND DRYING OF GHAGGAR-HAKRA RIVER-D.P.AGARWAL

4. BARBARIAN/ARYAN INVASION-MORTIMER WHEELER

5. ECOLOGICAL IMBALANCE-FAIRSERVIS

103
 CEMETARY ‘H’
• ‘H’is an area in Harappa
• FOUND A UNIQUE CEMETARY
• it represents Bronze age culture
• 1900 BCE onwards
• last phase of harappa
• coinceded with JHUKAR CULTURE(SIND) AND RANGPUR CULTURE(GJ)
• manifestation of first wave of aryan migration

104
 FEATURES OF ‘H’
• The use of cremation(INCINERATION) of human remains. The bones
were stored in painted pottery burial urns(vase with feet)
• This is completely different from the Indus civilization where bodies
were buried in wooden coffins.
• Reddish pottery, painted in black with antelopes, peacocks etc., sun
or star motifs, with different surface treatments to the earlier period.
• Cremation in India is first attested in the Cemetery H culture,

105
 OTHER EVIDENCE OF CREMATION
• Rig veda mentions
• Cremation(agnidagdhá-) and uncremated (ánagnidagdha-)"

106
 HARAPPA R 37
• R37 is a primary burial site
• belonged to last phase

107
 DIFFERENT BURIALS
• CEMETERIES-Harappa
• coffin burial-Harappa
• pot burial-surkotada
• joint burial-lothal AND HARAPPA
• pit burial-kalibangan
• COMPLETE BURAL, FRACTIONAL BURIAL AND POST-CREMATION
BURIAL- three forms of burial in IVC found

108
 PASUPATI SEAL
• Mohenjadaro
• siva flanked by
• elephant,rhino,buffalo,two goats/antelopes
• steatite

109
 FINDINGS
• DOCKYARD-LOTHAL
• FIRE ALTAR-KALIBANGAN AND LOTHAL
• FURROW FIELD-KALIBANGAN
• TERRACOTTA REPLICA OF A PLOUGH-BANAWALI(HR)

110
 RIVER BANKS
• Mohenjadaro-Indus
• Harappa-Ravi
• Kalibangan-Ghaggar
• Lothal-Bhogava
• Chanhudaro-indus
• Manda-Chenab
• Banawali-Rangoi/saraswathi
• Alamgirpur-Hindan

111
 RAKHIGARHI
• excavated by Amarendra Nath
• THE LARGEST
• a jewellery-making unit/factory
• Ghaggar-Hakra valley
• apsidal(dome like) structures found
• In May 2012, the Global Heritage Fund declared Rakhigarhi one of the
ten most endangered heritage sites in Asia facing the threat of
irreparable loss and destruction due to development pressures,
insufficient management.

112
• which one of the following is not a Harappan site?(2019)

A. Chanhudaro
B. Kot Diji
C. Sohgaura
D. Desalpur

• Answer::C

113
THE VEDIC AGE AND ARYANS
q RIG VEDA
q LATER VEDA
q VEDIC LITERATURE

114
 WHO ARE ARYANS..?
• Believed they are the composers of the texts

• ARYAN is a term used for FAMILY of languages

115
 INDO-ARYAN
• SUB-GROUP OF INDO-EUROPEAN
• there are some similarities in words

• For example, the Sanskrit words matri and pitri are similar to the Latin
mater and pater.

• Suryyas and Maruttash of the Kassite (Mesopotamia) inscriptions are

equivalent of the Vedic Surya and Marut.

116
 EVIDENCE OF MIGRATION
• from CENTRAL ASIA
• A genetic marker called M 17, which prevails in 40 % people of
Central Asian steppes, is also found frequently in the Indo-Aryan
speakers.
• In the Hindi-speaking area of Delhi, it is found in 35 per cent people.

117
 TIMELINE OF VEDAS
qOn the basis of composition of these texts

1. EARLY VEDIC /RIGVEDIC : 1500 BCE -1000 BCE

2. LATER VEDIC : 1000 BCE - 600/500BCE

vthese two chronology also explain us two phases of Aryan expansion

in India
vBeacuse of their superior military technology like Horses and
Chariots

118
 MEANING OF VEDAS
• VEDA means “KNOWLEDGE”
• they are belived to have “DIVINE SOURCE”
• RISHIS/SAGES recieved from GODS (NOT AUTHORED THEM)

• They are also called “SHRUTHI” literature

• means : transmitted ORALLY for many centuries

• Later they were written down DURING COMMON ERA

119
 HOW MANY VEDAS..?
•4

• RIG VEDA
• YAJUR VEDA
• SAMA VEDA
• ATHARVA VEDA

üRecently included in UNESCO INTANGIBLE CULTURAL HERITAGE

120
 ORGANISATION OF EACH VEDA
• INTO 4 PARTS
1) SAMHITA
2) BRAHMANAS
3) ARANYAKAS
4) UPANISHADS

ØRig veda samhita

ØRig veda Brahmana
ØRig veda Aranyaka
ØRig veda Upanishad
121
 COMPOSERS
• by six familes of sages
• Vishvamitra, Atri, Gritsamada, Vasishtha, Vamadeva and Bharadvaja
• they composed mainly rig veda

• Female Rishis (Rishikas) of about 30 of them are named in the Rig

Veda
• Romasa, Lopamudra, Apala, Kadru, Visvavara, Ghosha, Juhu,
Vagambhrini, Paulomi, Yami, Indrani, Savitri, and Devajami.(RIG
VEDIC)
• Sama Veda adds -Nodha, Akrishtabhasha, Sikatanivavari and
Gaupayana.
122
 What is Rig veda..?
• Oldest of all the vedas
• collection of HYMNS/Shlokas/Sukta
• Example: purusha sukta hymn
• 1028 Hymns
• Used at sacrifices
• Divided into 10 mandalas/Books
• Composed by Different family of RISHIS
• EXAMPLE : VISHWAMITRA, VASISHTA, BHARADVAJA

123
 TECHNOLOGY OF EARLY ARYANS
• Living in rural areas
• not in cities
• Rural tech coud not be advanced
• Only one metal it mentions: AYAS(COPPER/BRONZE)
• Not many artifacts have been excavated to ascertain which metal it
was properly
• But at that time BRONZE was extensively used in IRAN
• They migrated from there
• so , AYAS , may be means :BRONZE , very few have been found
• NO IRON

124
 ECONOMY OF RIG VEDA
• Pastoral
• means : Cattle rearing
• Moved from one place to another
• so called: NOMADIC PASTORAL

• Agriculture was also practiced

• only one crop was grown
• BARLEY/YAVA

125
 ECONOMY:IMPORTANCE OF COW IN VEDIC AGE

• It was the most valued posession

• chief form of wealth
• wealthy person was called : GOMAT

• PRAYERS FOR INCRAESING CATTLE WEALTH

• Priests were gifted with cows for their service
• Medium of exchange

126
 COWS IMPORTANCE
• Wars were fought for cows
• such war is called : GAVISHTI
• MEANS : “SEARCH FOR COWS”
• Other terms such as : GOSHU, GAVYU,GAVYAT GAVESHANA
• conflicts with the Panis, who used to hide the cattleof Aryans in the
forest
• cows were killed for their meat
• GOGHNA- was the term used for slaughterer
• Evidence : Charred bones of COW discovered
from :BHAGAWANPURA(HR) n DADHERI(PJ)
127
 ECONOMY:AGRICULTURE
• Only one crop
• BARLEY
• used wooden plough
• terms used : LANGALA n SIRA n PHALA
• SEASONS knowledge
• shifting cultivation
• by burning
• NO CONCEPT OF PRIVATE PROPERTY YET

128
 ECONOMY
• some arts and crafts are found
• Chariot making
• carpentry
• weaving
• All these are mentioned in the vedas

• No evidences of trade and commerce

129
 POLITICAL STRUCTURE OF EARLY ARYANS
• Ruled by a tribal chief
• called as: RAJAN
• ruled over all the tribes/PEOPLE
• People referred as :
• not land
• He was primarily a military leader
• who fought for cows
• to increase their welath
• inter tribal conflicts were common
• Other names:
130
POLITICAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARLY ARYANS
• Rajan was not permanent
• no concept of MONARCHY
• he was given gifts and booty
• from stolen property
• Those gifts were called : BALI
• THEY WERE VOLUNTARY NOT REGUALR CONTRIBUTION LIKE A TAX
• he was selcted among JANA/TRIBE to lead them
• he could be replaced according to the will of the people if he is
unworthy
• His powers were limited

131
 POLITICAL STRUCTURE OF EARLY ARYANS

q ASSEMBLIES : Limited his powers q FUNCTIONS

1. SABHA 1. Elder mebers of the tribe
2. SAMITHI 2. All members of the tribe
3. VIDATHA 3. Secular -Religious-women also
4. GANA 4. Military probably

üchief queen was called :MAHISI

132
 POLITICAL STRUCTURE :ADMINISTARTION
• Was not elaborate
• as there was no tax collection
• no information on standing army
• no bureaucracy
• One official is mentioned :

133
 SOCIETY OF EARLY ARYANS
• Tribal society
• semi-nomadic
• EGALITARIAN VALUES WERE UPHELD
• example : economy-Cattle was collectively owned-belonged to entire
tribe
• example:in polity- everyone participated in tribal assembly
• But inter tribal conflicts were common
• society was also based on KINSHIP
• blood relations

134
 SOCIAL ORGANISATION
• JANA AND VISH
• JANA means : whole tribe
• VISH means :

• he was a male member

• so PATRIARCHAL FAMILY
• Prayers for birth of a male child
• to fight in wars
• not beacause they hated girls
135
 POSITION OF WOMEN IN EARLY VEDIC SOCEITY

• no discrimination
• enjoyed equal rights
• broad minded attitude towards girls
• Love marriage was common
• could freely choose her partner
• married after puberty
• no concept of child marriage

136
 POSITION OF WOMEN
• could particiate in rituals with husband
• some HYMNS are composed by them
• SO EDUCATED
• NIYOGA : a childless widow could marry Husband’s brother
• so WIDOW REMARRIAGE WAS ALLOWED
• NO SATI

137
 EMERGENCE OF GOTRA IN VEDIC CULTURE
• Clan/vis/vish lived with their cows
• in a common cowshed
• they came to be called belonged to : THE SAME GOTRA

138
 SOCIAL DIVISION
1. WARRIORS (called as RAJAN/kshatriya)
2. PRIESTS (given the name BRAHMANAS)
3. COMMON PEOPLE

4. Fourth division called :SHUDRAS emerged VERY late

üIt was the name of a defeated or subjugated tribe

üThis 4-fold division was given religious sanction

üSAID IT IS APPROVED BY GOD AND IT MUST BE ADHERED TO
ü four varnas first found in the Purusashukta of Rigveda
üfamiliar with slavery
139
 REASONS FOR DIVISON AND INEQUALITY
1. VARNA/COLOUR

2. UNEQUAL DISTRIBUTION OF WEALTH

3. ARYANS AND NON-ARYANS ASSIMILATION

140
 RELIGIOUS LIFE OF EARLY ARYANS
• no temples
• no idols worship
• worshipped natural forces like
• agni/FIRE
• varuna/WATER
• wind/vayu
• they were personified in MALE form
• so most GODS were MALE

• YAJNAS were conducted in the open to satisfy these gods

• SACRIFICES of cattle to please the gods
141
• The religion of early Vedic Aryans was primarily of(2012)

A. Bhakti

B. image worship and Yajnas

C. worship of nature and Yajnas

D. worship of nature and Bhakti

üSOLUTION:C

142
 IMPORTANT GODS
1. PRAJAPATI
Øbelieved that the universe is created through his sacrifice
Øso called :LORD OF CRAETURES
Øfrom his body emerged the universe
Øso sacrifices are necessary to maintain the order of universe

143
 IMPORTANT GODS
2. INDRA
Øcalled as :PURANDARA
Ømeans -BREAKER OF FORTS
Ølargest number of hymns for him
Øhe led aryan tribes to victory
Øhis servants were : GANDARVAS AND APSARAS
ØGandarvas means : musicians
Øis also described as Urvarajit (winner of fertile fields)

144
 IMPORTANT GODS
3. AGNI
Øresided in hearth(fire place)
Øintermediary between MEN and GOD

145
 IMPORTANT GODS
4. VARUNA
Øpersonification of water
Øupholder of cosmic order
ØRITA
ØMeans: protecting the existence of creatures and space

146
 IMPORTANT GODS
5. SOMA
ØGod of Plants
Øspecial god of the brahmanas
ØkING OF GODS

147
 IMPORTANT GODS
6. PUSHAN
ØGod of Jungles
ØGod who protected CATTLE and HERDSMEN

ØOTHER GODS : VISHNU, SURYA RUDRA

148
 IMPORTANT GODS
• WOMEN GODS were also there
• ADITI :Mother of Gods
• USHA:Goddess of Dawn

149
 UNIQUE FACTS :RIG VEDA
• niskha- which was made of gold-PROBABLY A CURRENCY-QUITE
VAGUE
• Kshetrapati -guardian deity of agricultural fields
• AGHNYA-animal sacrifice except cows(controversial)

150
 LATER VEDIC CULTURE
• 1000 BCE T0 600/500 BCE

• new texts were composed

• the Samhitas of the Sama Veda, the Yajur and the Atharva Vedas
• and the Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads attached to all the
four Vedas

151
 GEOGRAPHY OF LATER ARYANS
• From Punjab region to
• Ganga-yamuna doab
• U.P. and BIHAR
• Gangetic valley

152
 MEANING OF THE NEW THREE VEDAS
• YAJUR VEDA
üDeals with procedure(rituals)for the performance of scarifices
üonly veda partly in prose
üfurther divided into two parts
1. KRISHNA yajurveda/BLACK yajurveda
2. SUKLA yajurveda/WHITE yajurveda
ØKRISHNA yajurveda contains mantras and
commentaries(explanations) in prose
ØSUKLA yajurveda contains mantras/rituals/formulas for scarifices
153
 MEANING OF VEDAS
• SAMAVEDA
ØSome verses are collected from rig veda
Øthey were set to tunes/arranged in ragas
Øfor singing at scarifices
ØSo called as : BOOK OF CHANTS
ØEXAMPLE : Dhrupad Raga
ØSung by TANSEN

154
 MEANING OF VEDAS
• ATHARVA VEDA
ØThe Atharva Veda is a collection of magic spells and charm
Ø to ward off the evil spirits and diseases.
Øto gain material wealth
Ømentions superstitions
Øcontain non-aryan elements

155
 ECONOMY OF LATER ARYANS
• cattle rearing continued
• but the major occupation now is agriculture
• as agriculture was on land
• LAND OWNERSHIP CONCEPT EVOLVED
• New crops mentioned
• GODHUMA- wheat
• VRIHI-Rice
• BEANS
• Therefore, SEDENTARY LIFE

156
 WHAT IS REASON FOR GROWTH OF
AGRICULTURE..?
• Discover of IRON
• and its exploitative use in agri
• for clearing forests
• bring more land under cultivation
• Therefor, LATER VEDIC culture also known as IRON AGE CULTURE
• This metal referred as:Krishna Ayas/Shyama Ayas
• which means DARK metal
• found at:ATRANJIKHERA and JAKHERA (U.P.)
• These Iron tools have been found with a distinctive pottery
• PAINTED GREY WARE
• So called as:PGW-IRON PHASE CULTURE
157
PGW

158
 ECONOMY OF LATER ARYANS
• ARTS and CRAFTS exploded
• IRON smiths
• carpenters
• leather making
• pottery making
• ship building
• cause mentions : SEAS AND SEA VOYAGE
• It means rudimentary beginning of commerce and trade AND TOWNS
• But still full fledged towns were not yet developed
• so RURAL AND SEMI-RURAL CULTURE WITH SETTLED LIFE
159
 LATER VEDIC POLITY
• Earlier tribal character diluted
• egalitarian values were loosing relevance
• MONARCHY was growing
• emphasis on territorial cocnept of kingship
• Atharva veda mentions: RASHTRA
• means : territory
• wars for land/territory now not for cows
• txation became mandatory
• people living in the RASHTRA must obey it and other rules
• paid in the form of GRAIN OR CATTLE
• To collect this tax there was an official
• BHAGADHUGA
160
 LATER VEDIC POLITY
• Taxation enabled the king to appoint
• officers/ministers
• ministers called as :RATNINS
• looked after chariot making
• officer in-charge of treasury:SAMGRAHITRI
• CHIEF PRIEST was :PUROHIT
• But still no standing army

161
 CEREMONIES TO INCREASE THE STRENGTH OF
THE RAJA
•
Øwhich was royal consecration and conferred supreme power on the
king.

• VAJAPEYA:
Øliterally meaning drink of strength;
Øit had a chariot race in which royal chariot was made to win against
all

162
 CEREMONIES TO INCREASE THE STRENGTH OF
THE RAJA

• ASWAMEDHA:
Øunquestioned control over an area in which the royal horse ran uninterrupted
ØTo extend the domain of the king
ØGave him the title:

• AINDRA-MAHABHISHEKA:
Øto grant the status of
ØSUPREMACY over all other kings

vIN ALL THESE RITUALS HE WAS REPRESENTED AS GOD

163
 WHAT HAPPENED TO ASSEMBLIES..?
• Lost relevance
• King’s made them irrelevant
• just for name sake
• as territory was incraesing all people were not able to attend the
SAMITHI
• which was headed by : RAJAN

164
 WHAT HAPPENED TO ASSEMBLIES .?
• less control over the RAJA
• he became powerful
• supported by PREISTS
• Only those who supported the king able to attend it
• LIKE:WARRIORS AND BRAHMANAS
• women stopped attending
• gave them a ARISTOCRATIC character
• Therefore, king’s position became HEREDITARY

165
 LATER VEDIC SOCEITY
• Early vedic was TRIBAL
• with egalitarian approach
• simple: JANA n VIS/VISH
• That structure started to decline
• kshatriyas and brahmanas status was increasing
• composed of Highly UNEQUAL GROUPS
• that discriminatory status given religious sanction
• by explaining how it evolved
• 1 HYMN describe HOW 4 SECTIONS evolved from the body of
PRAJAPATI

166
 RELIGIOUS EVOLUTION OF VARNAS
1. BRAHMANAS 1. MOUTH
2. KSHATRIYAS 2. ARMS
3. VYSYAS 3. THIGHS
4. SHUDRAS 4. FEET

üTherefore, they should not be

given equal STATUS

167
 HEIRARCHY OF SOCEITY
• Brahmanas took the high place
• cuz only they can communicate with the GOD
• and help others achieve MOKSHA
• through SACRIFICES
• Hence, they should be at the top
• Shudras should be at the bottom

• it evolved into a 4-fold VARNA society

168
 MORE RULES
• HOW DO YOU MAINTAIN THAT PURITY..?
• more rules
• Put restrictions on MARRIAGE between varnas
• ENDOGAMY-Within the varna
• Women had right to choose husband in rig vedic
• NOW, TO MIANTAIN PURITY, RULES WERE MADE TO TAKE AWAY HER
MARRIAGE RIGHTS

169
 MORE RULES
• PATRIARCHY was well established
• SHE was considered as SUBORDINATE TO MEN AND CANNOT TAKE DECISIONS
ON HER OWN
• Right to remarriage was done away with
• no education rights
• no property rights
• no political rights
• child marriage- marry her off before she could attain maturity to make
DECISIONS

• SATI traces could be seen

170
 LATER VEDIC SOCEITY
• Another important institution that began to take shape was ashrama
or
• different stages of life.
• Together with varna, Later Vedic society came to be known as
• Varna-ashrama-dharma society.
• The upper classes- kshatriya and Brahmanas
• known as Dvija (twice born)

171
 VARN-ASHRAMA-DHARMA
1. BRAHMACHARYA 1. STUDENT
2. GRIHASTA 2. HOUSEHOLDER
3. VANAPRASTHA 3. FOREST LIFE(partially rtd)
4. SANYASA 4. COMPLETE RETIREMENT
FROM HOUSEHLDER LIFE

Øonly for DWIJAS(twice born)

172
 DWIJAS
Ø1.PHYSICAL BIRTH
Ø2.WHEN SOMEONE TAKES UP A FULFILLING ROLE IN SOCIETY
Øex: EDUCATION by Brahmana
Øex: ARMS training by Kshatriya
Øno education for lower varna
ØDWIJA concept is not mnetioned in VEDAS but in other
texts :DHARMASASTHRAS

173
 LATER VEDIC RELIGIOUS LIFE
• more importance to sacrifices
• more complex and elaborate/lengthy rituals evolved
• pretty long : ASHWAMEDHA for 1 year
• if sacrifices became important Priestly class became important
• Many priests were required to perform the different stages of the
same YAJNA/RITUAL
• It is called :PRIESTCRAFT
• a SCIENCE of priest
• performing VIDHIS(RULES) properly

174
 LATER VEDIC RELIGIOUS LIFE
• Undermined Rig vedic gods
• instaed of god ,rituals became important
• prayers were re[laced by sacrifices
• cattles were slaughtered in large numbers
• Evidence:ATRANJIKHERA, WITH CUT MARKS -BONES
• these YAJNAS brought priests lot wealth
• in the form of :DHANA n DAKSHINA

175
 CHANGING GODS
• INDRA n AGNI lost importance
• Prajapati became important due to sacrifices
• Vishnu ,now considered as the CREATOR and PROTECTOR of universe
• Pushan, catlle god, now became the god of Shudras
• Idolatry began to emerge slightly

176
 NON-ARYAN/FOLK RELIGION
• Magic and spells
• worshipping spirits
• like :RAKSHASAS and PISHACHAS/PISCACAS
• Used magic for
• cure diseases
• evil on others
• material wealth

177
 SOME FACTS
• ARYANS did not know WRITING
• ORAL TRANSMISSION
• All these were written down quite late
• Oldest available texts of vedas : from 11th CE
• RITA -Sanskrit - (“truth” or “order”), the cosmic order mentioned in
the Vedas,0R THE LAW OF UNIVERSE AND ITS CONSTITUENTS

178
 REACTION AGAINST VEDIC
• There was a powerful reaction
• against the vedic way of life and culture
• Against priestly domination
• against cults and sacrifices
• reacto took form of IDEOLOGIES/THEORIES
• some UPANISHAD texts compiled by around 600 BCE started criticising the
vedic rituals
• Buddhism and Jainism ideas
• emphasised on RIGHT BELIEF AND KNOWLEDGE
• Knowledge of ATMAN/SOUL
• THEORY OF KARMA started to emerge

179
• The “dharma” and “rita” depict a central idea of ancient Vedic civilization of India, In this
context, consider the following statements:(2011)

1. Dharma was a conception of obligations and of the discharge of one’s duties to oneself
and to others.
2. Rita was the fundamental moral law governing the functioning of the universe and all
it contained.
• Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

A. 1 only
B. 2 only
C. Both 1 and 2
D. Neither 1 nor 2

üSOLUTION : C
180
 THE VEDIC LITERATURE
q VEDAS
q UPAVEDAS
q BRAHMANAS
q ARANYAKAS
q UPANISHADS
q VEDANTA
q VEDANGA
q PURANAS
q DHARMASASTRAS
q EPICS 181
 CLASSIFICATION OF VEDIC LITERATURE

SHRUTI SMRITI

182
 CLASSSIFICATION

q SHRUTI q SMRITI
Øwhich means Øwhich means remembered
Øauthored by human thoughts
1. VEDAS/SAMHITAS
Øcan be modified
2. BRAHMANAS
1. UPAVEDAS
3. ARANYAKAS
2. VEDANGAS
4. UPANISHADS 3. EPICS
4. DHARMASASTRAS
5. PURANAS
6. AGAMAS 183
 EXPLANATIONS
ØSAMHITAS
üThey are core part of the vedas
üWhich are basically:MANTRAS/HYMNS
üshruti texts
ü4 samhitas
üRig,Yajur,Sama, and Atharva veda samhitas

184
 BRAHMANAS
üAttached to each veda
üinterpretation of Samhita
üexplanation of mantras of veda
üunderstanding their meaning
ühow to use the/performance of ceremonies
üwhere to use them
üare in PROSE
üEX:Shatpatha Brahmana attached to Yajur veda

185
 ARANYAKAS
ü‘forest books’
üas they were written mainly by
ühermits living in the jungles
üHERMIT: retired from normal life/VANAPRASTHA
üare concluding portions of Brahmanas
üso these are extracted from Brahmanas
üThey explain PHILISOPHY behind every ritual
üWhy a ritual exist/what is god/what is reality

186
 UPANISHADS
ümeaning : ‘To sit near someone’
ü108 in number
üonly 13 are important
üdeal with
üdeal with
üundertsanding their relation
üoppose sacrifices
üalso talk about universe and its
existence
üMUNDAKA UPANISHAD-Largest
ØSatya Meva Jayate from it
üCHANDOGYA UPANISHAD
Øashramas are mentioned in this
Ødiscusses types of marriages
ØPRATILOMA-A Man within varna
or below it-accepted
ØANULOMA-A Woman marrying
outside her verna/below varna-
not sanctioned by vedas
187
• The national motto of India, ‘Satyameva Jayate’ inscribed below the
Emblem of India is taken from
(2014)

A. Katha Upanishad
B. Chandogya Upanishad
C. Aitareya Upanishad
D. Mundaka Upanishad

üSOLUTION:D

188
 HOW TO DEVELOP..?
• KATHA-story of Nachiketa who meets yama-coversation on ATMA
• AITAREYA-Man is the creator of ATMAN-prose AND SAYS SUDRAS
SHOULD BE SLAIN AT WILL
• BRIHADARANYAKA-Transmigration
• MUNDAKA-related to Atharva veda-dialogue between great sacrificer
Saunaka and sage Angiras
• 3 Ashramas-CHANDOGYA
• 4 ashramas-JABLA

189
CONCLUSION

190
 SMRITI LITERATURE
• Which is remembered
• or authored by humans
• using their intellect

191
 UPAVEDA
• Means:’applied knowledge’
• traditional sciences
• like AYURVEDA
• derived from the main vedas
• AYURVEDA -Rig veda/Atharva veda
• DHANURVEDA-Yajurveda
• GANDHARVAVEDA-Sama veda
• ARTHASASTHRA/SHILPA VEDA-Atharva veda

192
 What UPAVEDA DEALS WITH..?
• They have technical knowledge
• Skills in a field
• AYURVEDA- Medicine
• DHANURVEDA-Archery
• GANDHARVAVEDA-Music and Dance
• ARTHASASTHRA-Economy,Governance
• SHILPAVEDA-Architecture

193
 VEDANGA
• means the ‘limbs of the Vedas’.
• They are the supplementary texts authored by Humans
• HELP in proper recitation and understanding of the Vedas.
• are written in the form of Sutras.
• very short condensed statements
• There are six Sutras. They are:
• Shiksha (Phonetics)
• Kalpa (Ritualistic science).
• Jyotisha (Astronomy)
• Vyakaran (Grammar)
• Nirukta (Etymology)
• Chhanda (Metre) 194
 KALPASUTRA
• The Kalpasutra is further divided into:
• 1. Shrautasutra: concerned with Vedic sacrifices that require three or
more fires.
• 2. Grihyasutra: concerned with comparatively simpler domestic
sacrifices, which require only one fire.
• It includes rituals pertaining to crucial life stages (Samskaras) such as
Upanayana (initiation), Vivaha(marriage), and Antyeshti (funerary
practices).
• 3. Dharmasutra: concerned with the rituals’ Dharma.

195
 PURANAS
• Means: ‘old’
• composed around 4th-6th CE
• Talks about the emergence of Hindu Religious practices
• They discuss in 4 Yugas/Ages
• SATYA/KRITA
• TRETA
• DVAPARA
• KALIYUGA
• Further divided into 18 MAHApuranas
• ex:Brahma, Vishnu, Bhagavata,Garuda,Matsya,Padma,Agni etc
196
 PURANAS DISCUSS 5
1. Sarga -Deals with the creation of the world
2. Pratisarga -Recreation
3. Manvantaras -Periods of the various Manus
4. Vamsha -Genealogies of the gods and rishis
5. Vamshanucharita -Texts relating to royal dynasties-LUNAR AND
SOLAR

197
 DHARMASASTHRA
• Deal with DHARMA i.e., The Code of Conduct
• Dharma also refers to the fulfillment of Purusharthas (life goals) such as
• Dharma (righteous conduct),
• Artha (material well-being),
• Kama (sensual pleasure), and
• Moksha (liberation from the cycle of life and death).
• composed during 600 BCE to 900 CE/AD
• A person’s Dharma was dependent on many factors such as gender, marital
status, varna, and ashram.

198
 EPICS
• Two great epics
• Ramayana and Mahabharatha

199
 COMPARISONS

q MAHABHARATHA q RAMAYANA
• 400 BCE-400 CE/AD • 400 BCE-300 CE/AD
• VED VYASA • VALMIKI
• events happened during • LORD RAMA lived during TRETA
DVAPARAYUGA yuga
• but events happened later times
• after Mahabharatha events

200
 AGAMAS
• Smriti lit.
• meaning: ‘that which has come down”
• Deals with TANTRIC/MAGIC
• in Hinduism

201
 VEDANTA
• Vedanta literally signifies the ‘end of the Vedas’,
• THEY ARE DERIVED FROM UPANISHADS
• as they reveal the final aim of the Vedas.
• They condemn sacrifices and ceremonies and
• Vedanta is the pursuit of knowledge into the Brahman and the Ātman
• denote the last phase of the Vedic period

202
 NEW RELIGIOUS IDEAS
600 BCE
q BUDDHISM
q JAINISM
q OTHERS

203
 WHY THEY EVOLVED
• As a reaction against Brahminical orthodoxy
• Lower strata spiritual life was unfulfilled
• they needed a way
• simple teachings
• in vernaculars
• Iron-trade-vaishyas
• DEMANDED PROTECTION OF CATTLE FOR AGRI.

204
 BUDDHISM
• Birth name ?
ØSIDDHARTHA
• Year ?
Ø567 BCE
• Place ?
ØLumbini ,Nepal
• How do we know the place exactly..?
ØASHOKAN PILLAR INSCRIPTION
• Clan name..?
ØSAKYA
• Parents ?
ØSHUDDHODANA AND MAYA 205
 BUDDHISM
• Wife ..?
ØYashodara

• Son..?
ØRahula

• Horse..?
ØKanthaka

• Charioter..?
ØChanna
206
 BUDDHISM
• Teachers..?
ØALARA KALAMA and UDDAKA RAMAPUTTA

• Nirvana under Tree..?

ØPipal/Bodhi

• Place..?
ØBodh Gaya (BH)

• River..?
• Niranjana 207
 BUDDHISM
• left at :29
• Nirvana:35
• Death:486 BCE-KUSHINARA

• 4 SIGHTS OF:AN OLD MAN-MONK-SICK-DEAD CORPSE

• Became:PARIVRAJAKA-renouncer and wanderer

208
 BUDDHA
• From the day he achieved Nirvana
• he is called as BUDDHA
• means: ‘The Enlightened One

• after attaining nirvana he went to

• sarnath (U.P.)
• gave his first sermon
• called as:DHARMA CHAKRA PRAVARTANA
• Setting the wheels of Dharma in motion

209
 PROBLEMS IN ATTAINING NIRVANA
• ‘Mara’, a demon, tried to disturb Buddha
• brought Hurricane, flood, Earthquake, bad news and finally,
• he brought his three beautiful daughters.
• But all of that failed to move Buddha

210
 FIVE DISCIPLES OF BUDDHA
1. Asvajit
2. Upali
3. Ananda
4. Sariputra
5. Mogallana

211
 FOUR GREAT EVENTS OF BUDDHA’S LIFE
1. MAHABHINSIKARMAN 1. RENUNCIATION
2. NIRVANA 2. ENLIGHTENMENT
3. DHARMACHAKRAPARIVARTAN 3. FIRST SERMON
4. MAHAPARINIRVANA 4. DEATH

212
 SYMBOLS TO SIGNIFY DIFFERENT EVENTS OF
BUDDHA’S LIFE
1. BIRTH 1. LOTUS and BULL
2. RENUNCIATION 2. HORSE
3. ENLIGHTENMENT 3. BODHI TREE/PIPAL
4. FIRST SERMON 4. WHEEL/DEER
5. DEATH 5. STUPA

213
 THREE JEWELS/TRIRATNA IN BUDDHISM
1. BUDDHA 1. ENLIGHTENMENT/TEACHER
2. DHAMMA 2. DOCTRINE
3. SANGHA 3. ORDER

214
 TECHINGS/DHAMMA OF BUDDHA
• all his teachings can be
• Categorised into two

1. FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS

2. EIGHT FOLD PATH

215
 4-NOBLE TRUTHS
1. World is full of Sorrow/sufferings/Dukkha
2. All sufferings have a cause/DUKKHA SAMUDAYA
ØDesire/Trishna
ØAttachment
ØIgnorance
3. Sufferings could be removed-NIRODHA
4. By following 8-fold path/ASHTANGIKA MARGA

216
EIGHT FOLD PATH

217
 8-FOLD PATH MEANINGS
• RIGHT VIEW/UNDERSTANDING(Samma-Ditthi)
ØKnowing the truth
Ø4 nobles

• RIGHT INTENTION/AIM(Samma-Sankappa)
ØFreeing mind of evil thoughts
ØAvoid luxury and senses/temptations
ØLove humanity and incease happiness of others

218
 8-FOLD PATH MEANING
• RIGHT SPEECH(Samma-Vaca)
ØSpeak only truth

• RIGHT ACTION(Samma-Kammanta)
ØUnselfish action
ØNo action that cause bad to others
ØNo violence
ØNo intoxicants

219
 8-FOLD PATH MEANING
• RIGHT LIVELIHOOD(Samma-Ajiva)
ØLive by honest means
ØEarn the right way

• RIGHT EFFORT(Samma-Vayama)
ØKeep improving oneself
ØEvolve/transform
ØResist evil

220
 8-FOLD PATH MEANING
• RIGHT CONCENTRATION(Samma-Samadhi)
ØPractice meditation
ØFixing thought on single object

• RIGHT MINDFULNESS (SammaSati)

Øself-aware/about oneself

221
 GENERAL TEACHINGS OF BUDDHA
qTheory of Karma
• that is present is determined by past actions
• born again again to reap the karma
• if no sins committed-he/she will not take birth
• that life is liberated

qEvery individual is the maker of his/her own destiny

222
 GENERAL TEACHINGS
qNeither accepted nor rejected the concept of god
qDid not believe in ATMAN/SOUL-called as -ANATTA(ANATMAN)
qANICCA-Impermanance-nothing stays the same,everything changes
qBut believe in Transmigration/rebirth into another being
/realm/world
qBELIEVE IN 10 REALMS-Human, Ghosts, Asuras,SRAVAKA(direct
disciple of Buddha)
qPREACHED NIRVANA:shed all desires which finally leads to free from
rebirth
qInstead of scarifices and rituals emphasis on MORAL conduct of life
223
 TO SUMMARISE
• Follow middle path
• neither too luxurious nor austere
• Rejected the authority of the vedas
• Social equality
• Love towards others
• No need for middlemen to attain salvation/Nirvana
• eBuddhist monks considered varna based on action(Brahminism-
Birth)
• after joining no varna is considered-VEVANNIYANTI(without varna)
• upasaka-common people other than monks who folowed buddhism

224
 BUDDHIST LITERATURE
• EX: the THREE PITAKAS/TRIPITAKAS
• Three Baskets/collection

1. SUTTA PITAKA
2. VINAYA PITAKA
3. ABHIDHAMA PITAKA

• called as :CANONICAL
• MEANS:sbooks which lay downthebasictenets and principles of
Buddhism

225
 BUDDHIST LITERATURE
• NON-CANONICAL:
• texts that are not thesayings of the Buddha,
• but commentaries and observations on canonical texts,

• EX:MILINDAPANHO,DEEPAVAMSA,MAHAVAMSA

226
 SUTTA PITAKA
• called as:Buddhavachana/Buddhavacana
• means: ‘The word of the Buddha’
• sayings of Buddha
• Basket of discourses
• cocnsist of 5 sections/NIKAYAS
• Also include JATAKA stories
• means previous birth stories of Buddha

227
 VINAYA PITAKA
• Discipline Basket
• Rules for monks and nuns of the Sangha(order)

228
 ABHIDHAMMA PITAKA
• Higher teachings of buddha
• philosophical teachings
• like birth,realm,karma etc
• in questions and answers format
• also summarises sutta pitaka

229
 NON-CANONICAL
• Milindapanho -Pali- dialogue on various philosophical issues-between
the Indo-Greek king Milinda/Menander and the monk NAGASENA

• Dipavamsa and the Mahavamsa-in Pali-historical cum mythical

account of the Buddha’s life, Buddhistcouncils, Ashoka, and arrival of
Buddhism to Sri Lanka

• Mahavastu - mixed Sanskrit–Prakrit-sacred(saintly) biography, i.e.,

hagiography of the Buddha

230
 BUDDHIST COUNCILS
• FIRST COUNCIL
• 486/483 BCE
• RAJAGRIHA(BH)
• PRESIDED BY:MAHAKASSAPA
• KING:AJATASATRU
• OUTCOME:First two pitaks were collected
• Vinaya pitaka under UPALI
• Sutta pitaka under ANANDA

231
 BUDDHIST COUNCILS
• SECOND COUNCIL
• 383 BCE
• VAISHALI (BH)
• PRESIDED BY: SABAKAMI
• KING:KALASOKA(KAKAVARNA)
• First split in Buddhism due to differences in interpretation of Buddha’s
teachings
• STHAVIRAVADINS AND MAHASANGIKAS

232
 BUDDHIST COUNCILS
• THIRD COUNCIL
• 250 BCE
• PATALIPUTRA/PATNA
• PRESIDED BY:MOGGALIPUTTA TISSA
• KING: ASHOKA
• OUTCOME: Abhiddhama pitaka was collected
• sent missionaries to other countries
• purified Buddhism by expelling heretical monks
• Theravada order/school emerged

233
 BUDDHIST COUNCILS
• FOURTH COUNCIL
• 1ST CENTURY AD/72 AD
• KASHMIR
• PRESIDED BY: VASUMITRA
• KING: KANISHKA
• OUTCOME:Rise of HINAYANA AND MAHAYANA
• Commentaries on 3 pitakas: Upadesha sastra and Vibhasa sastra

234
 SCHOOLS OF BUDDHISM
qSTHAVIRAVADINS
• followed original teachings of Buddha
• Pali
• Strict monastic life

qMAHASNAGIKAS
• Belived in liberal interpratation of Buddha’s teachings
• Modified the original teachings a little bit

235
 SCHOOLS OF BUDDHISM
qHINAYANA
• also called :THERAVADA
• ‘THE LESSER PATH’ or ‘DOCTRINE OF ELDERS’
• orthodox
• original teachings:4 truths, 8-fold path
• pali
• Srilanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia and Laos
• Ashoka patronised it

236
 SCHOOLS OF BUDDHISM
qMAHAYANA
• Means: ‘the greater path’
• modified the teachings of Buddha
• sanskrit
• divinity of Buddha/Treating him as God
• idol worship
• of Buddha and BODHISATTVAS-an attian nirvana but delay it to help
others
• Universal libeartion from suffering for ALL BEINGS
• not just individual like Hinayana
237
 MAHAYANA
• non-veg
• left sangha
• Accept donation and women association
• KANISHKA AND HARSHA VARDHANA patronised iy
• Japan, China and Central Asia
• its philosphical schools:MADHYAMIKA and YOGACHARA

238
 BUDDHIST SCHOOLS
qVAJRAYANA
• ‘DAIMOND VEHICLE’
• THUNDERBOLT VEHICLE
• mantrayana, tantrayana
• believed in magic and rituals
• worship tantric dieties called:TARAS
• Emphasis the role of GURU/LAMA
• est in Bengal and Bihar
• later in TIBET -AROUND 11th century
• ‘Two Truths Doctrine’ is the central concept of the Vajrayana
239
 VAJRAYANA
• ‘conventional’ and ‘ultimate’ truths.
• Conventional truth is the truth of consensus reality, and common
sense notions of what does and does not exist.
• Ultimate truth is reality as viewed by an awakened, or enlightened
mind.

240
 BUDDHIST MINOR SECTS
• Navayāna-It is a re-interpretation of Buddhism by B. R. Ambedkar-
REJECTED both Hinayana and Mahayana
• Ekayāna (one yana)
• Lokattaravdin
• Śrāvakayāna
• From the Sthaviras arose the Sarvāstivāda sects, the Vibhajyavādins,
the Theravadins, the Dharmaguptakas and the Pudgalavāda sects.

241
 SOME IMPORTANT BODHISATTVAS
• AVALOKITESHWARA
• embodies the compassion of all Buddhas.
• He has 108 avatars,
• one notable avatar being Padmapāṇi.
• Represented in female form also

242
 BODHISATTVAS
• LOKESHWARA
• Avalokiteshwara in Thailand known as
• bodisattvas go by many names

243
 BODHISATTVAS
• Manjushri
• “Buddha-to-be”
• personifying supreme wisdom.
• Sanskrit means “gentle, or sweet, glory”
• he is also known as Mãnjughoṣa (“Sweet Voice”)

244
 BODHISATTVAS
• MAITREYA
• the future Buddha,
• presently a bodhisattva residing in the heaven,
• who will descend to earth to preach a new the dharma (“law”)
• when the teachings of Gautama Buddha have completely decayed.

245
 BODHISATTVAS
• PADMAPANI
• Another name for Avalokiteshwara

246
MUDRAS

247
 DHYANA MUDRA
• It Indicates Balance and
poise
• Union and
Enlightenment

248
 VARADA MUDRA
• fulfilling all wishes
• indicates charity

249
 DHARMACHAKRA
MUDRA
• used this mudra when he
first taught after his
enlightenment.
• A wheel rotates, and so
represents movement and
transition
• Turning the wheel of law

250
 BHUMISPARSHA
• When the Buddha became
enlightened, he touched
the earth with this mudra
during his meditation.
• The earth was touched and
witnessed the awakening.

251
• Which one of the following describes best the concept of Nirvana in
Buddhism?(2013)

A. The extinction of the flame of desire

B. The complete annihilation of self

C. A state of bliss and rest

D. A mental stage beyond all comprehension

üSOLUTION:A
252
• Which of the following Kingdoms were associated with the life of the Buddha? (2014)

1. Avanti
2. Gandhara
3. Kosala
4. Magadha

• Select the correct answer using the code given below.

A. 1, 2 and 3
B. 2 and 4
C. 3 and 4 only
D. 1, 3 and 4
üSOLUTION: (C) 2015 ALSO SAME ANSWER
253
• With reference to the religious history of India,consider the following statements(2016)

1. The concept of Bodhisattva is central to the Hinayana sect of Buddhism

2. Bodhisattva is a compassionate one on his way to enlightenment
3. Bodhisattva delays achieving his own salvation to help all sentient beings on their path to
it
• Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

A. 1 only
B. 2 and 3 only
C. 2 only
D. 1, 2 and 3

üANSWER:B

254
• Consider the following:(2019)

1. Deification of the Buddha

2. Treading the path of Bodhisattvas

3. Image worship and rituals

• Which of the above is/are the feature/features of Mahayana Buddhism?

A. 1 only
B. 1 and 2 only
C. 2 and 3 only
D. 1, 2 and 3

üAnswer:D
255
• With reference to the religious history of india, consider the following
statement:(2020)
1. Sthaviravadins belong to Mahayana Buddhism
2. Lokottaravadin sect was an offshoot of Mahasanghika sect of Buddhism.
3. The deification of Buddha by Mahasanghikas fostered the Mahayana
Buddhism.
• Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 and 2 only
B. 2 and 3 only
C. 3 only
D. 1,2 and 3

üANSWER: B

256
• Lord Buddha’s image is sometimes shown with the hand gesture called ‘Bhumisparsha
Mudra’. It symbolizes(2012)

A. Buddha’s calling of the Earth to watch over Mara and to prevent Mara from disturbing
his meditation

B. Buddha’s calling of the Earth to witness his purity and chastity despite the temptations of
Mara

C. Buddha’s reminder to his followers that they all arise from the Earth and finally dissolve
into the Earth, and thus this life is transitory

D. Both the statements (a) and (b) are correct in this context

ü SOLUTION :B

257
 VARDHAMANA MAHAVIRA AND JAINISM
• Origin of Jaina principles goes back to 900 BCE/9th CENTURY BCE

• Before Mahavira(Great Hero)

• There were 23 Tirthankaras/Jina

• THIRTHANKARA/JINA means :the one who has attianed infinite

knowledge and has become supreme preacher OR VICTOR
• they help others to attain Moksha
• or free from the cycle of rebirth

258
 EARLY THIRTHANKARAS
• 1st: RISHABANATH/ADINATH/IKSHAVAKU
• Adi :first- tirthankara
• founder of IKSHAVAKU DYNASTY/SOLAR DYNASTY/SURYA VAMSA
• FROM :AYODHYA
• left the royal family
• travelled without food
• The first day he accepted food celbrated by jains as :AKSHAYA TRITIYA

259
 OTHER IMPORTANT THIRTHANKARAS
• 2nd :AJITHANATHA
• 22ND:NEMINATHA(SAURASHTRA)
• 23RD:PARSWANATHA(BENARAS)
• 24TH:VARDHAMANA MAHAVIRA

260
 VARDHAMANA MAHAVIRA

• Date:
ü 540 BCE

• Place:
Ø Vaishali (BH)(Kundagrama)
• Parents:
Ø Siddhartha and Trishala
• Clan:
Ø Nyaya/Jnatrika
• Wife :
Ø Yashoda
• Daughter:
Ø Priyadarshana/Anojja
261
 VARDHAMANA MAHAVIRA
• Tree:
ØSal
• River:
ØRijupalika(JRIMBHIKAGRAMA-BH)
• Title:
ØNirgrantha
• Died at:
ØPavapuri(BH)

262
 JAINA DOCTRINE
• Older than Buddhism
• Doctrine is expressed in many principles
1. ANEKANTAVADA
2. SYADAVADA
3. NAYAVADA
4. TRIRATNA
5. PANCHA MAHAVRATA
6. AHIMSA

263
 ANEKANTAVADA
• ‘non-onesidedness’ or ‘manifoldness’
• pluralism
• people have different views on same subject
• Five blind men have never seen an elephant.
• An elephant is brought to the village,
• the five approach, touch and attempt to describe it.
• 1st trunk- thick branch of a tree.
• 2nd tail disagrees- rope.
• 3rd side, -wall.
• 4th leg - pillar,
• 5th ear - fan. 264
 SYADAVADA
• Means:MAY BE/COULD BE
• no judgement is final
• knowledge is relative
• No absolute YES or NO is possible
• possibilities and non-possibilities exist on a issue
• EX:ATMA/SOUL-permanent or temporary..?

265
 NAYAVADA
• Theory of standpoint and view point
• all viewpoints are partially true
• This led to anekanta vada

266
 3/THREE JEWELS/TRIRATNA
• Jaina ethics
• A Jaina must follow these 3 jewels to attian liberation/KAIVALYA
1. RIGHT KNOWLEDGE (Samyag jnana)
2. RIGHT FAITH (Samyag darshana)
3. RIGHT ACTION/CONDUCT (Samyag charitra)

qOne Of Three cannot co-exist exclusive of others

qAll three are are required to attain moksha

267
 RIGHT FAITH
• Belief in Jina/tirthankaras teachings
• if you do not believe right knowledge cannot be acquired

268
 RIGHT KNOWLEDGE
• Deep study of components of reality/universe
• like Matter(PUDGAL)
• Space(AKASH)
• Time(SAMAY)
• motion (DHARMASTIKAY)

269
 RIGHT ACTION/CONDUCT
• Following Jaina ethical rules
• That is 5 VOWS

270
 5 VOWS/PRINCIPLES/PANCHA MAHAVRATA
1. AHIMSA 1. NON-VIOLENCE
2. SATYA 2. TRUTH
3. NON-STEALING
3. ASTEYA
4. NON-POSESSION
4. APARIGRAHA 5. CELIBACY
5. BRAHMACHARYA
ØFifth is added by:MAHAVIRA
ØANUVRATAS i.e., When the
same vows are partially
observed

271
 GENERAL TECHINGS OF MAHAVIRA
• Soul is in a bondage due to perpetual desires accumulated through previous
births
• liberate that soul through right conduct
• life of purity, virtue, and renunciation
• severe asceticism
• penance
• every animate and inanimate being have soul
• rejected the authority of vedas
• against BRAHMINICAL SUPREMACY
• A householder cannot attain -should become monk
• extreme non-violence-agriculture would kill insects-so trade
• universe is created by natural law/univeral law 272
 OTHER JAINA DOCTRINE
• Gods are lower than Jina
• rejected vedic rituals
• did not condemn Hierarchy of varna-said it depends on good and bad
acts of previous life

273
 BUDDHISM AND JAINISM
CONCEPT BUDDHISM JAINISM

GOD NO LOWER THAN JINA

SOUL NO YES

VARNA SYSTEM CONDEMNED/SILENT SOMETIMES DID NOT

SALVATION MIDDLE PATH EXTREMITY-PENANCE

274
 SCHOOLS/SECTS OF JAINISM
qDIGAMBARAS
• Sky clad
• Naked(Later Mahavira also followed Nudity)
• Famine in MAGADHA-200 yeras after the death of Mahavira
• went to Karnataka
• along with their leader:BHADRABAHU
• Lived strictly as tirthankaras prescribed
• believe Mahavira never married
• presents tirthankaras idols as nude
• do not believe woman can attain moksha-must reborn as MAN-lack will
275
 SECTS OF JAINISM
qSVETHAMBARAS
• white clad
• Leader: STHULABHADRA
• wore white garments and masks
• stayed at MAGADHA during famine
• Digambaras after coming back accused them of being not following
right code of conduct -cz they were wearing white cloths
• so departure from Mhavira’s original teachings

276
 MINOR SECTS
• FROM SVETAMBARAS:
• Murtipujaka,
• Sthanakvasi,
• Terapanthi.

• FROM DIGAMBARAS
• Bisapantha
• Gumanapantha

277
 JAINA COUNILS
• FIRST COUNCIL
• 300 BCE
• PATALIPUTRA
• UNDER:STHULABHADRA
• Divided Jaina canons into 12 ANGAS/SECTIONS(ORALLY)
• These were accepted by Svetambaras

278
 JAINA COUNCIL
• SECOND COUNCIL
• 512 AD/CE
• VALLABHA(GJ)
• UNDER:DEVARDHI KSHEMASHARMANA
• New additions were made to the ANGAS called UPANGAS or Minor
sections
• Written down Jaina texts/sacred books known as
• AGAMAS
• In ARDHA-MAGADHI(dialect of Prakrit)

279
 IMPORTANT ANGAS
• ACHARANGA SUTRAS/SUTTAS
ØDeals with code of cnduct of a Jaina monk

• BHAGAVATI SUTRAS/SUTTAS
ØExplaining Jaina doctrine in a comprehensive manner

280
 FACTS
• Jaina lit. in ARDHA-MAGADHI-dialect of prakrit
• Ganadharas-Lord Mahavira’s immediate disciples-following him
before enlightenment
• Purvas-early jaina lit.
• Srut-kevlis-monks who had knowledge about Purvas

• 12 years of Penance to achive kaivalya by Mahavira

ØKaivalya, also known as Kevala Jnana, means omniscient(know all) in
Jainism
Ø roughly translated as complete understanding or supreme wisdom.
ØKevala jnana is believed to be an intrinsic quality of all souls.
281
• With reference to the history of ancient India, which of the following
was/were common to both Buddhism and Jainism?(2012)

1. Avoidance of extremities of penance and enjoyment

2. Indifference to the authority of the Vedas
3. Denial of efficacy of rituals
• Select the correct answer using the codes given below :

A. 1 only
B. 2 and 3 only
C. 1 and 3 only
D. 1, 2 and 3

üSOLUTION : B 282
• Which of the following statements is/are applicable to Jain doctrine?(2013)

1. The surest way of annihilating Karma is to practice penance.

2. Every object, even the smallest particle has a soul.
3. Karma is the bane of the soul and must be ended.
• Select the correct answer using the codes given below.

A. 1 only
B. 2 and 3 only
C. 1 and 3 only
D. 1, 2 and 3

üSOLUTION:D

283
• With reference to the religious practices in India, the “Sthanakvasi” sect
belongs to(2018)

A. Buddhism

B. Jainism

C. Vaishnavism

D. Shaivism

üANSWER: B
284
• The Jain philosophy holds that the world is created and maintained
by(2011)

A. Universal Law

B. Universal Truth

C. Universal Faith

D. Universal Soul

üSOLUTION: A

285
 OTHER HETRODOX SECTS/IDEAS
• 600 BCE -400 BCE
• Other than Buddhism and Jainism
• who were alternative to Brahmanism/Vedic culture
• developed into small sects
• with small number of folllowers
• sources ;Buddhist and Jaina texts
• most of these leaders were Contemporary of Buddha and Mahavira

286
 AJIVIKAS
• are Shudra sanyasins
• in SRAVASTI (U.P.)
• est. by :NANDA VACHCHA
• popularised by : MAKKALI GOSALA
• other notable personalities :KISA SANKICHCHA
• denied the theory of KARMA
• humans are subject to laws of nature
• destiny is predetermined even before the birth
• So called :PRE-DETERMINISM
• no matter what action you take you will end up with-DESTINY(NIYATI)
• every creature must face misery/bad times and it wll end after
sometime/cycles 287
 AJITHA KESAKAMBALI
• Believed in complete materialism
• no life after death
• influenced :CHARAVAKAS

288
 CHARAVAKAS
• also called : LOKAYATA
• means :WORLDLY ONES
• Believed in complete materialism
• enjoying the luxuries of the world
• no belief in KARMA/MOKSHA/ATMA/SCRIPTURES
• athiest/nastik
• Brihaspati-founder(disputed)

289
 AKRIYA/NON-ACTION
• PURANA KASSAPA
• A Brahmana teacher
• contemporary of Buddha and Mahavira
• action did not determine merit or demerit
• even if you kill a person you would not incur sin
• truthfulness will not give you credit

290
 ASASVATAVADA
• PAKUDHA KACHCHAYNA
• he says :There are 7 elements
• body ultimately dissolve into these 7 elements
• so beleived in ATOMISM
• EVERYYTHING is made of these 7 atoms
• WATER
• FIRE
• AIR
• EARTH
• JOYHAPPINESS
• SORROW/PAIN
• LIFE/SOUL
291
 SRAMANA MOVEMENT
• "seeker, one who performs acts of austerity, ascetic"
• 600 BCE
• NON-VEDIC
• Buddhism
• Jainism
• Ajivikas
• Other sects

292
 THE MAHAJANAPADAS (600
BCE ONWARDS)
q RISE OF TERRITORIAL STATES
q DYNASTIES
q INAVASIONS
q SOCIAL ORGANISATION
q SECOND URBANISATION

293
 RISE OF STATES
• During Rig vedic-JANA
• Later vedic-RASHTRA/JANAPADA
• 600 BCE onwards-MAHAJANAPADA(LARGE TERRITORY)

• Tribal territorial aspect of politics

• big states were emerged with cities as their seat of power
• now people owed allegiance to Territory and the RAJA ruling over it
• Therefore, Monarchy ssystem starting to become common

294
 16 MAHAJANAPADAS
• Mentioned in :ANGUTTARA NIKAYA and Mahavastu are the two Buddhist
texts which list down the 16 Mahajanapadas
• Buddhist texts
• Use of better Iron tools increased the power of te warrior class
• it helped them expand their territory
• 16 such large territory emerged
• mainly in North India
• north of the VINDHYAS
• These states were independent
• There was struggle among these states for supremacy
• Finally, MAGADHAN state emerged
295
296
 16 MAHAJANAPADAS
• Of these, Magadha, Koshala, Vatsa, and
• Avanti seem to have been powerful.

297
 UNIQUE MAHAJANAPADAS
• ASSAKA
• Capital :Potali
• modern :TL
• Only Mahajanapada situated south of the Vindhyas

298
 UNIQUE MAHAJANAPADAS
• KURU
• Capital: INDRAPRASTH ,HASTINAPUR
• Mahabharatha talks about conflict among two clans of the region

299
 UNIQUE MAHAJANAPADAS
• VATSA
• Capital : KAUSHAMBI (U.P)
• King:UDAYANA
• He is the hero of 3 sanskrit dramas
• Svapnavasavadatta of Bhasa,
• Priyadarshika,and Ratnavali of Harsha

300
 UNIQUE MAHAJANAPADA
• CHEDI
• capital :SUKTIMATI(M.P)
• King was :Shisupala
• He was killed by Lord Vasudeva Krishna

301
 POLITY OF 16 MAHAJANAPADAS
• Some of them were Gana-sanghas

• some were kingdoms/monarchy

302
 DIFFERENCE

q GANA-SANGHA q KINGDOMS/MONARCHY
• Means :Assembly of Gana(clans)
• Hereditary
• who had equal status
• few had only one clan:MALLA • power in the hands of king
• few had many clans :VAJJIS • centralisation
• An assembly of members will look after the
government • Brahminical influence was much
• An oligarchy/aristocratic council more here
• chief:GANARAJA/GANAPATI
• Not hereditary
• ASSEMBLY HALL :SANTHAGARA
• Discussed the major issues and put to vote
303
POLITICAL CONFLICTS AMONG MAHAJANAPADAS

• Led to the emergence of the most powerful state

• MAGADHA
• four Mahajanpada- Magadha, Kosala, Vatsa and Avanti engaged in the
struggle for the supremacy
• started with BIMBISARA

304
 BRIHADRATHA
• Brihadratha- the founder
• SON:JARASANDHA

• actual founders of MAGADHA

305
 HARYANKA DYNASTY
• Magadha
• 544 BCE- 413 BCE
• capital:Rajagriha/Rajgir, later:Pataliputra
• became the future centre of power
• Monarchy
• previous dynasties: the Pradyota dynasty and Barhadratha dynasty.
• during its Rule Indus valley was captured by
• Achaemenid ruler(first Iranian empire :by CYRUS(550 BCE)
• Darius I
• about 517/516 BCE
306
 MAJOR KINGS
• BIMBISARA
• actual founder
• some believe his grandfather
• 544 BCE-492 BCE
• Contemporary of Buddha and Mahavira
• court physician :JIVAKA
• conquered :ANGA
• defeating BRHAMADATTA of ANGA
• he used matrimonial alliances(WITH KOSALA AND OTHERS) to
increase his influence in other states

307
 BIMBISARA
• Pukkusati came into his court who was the ambassador of the
Gandhara ruler of Taxila
• Known as” Seniya”-CUZ first king to have standing army
• Built Rajagriha

308
 MAJOR KINGS
• AJATASATRU/KUNIKA
• son of BIMBISARA
• 492BCE-460BCE
• Aggresive policy
• conquered :KOSALA
• defeating :PRASENJIT
• captured :VAISHALI
• Defeating :CHETAKA
• first Buddhist council during his reign
• fort at Rajgir
• contemporary of Buddha and Mahavira
309
 MAJOR KINGS
• UDAYABHADRA(UDAYIN)
• Shifted capital to :Pataliputra
• central to the empire

Ø-later weak rulers: Anuruddha, Mundaand Naga-Dasak

310
 SHISHUNAGAS
• 413 BCE- 345 BCE
• Founder:Shishunaga
• He was an officer(AMATYA) in Haryanka kingdom last
ruler:NAGADASAKA
• revolted and founded his rule/some say he was ELECTED
• Temporarily shifted capital to :VAISHALI
• occupied Avanti (M.P) became part of Magdha
• defeating: NANDIVARDHANA/AVANTIVARDHANA(Pradyota dynasty)

311
 SHISHUNAGAS
• KALASOKA
• 395 BCE-367 BCE
• son of Shishunaga
• Second Buddhist council at VAISHALI

312
 NANDA DYNASTY
• 345 BCE-321 BCE
• first non-kshatriya kingdom
• MAHAPADMA NANDA/UGRASENA
• added KALINGA to magadha
• brought an Image of JINA from there as a mark of victory
• as ‘the first empire builder of Indian history

• DHANANANDA
• last major ruler
• Alexander invasion during his time
• Chandragupta Maurya defeated him and established the Mauryan empire
313
 FOREIGN INVASIONS
qPERSIAN INVASION
qIran
qAchaemenid empire
q. The first of two main invasions was conducted around 535 BCE by
the empire's founder, Cyrus the Great
q Around 518 BCE, Persian armies under Darius(DARAYABAHU) crossed
the Himalayas into India to initiate a second period of conquest by
annexing regions up to the Jhelum River in Punjab.
qmade GANDHAR one of their province(SATRAPY)
qXEREXES, succesor of Darius ,employed Indian soldiers against Greeks
qthier rule ended with the invasion of ALEXANDER 314
 CONSEQUENCES
• The invasion increased the Indo-Iranian trade and commerce. o
• A new form of writing was introduced to Indians by the Iranians
known as
• Kharosthi

315
 ALEXANDER’S INVASION
• Around 326 BCE
• From Macedonia/GREECE
• Son of Philip
• conquered Iraq ,Iran then marched towrads India
• throgh KHYBER pass
• Taxila Ruler AMBHI, submitted to Alexander
• then he defeated PORUS in battle of HYDASPES (326 BCE)
• Jhelum river known as HYDASPES
• impressed by PORUS, Alexander reinstated him
• came untill BEAS river
• stayed in India for 19 months
316
 ECONOMY DURING 600 BCE ONWARDS-300
BCE/AGE OF BUDDHA
• Second urbanisation phase
• NBPW-NORTHEN BLACK POLISHED WARE
• Fabric was aslo usd to make this pottery
• probbaly welathy people used it
• Mainly in North India but also found in south India
• wheel made pottery
• iron implements have been found along with this pottery

317
 ECONOMY
• Iron tools
• Gangetic valley-fertile
• helped in clearing forests
• more settlements
• increased food production
• axe,sickle,chisel
• refernce to KUDDALA(SPADE)
• KUDDALIKA,use this tool to earn his living
• shows how much diffusion of iro technology

318
 ECONOMY
• crops
• rice
• wheat
• pulses

319
 ECONOMY
• suplus production
• exchange with non-agricultural communities
• like royal families and soldiers
• ked to growth of trade
• naturally towns accompanied
• Aristobulus of Cassandreia ,came with alexander mentions seeing
1000s of town
• important town were capitals of Mahajanapadas
• remarkable beginning of town life in north India

320
 ECONOMY
• Trade got further boost by movement of Alexander’s army
• from Greece to India
• cleared forest
• opened up number of trade routes
• with West Asia and North-West India
• inland contacts with South India also opened
• The two major trans-regional routes of the time were
• Uttarapatha -north-west to Tamralipti on the Bay of Benga land
• Dakshinapatha (of southern India, from Pataliputra in Magadha to
Pratishthana (MH)on the Godavari)
321
 ECONOMY
• New beginning coins
• great boost to trade activities
• help in exchange
• earliest coins of India
• silver and copper punch marked coins
• punched with certain marks such as hill, tree, bull, fish, elephant
• called as:NISHKA and SATAMANA
• issues by merchants not kings
• Used for paying wages
• shows monetisation of life
322
 ECONOMY
• ARTS AND CRAFTS
• explosion of activities
• coins maker
• pottery maker
• barber
• painter
• metals smiths
• carpenters

323
 ECONOMY
• artisans and craftsmen organised into Guilds/SRENIS
• ASSOCIATIONS
• They lived ina particular area of the town:VESSAS(merchant streets)
• led localisation of some skills and products
• and also hereditary transmission
• Head of the GUILD was:JETTHAKA/SETTHIS
• alo acted as finaciers
• he was granted revenue villages by KINGs
• called:BHOGAGAMA
• EMERGING AS AN IMPORTANT SOCIAL GROUP(VYSYAS)
324
 SOCIETY 600 BCE-300BCE
• rich peasants were called :Gahapati
• Gahapati, used for land owner of any class
• vysays were gaining status due to trading activities and agricultural activities
• now given to them:DWIJA STATUS
• second life is enetring MERCHANT PHASE
• shudras emerged from slaves at homes to
• agricultural labourers
• social inequality was growing
• brahminical text (DHARAMASUTRAS) books sanctified the social,legal and
economic privileges of each varna
• varna based legal and judicial system origianted
325
 SOCIETY
• TECHNLOGICAL GAP with local indigenous tribes
• Iron tech
• cultural gap
• with vedic society
• given the status of UNTOUCHABLES
• Disabilities were imposed on shudras and untouchables
• upper varnas considered pure
• more disbailities were on women
• completely subordinated to men

326
 ADMINISTRATION 600 BCE-300 BCE
• King was supreme
• divinity status to king
• high officials to help him
• MANTRI
• SENANAYAKA and ARMIES
• AYUKTAS (assistants)
• SHAULKIKA-tax collector
• an important function and official
• tax base was incraesing:BHAGA , KARA
• ON peasants ,artisans,traders, ETC
327
 MARRIAGE TYPES -600 BCE-300BCE
• BRAHMA-normal marriage where dowry is given
• DAIVA-daughter is given as a sacrificial fee
• ARSA-cow or bull paid instead of dowry
• PRAJAPATYA-no dowry
• GANDHARVA-swayamvara-self-choice
• ASURA-marriage by purcahse- allowed by kautilya
• RAKSAGA-maariage by capture
• PAISACA-seduction of sleeping-lowest form of marriage

328
• With reference to the guilds (Shreni) of ancient India that played a very important role in the
country’s economy, which of the following statements is /are correct?(2012)

1. Every guild was registered with the central authority of the State and the king was the chief
administrative authority on them.
2. The wages, rules of work, standards and prices were fixed by the guild.
3. The guild had judicial powers over its own members.
• Select the correct answer using the codes given below :

A. 1 and 2 only
B. 3 only
C. 2 and 3 only
D. 1, 2 and 3

üSOLUTION :C
329
 THE MAURYAN EMPIRE
q 324 BCE-187 BCE

330
 IMPORTANT SOURCES
• Arthashastra of Kautilya,
• Indica of Megasthenes,
• Ashokan inscriptions
• Junagarh (GIRNAR)Inscription of Rudradaman I(150 AD/CE)

üConsidered more authentic than earlier periods

üthrow a lot more light on THE FIRST EMPIRE OF INDIA
üafter overthrowing Nanda Dynasty

331
 ARTHASASTHRA
• Kuatilya or VISHNUGUPTA or Chanakya,teacher at TAXILA
• sanskrit
• deals with internal administration and interstate relations
• work also includes
• recommendations on law, prisons, taxation, irrigation, agriculture,
• mining, fortifications, coinage, manufacturing, trade,slavery,marriage
• 1905 rediscoverd this book : R.SHAMASHASTRY

332
 INDICA
• By GREECE ambassador MEGASTHENES
• lived in Pataliputra
• Sent by SELEUCUS NIKATOR
• to the court of Chnadragupta Maurya
• Talks about climate and animals and plants of India
• also administration
• society
• says no slavery
• Lord Krishna and addressed him as Herakles/Hercules.
• portrayed Indians as honest and having great character and moral values.
333
 MAURYAN KINGS
• CHANDRAGUPTA MAURYA
• 324/321 BCE-297 BCE
• With the help of his mentor:Chanakya
• conflict between Chandragupta Maurya and Seleucus Nikator
• After Alexander’s death he was controlling North west India
• Chandragupta defeated him around 301 BCE-LATER CORDIAL
• Empire included BH,ODISHA,PARTS OF DECCAN etc
• adopted Jainism
• went to SRAVANA BELAGOLA (KA)
• peformed SALLEKHANA
334
 BINDUSARA
• 297 BCE-273 BCE
• Antiochus (Syrian king) sent
• Deimachus as an ambassador to Bindusara’s court.
• King Ptolemy II Philadelphus of Egypt sent
• Dionysius as an ambassador
• invaded south and west India
• joined AJIVIKA sect

335
 ASHOKA ,THE GREAT
• 268 BCE-232 BCE
• Viceroy/Governor of TAXILA AND UJJAIN beefore becoming king
• successsion conflict with SUSIMA and 99 brothers
• first ruler to maintain direct contact with his subjects through
inscriptions
• various names of Ashoka in inscriptions:
• DEVANAMPIYA(beloved of gods)
• BUDDHASAKHYA AND ASHOKA (Maski)
• DHARMASOKA(Saranath)
• PIYADASSI(Pleasing appearance)
336
 ASHOKA,THE GREAT
• children: MAHENDRA and SANGAMITRA (sent to SriLanka)
• TIVARA, his son mentioned in some inscriptions
• contemporaries were
• Antiochius II of Syria,
• Ptolemy II of Egypt,
• Antigonus of Macedonia,
• Magas of Cyrenaica (Libya)
• converted to Buddhism-influence of NIGRODHA his nephew
• Hosted Third Buddhist council in pataliputra

337
 BRIHADRATA
• Last King
• killed by PUSHYAMITRA SUNGA
• in 187 BCE

338
 MAURYAN ADMINISTRATION
• Centralised admin.
• empire was divided into many provinces
• village adminstration can aslo be seen
• all came under central authority
• There are 7 components of adminstration mentioned by Kautilya
• called as :SAPTANGA

339
 ADMINISTRATION
• SAPTANGA
1. KING
2. AMATYA(MINISTER)
3. JANAPADA(TERRITORY)
4. DURGA(FORT)
5. KOSA(TREASURY)
6. DANDA(ARMY)
7. MITRA(FRIEND)

340
 KING
• top authority
• basic policy matters
• king’s law prevail over SHASTRA’s/tradition in case of conflicts
• Arthasastra mentions qualities to become King
• EX:born in high family
• upholder of dharma,
• writing
• military training etc

341
 COUNCIL OF MINISTERS
• Mantriparishad
• to assist the King
• king should listen to their advice -acc to ARTHASASTRA
• they implement the polic decisons of the king
• references of 18 departments
• called :THIRTHAS
• EX: KARMANTIKA-industries
• ANTARAVAMSIKA-King’s security
• SANNIDHATA-TreaSury

342
 CITY ADMINISTRATION
• Head : NAGARIKA -acc . ARTHASASTHRA
• acc to INDICA
• city admin. was in the hands of city council
• which had 6 committees
• with 5 members each
1.INDUSTRY AND CRAFT COMMITTEE
Øwhich fixed wages

2.FOREIGNERS COMMITTEE
Østay, comfort ,security
343
 CITY ADMNISTRATION
3. REGISTRATION OF BIRTH AND DEATH COMMITTEE
Ø by:GOPA
4.TRADE AND COMMERCE COMMITTEE
Ø control market
Ø inspect weights and measures
Ø head:PANYADHYAKSHA

5.MANUFACTURNG COMMITTEE
Ø check for spurious goods

6.TAXATION COMMITTEE
Ø imposing tax on goods
Ø head:SULKADHYAKSHA 344
 OTHERS
• HEADS NAME OF COMMITTESMENTIONED IN ARTHASASTHRA
• BANDHA NAGARADHYAKSHA :JAILS

345
 ARMY
• well organised standing army
• they were paid
• Kautilya mentions CHATURANGABLA
• infantry
• cavalry
• chariots
• Elephants
ØEach component was looked after by a committee of 5 members
Øsoldiers were paid i cash
ØAYUDHAGARADHYAKSHA:production and maintenance of ARMS
346
 JUSTICE ADMINISTRATION
• Arthasasthra mentions codes and punishments
• GRAMIKA- judicial officer at village level
• Two kinds of courts were there
1. DHARMASTHIYA
2.KANTAKASODHAN

1.Dharmasthiya:
Øto settle personal disputes like Marriage

2.Kantakasodhan
Ødisputes between states and individual
ØWages, tax 347
 JUDICIAL ADMINISTRATION
• Supreme judicial power is the KING
• Kautilya called the king as Dharmapravartaka or promulgator of the
social order
• importance given to evidence and witnesses
• But penalities were based on VARNA system

348
 REVENUE ADMINISTRATION
• Various sources of revenue
• PASTURES-vraja
• MINE-Khana

• fines, sales tax,merchants,export and import tax

• income from CROWN LANDS :SITA
• State cultivated lands through labourers/SHUDRAS

• Land revenue was called :BHAGA

• Samharta – charge of assessment of taxes.
• Sannidhata – chief custodian of treasury
• Tax was 1/4 th to 1/6 th of production
• Samahartri (chief collector of revenue)
• PANA-SILVER MONEY USED TO PAY SALRY
349
 PROVINCIAL ADMINISTRATION
• all powers with KING
• for convenience divided into provinces
• head:ARYAPUTRA/KUMARA
• generally ,the royal prince
• he was assisted by: MAHAMATTAS(ministers)

• Provinces were further divided into PRADESIKAS

• Again divided into smaller districts under:RAJUKAS

350
 LOCAL ADMINISTRATION
• districts were sub-divided into groups of villages
• At village level
• Gramika
• Gopa:maintain records
• STHANIKA:collected taxes

351
 MAURYAN SOCIETY
• Divided on the basis of varna system
• dominated by Brahmanas and Kshatriyas
• Vysyas got the Dwija status
• strict punishment fo shudras
• increased animosity of shudras towards upper varnas
• Kautilya gave privileges and Concessions for Brahmanas
• he mentions duties of the 4 castes
• Mnetions:ANTYAVASAYINS
• probably untouchables
• means living outside the settlements
352
 MAURYAN SOCIETY
• shudras became agriulturists
• state provided them land to cultivate
• emplyed them in SITA lands
• Forced labour on them:VISHTI
• they were also taking up arts and crafts
• slaves of men and women were also mentioned in Inscriptions of
Ashoka and Kautilya
• But Indica say there was no slavery

353
 MAURYAN ECONOMY
• more land was coming under agriculture
• surplus production
• SITA lands
• supervisor:SITADHYAKSHA
• government provided irrigation facilities to boost production
• for that water tax was collected
• led to the growth of trade
• coins became much more common
• silver and copper coins
• state control over trade and industries
354
 MAURYAN ECONOMY
• superintendent of Market: SAMSTHADHYAKSHA
• Superintendent of weights and measures:PAUTADHYAKSHA
• Supervisor of Rivers: NAVALADHYAKSHA

• state also engaged in trade

• state goods were called :RAJAPANYA

• artisans were organised into:GUILDS

• state monopoly of mines and metallurgy
• highly centralised economy
355
 ASHOKA’S DHAMMA AND INSCRIPTIONS
• DHAMMA in Prakrit
• DHARMA IN Sanskrit
• Means:RIGHTEOUSNESS, UNIVERSAL LAW OR SOCIAL RELIGIOUS
ORDER
• around 269 BCE
• we come to know about dhamma through his inscriptions
• Dhamma was inspired by Buddhism but not completly
• it was not a religion/faith
• it was not arbitrarily formed
• considerable thought was given

356
 REASONS FOR DHAMMA FORMUALTION
• SOCIAL conditions
• RELIGIOUS conditions
• ECONOMIC conditions

• interplay of all these palyed a role

• SOCIAL:
• tensons were raising due to shudras hostility,
• variety of cultures becoming part of the empire as expanded
• increasing social distance between backward tribes and adavanced
varna-iron society

357
 REASONS FOR DHAMMA FORMULATION
• he had to maintain order in the society
• conflits were growing in all aspects of life
• wanted to consolidate diversity into unity
• therefore, he had two choices to maintain order
1.MILITARY AUTHORITY
2.AN IMAGINATIVE POLICY WHICH EVREYONE COULD APPROVE

ØThat Policy was;DHAMMA

358
WHAT IS DHAMMA/CONTENTS OF DHAMMA
• We understand through his Major edicts
• morality was emphasised
• Dhamma concept evolved over a period of time not an event
ØMajor Rock Edict I prohibits animal sacrifice
ØMajor Rock Edict II relates to measures of social welfare.
• It mentions medical treatment for men and animals, construction of
roads, wells and tree planting.
ØMajor Rock Edict III declares that liberality towards Brahmans and
Sramanas is a virtue, and that respecting one's parents is a good
quality
359
 DHAMMA CONTENTS
• Major Rock Edict IV-importance to duty
• Major Rock Edict V refers to the appointment of Dhamma-
mahamattas.To spread the message of Dhamma
• Major Rock Edict VII is a plea for tolerance amongst all sects.
• Major Rock Edict VIII states that Dhammayatras (tours) would be
undertaken by the emperor. The earlier practice of the emperor going
out on hunting expeditions was given up. Dhammayatras enabled the
emperor to come into contact with various sections of people in the
empire

360
 DHAMMA CONTENTS
• Major Rock Edict IX attacks ceremonies performed after birth, illness, marriage and before
going on a journey.

• Major Rock Edict XIII: The Kalinga war (261 BCE, occurred in the ninth year
• after Ashoka’s consecration) changed his attitude
• the worshipper of Shiva, turned towards Buddhism.
• Digvijay was replaced by Dhamma Vijay, the sword was replacd by dhamma, the war drum
(Bheri Ghosha) became law (Dhamma Ghosha).
• His dhamma contained the essence (good qualities) of all the religions of the world.
• The king considered victory by dhamma to be the foremost victory;
• mention of victory by dhamma on his Hellenistic neighbours like Antiochus, and others like
the Cholas and Pandyas.
• edict itself, he sternly warns the forest tribes against any intransigence
361
 LANGUAGE OF INSCRIPTIONS
• 3 languages and 4 Scripts used
• Prakrit, Greek and Armaic languages
• Brahmi,&Armaic(west asia/syria)&Kharoshti(indo-iranian) &Greek
script
• Prakrit inscriptions are in Brahmi and Karoshthi script

• Deciphered by:JAMES PRINSEP -1837

• mainly Kharoshti and Brahmi

362
• Who among the following first to decipher Ahokan
inscriptions(2016)

A. Geroge Buhler
B. James Prinsep
C. Max Muller
D. William Jones

üANSWER:B

363
 DECLINE OF MAURYAS
• Began to decline after the death of Ashoka
• followed weak successors
• 232-224 BCE-Dasharatha
• 224–215 BCE -Samprati
• 215–202 BCE -Shalishuka
• 202–195 BCE -Devavarman
• 195–187 BCE-Shatadhanvan
• 187–184 BCE -Brihadratha
ØVery short tenure
Øcannot ensure stability
364
 DECLINE OF MAURYAS
1. Brahminical reaction against Mauryas may be due to criticisng their
ceremonies and materialistic way of life
2. High handedness of Dhamm officials and Dhamma pacifism
3. interestingly, post-maurya kingdom’s were Brahminism followers
4. Financial crisis due to huge burden on maintaining huge army and
bureaucracy
5. instances of Famines also exacerbated the decline
6. No frontier policy like THE GREAT WALL OF CHINA in the north west
resulted in invasion of INDO-GREEKS,SCYTHIANS,SAKAS AND
PARTHIANS

365
• According to Kautiyla’s Arthahastra, which of the following are correct?(2022)

1. A person could be a slave as a result of a judicial punishment.

2. If a female slave bore her master a son, she was legally free.
3. If a son born to a female slave was fathered by her master, the son was entitled
to the legal status of the master’s son.
• Which of the statements given above are correct?

A. 1 and 2 only
B. 2 and 3 only
C. 1 and 3 only
D. 1, 2 and 3

üANSWER: D 366
 UNIQUE INSCRIPTIONS OF ASHOKA
• MAJOR AND MINOR AND PILLAR
• The Minor Rock AND Minor pillar Edicts deals with Ashoka's early
reign,
• while the Major Rock Edicts address Ashoka's vision of peaceful
existence through Dhamma
• the Major Pillar Edicts treat the end of his reign,

• kandahar is bilingual-Greek-Armaic

367
 MAJOR ROCK EDICTS
• Major Rock Edicts and Major Pillar Edicts, are not inscribed in the
name of "Ashoka",
• but in the name of "Devanampriya" ,&"Devanampriya Priyadasi"
• word Ashoka in Minor edicts(not all)

368
 ASHOKA NAME
• Ashoka uses his name only in four of MINOR EDICTS places namely:
1. Maski,
2. Brahmagiri (Karnataka),
3. Gujjara (MP) and
4. Nettur (AP).

369
 ALLAHABAD/PRAYAGRAJ INSCRIPTION
1. Ashoka
2. also has samudragupta inscription on the same pillar
3. Jahangir-shifted from Kosambi to Allahabad

370
 KANGANAHALLI
• SANNATI -Kalburgi -KA
• Buddhist site with a stupa
• sculpture of Ashoka
• with the label-RAYO/RANYO ASHOKA-Brahmi script
• Dharmachakra relief

371
 SHABAZGARHI
• words:DHARMA-DIPI/DHRAMA-DIPI
• MEANS:"Inscription of the Dharma"- in Kharosthi,

372
 LUMBINI PILLAR
• Mentions Buddhas birth place

373
 KALINGA EDICTS
• DHAULI AND JAUGADA
• shows PATERNAL ATTITUDE OF ASHOKA
• as it mentions: “ALL MEN ARE MY CHILDREN”

374
LIST OF MAJOR EDICTS:10 PLACES-14 SET
KANDAHAR AFGHAN

SHAHBAZGARHI PAKISTAN

MANSEHRA PAKISTAN

KALSI UK

GIRNAR GJ

SOPARA MH

DHAULI ODISHA

JAUGADA ODISHA

SANNATI KA-KALBURGI

YERRAGUDI AP
375
 MINOR ROCK EDICTS-22
KANDAHAR AND LAMPAK AFGHAN

BAHAPUR DELHI

BAIRAT AND BHABRU RJ

GUJARRA AND RUPNATH AND PANGURARIA MP

SOHAGAURA UP

RATANPURWA,SAHASRAM,BARABAR CAVES BH

MAHASTHAN BANGLA

SUVARNAGIRI,RAJULA-MANDAGIRI AP

BRAHMAGIRI-3 EDICTS NEARBY (SIDDAPUR,JATINGA) KA(CHITRADURGA)

NITTUR,UDEGOLAM KA(BELLARY)

MASKI AND PALKIGUNDU AND GAVIMATH KA(RAICHUR AND KOPPALA) 376

 MINOR PILLAR EDICTS:5
LUMBINI AND NIGALI SAGAR NEPAL

SARNATH UP

ALLAHABAD/PRAYAGRAJ UP

SANCHI MP

377
 MAJOR PILLAR EDICTS:7
KANDAHAR AFGHAN

RANIGAT PAK

MEERUT-DELHI(FEROZ) UP-DELHI

FEROZ SHAH KOTLA DELHI

VAISHALI BH

RAMPURVA BH

LAURIYA-NANDANGARH BH(CHAMPARAN)

378
• In which of the following relief sculpture inscriptions is ‘Ranyo Ashoka’ (King
Ashoka) mentioned along with the stone portrait of Ashoka?(2019)

A. Kanganahalli

B. Sanchi

C. Shahbazgarhi

D. Sohgaura

üANSWER:A

379
• Consider the following pairs :(2022)
Site of Ashoka’smajor rock edicts Location

1. Dhauli -ODISHA
2. Erragudi -ANDHRA PRADESH
3. Jaugada-MADHYA PRADESH
4. Kalsi-KARNATAKA
• How many pairs given above are correctly matched?
A. Only one pair
B. Only two pairs
C. Only three pairs
D. All four pairs
üANSWER: B

380
• Who among the following rulers advised his subjects through this
inscription?(2020)
“Whosoever praises his religious sect or blames other sects out of
excessive devotion to his own sect, with the view of glorifying his
own sect, he rather injures his own sect very severely”.

A. Ashoka
B. Samudragupta
C. Harshavardhana
D. Krishnadeva Raya

üANSWER: A

381
 200 BCE-300 CE/AD
POST-MAURYA TIMES
q INVASIONS
q TRADE
q CULTURE

382
 INTRODUCTION IN GENERAL
• political focus from Magadha to North-Western India
• series in Invasions
• many regional kingdoms emerged
• no large empires like Mauryas
• intermixing of cultures happened
• age of urbanisation exploded further
• religion institutionalised
• INDIA(CULTURALLY) we know today formed in this phase

383
 POLITICS :SUNGAS
• Pushyamitra Sunga (brahmana)established ‘SUNGA’dynasty
• after killing Brihadrata
• he was the commander in chief
• 185 BCE-148 BCE
• CAPITAL:PATALIPUTRA AND VIDISHA
• He fought the Bactrian(Afg, C,A) Greek king, Demetrius(disputed)
• is mentioned in Patanjali’s works(MAHABHASYA)-Mention outsiders as:YAVANAS
• patanjali was contemporary
• Expanded untill Narmada
• Kalidasa’s drama Malavikaagnimitram mentions the conflict between Pushyamitra and
Yajnasena, the king of Vidarbha (eastern Maharashtra), and the victory of the Sungas

384
 SUNGAS
qAGNIMITRA-SON OF PUSHYAMITRA
• hero of Kalidasa’s MALVIKAGNIMITRAM

oDEVABHUTI
• Last ruler
• 73 BCE
• he was killed by VASUDEVA KANVA, his Brahmana minister

qHelidorous(Ambassador of Indo-Greek ruler of TAXILA-Antialkidas)

qLived in sungas court
qHe issued Besnagar pillar inscription (VIDISHA,M.P.)(113 BCE)
qcalls himself worshipper of BHAGAVATA(LORD KRISHNA)
385
 SUNGAS
• Patronised scholars like Patanjali and Manu.
• Shungas issued gold and silver coins.

• Bharhut Stupa,(MP) a famous monument was made during Sunga

period

386
 KANVAS:73 BCE -28 BCE
• VASUDEVA KANVA
• Capital:Pataliputra AND Vidisha

• According to some scholars, the last Kanva ruler Susharman was

• overthrown by a successor of Simuka of the Satavahana dynasty

387
 KALINGA STATE/CHEDI
DYNASTY/MAHAMEGHAVAHANAS
• well knwon that Ashoka had captured it
• 261 BCE
• at Dhauli (Daya River banks)
• After the Maurya’s fall it came under the influence of Chedi dynasty
• not much information about Kings except
• KHARAVELA(1 CENTURY BCE)(Bhikshu-Raja)
• Probably belonged to :MAHAMEGHAVAHANAS
• His achievements are recorded in an inscription, known as the Hathigumpha inscription,
(Prakrit)
• situated in the Udaigiri hills near Bhuvaneshvar in Orissa
• the inscription tells he was a follower of Jainism
• it aslo proved Jainism adopted idol worship
388
 FOREIGN INVASIONS
• BACTRIAN GREEKS/INDO-GREEKS
• North Afghanistan region, Central Asians
• part of Alexandar’s empire(satraps)
• revolted and established their indpendent kingdom their
• pushed by SCYTHIANS(IRAN) TOWARDS iNDIA
• FIRST TO INVADE INDIA
• second century BCE (200 BCE-100BCE)
• occupied more territory than Alexander
• came as far as PATALIPUTR AND AYODHYA
• First to issue Gold coins
• coins with the name of their Kings
389
 BACTRIAN GREEKS:AFG,TAJIK,UZBEK
qDEMETRIUS
q200 BCE-167 BCE
qConflict with Pushyamitra sunga(disputed)

qMenander /Milinda/Minedra (165 BCE – 145 BCE)

qconverted to Buddhism by Nagasena
q Milindapanho (Question of Milinda), which contains philosophical questions that
Milinda asked Nagasena-PALI
qcapital :SAKALA(sialkot)

qLast ruler was:Hermaius

qHe was defeated by the Parthians
390
 THE SHAKAS/SCYTHIANS
• Shaka is the Indian term for SCYTHIANS
• from Iran and Central Asia
• 5 banches of shakas in India
• Afghanistan, Taxila, Mathura, West India and Upper Deccan
qMaues/Moga/Moa (c. 80 BCE)
• Probably the first Shaka king in India who established
• power in Gandhara
• his coins had images of Goddess LAXMI

391
 THE SHAKAS
qCHASTHANA
• (Reign 78 AD – 130 AD)
• He was a Saka ruler of the Western Kshatrapas (Satraps) dynasty who
ruled over Ujjain.
• The Saka Era is believed to have started at his ascension to power in
78 AD.

392
 THE SHAKAS
qRudradaman I (Reign 130 AD – 150 AD)
• famous of all sakas
• belong to western sakas
• repair of Sudarshan lake from Mauryan times in Kathaiwar
• built by Pushya gupta (governor of Chandragupta)(Girnar inscription)
• issued first long inscription in SANSKRIT

393
 LEGEND
• In about 57–58 BC we hear of the king of Ujjain who effectively
fought against the Shakas and
• succeeded in driving them out during his reign.
• He called
• himself Vikramaditya, and an era called Vikrama Samvat is reckoned
from his victory over the Shakas in 57 BC.
• From this time onwards, Vikramaditya became a coveted title
• 18 vikramaditya’s in Indian history

394
THE PARTHIANS/PAHLAVAS/SHAKA-PAHLAVAS
• 1st century AD
• Iranian origin
• ruled over very small portion
• GONDOPHERNES/Guduvhara
• mentioned in an inscription dated 45 CE found at
• Takht-i-Bahi, recovered from Mardan near Peshawar
• first christian contact to India
• visit by: St Thomas
• assimilated into Indian society

395
 ST.THOMAS
• landed in Muziris (Cranganore)(KODUNGALLUR) on the Kerala coast in
AD 52
• and was martyred in Mylapore, near Madras in AD 72
• est. 7 churches in kerala
• was one of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus according to the New
Testament.

396
 THE KUSHANAS
• Yuechis or Tocharians.
• From steppes of north Central Asia living in the neighbourhood of
China
• defeated Shakas
• rule over Indus and Gangetic basins
• empire extended from Khorasan in Central Asia to Pataliputra
• two houses of Kushanas
• KADPHISES
• KANISHKA

397
 THE KUSHANAS
qKujula Kadphises/Kadphises I (15 CE – 64 CE)
qVima Kadphises/Wema Kadphises II (64CE – 78 CE)
• He issued large number of Gold coins
• He was a firm devotee of Shiva
• proclaimed himself as ‘Mahishvara’ on his coins.
• coins have image of Lord Shiva

398
 THE KUSHANAS
qKANISHKA
• 78 CE – 101 CE
• two capitals: PURUSHAPURA(Peshawar) and MATHURA
• He built peshawar
• Started the Shaka era (78 CE), which is accepted as the beginning of
his reign,
• which is now used by the Government of India for its calendar.
• Fourth BUDDHIST council in Kashmir

399
 THE KUSHANAS
• Vasudeva II
• last Kushana emperor
• Mid second century AD/CE
• took the title Shaono Shao Vasudevo Koshano,
• which indicates that by this time the Kushanas were totally Indianised.

400
 KUSHANAS
• Adopted the title of devaputra, i.e., son of God, used by the Kushana
kings.
• It indicates DIVINE RIGHT OF KINGSHIP
• Charaka, known as father of Ayurveda, - Charaksamhita-SANSKRIT
• whereas Asvaghosha, a Buddhist scholar,- Buddhacharita, a full length
biography of the Buddha. -POEM -SANSKRIT
• Both these scholars were believed to be thecontemporaries of king
Kanishka

401
 THE INDO-SASSANIANS
• lower Indus region
• called this as ‘HINDU’region
• One of their inscription 262 AD/CE
• uses the term ‘HINDUSTAN’ for this region

ØThe term became common during The Mughals and The British

402
 IMPACT OF NEW CONTACTS
• various new elements were added to Indian society
• to trade, agriculture,adiminstration,religion etc
• Introduced tiles for flooring
• better horses were introduced and cavalry development
• saddles,reins and toe-stirrups were made popular
• caps ,helmets and boots for warriors
• turban,long coats and trousers
• satrap system of government-empire was divided into satraps
• military governors in charge who paid tributes to kings(feudatory system)
• strengthened divine right of kingship(SONS OF GOD)
• GREEK HOROSCOPES
• PUNCH-MARKED COINS TO PRECISE COINS-WITH RULERS IMAGE AND NAME 403
 TRADE, TOWNS AND CRAFTS
• Most striking aspect of the period
• 3 dozen different occupations/crafts are mentioned
• trade contacts with the inavders home towns
• discovery of Monsoon winds for the first time helped in trade
• Indians extensively participated in Silk route which connected
• western China to Roman empire
• China’s silk carried thorugh it hence the name
• Indian goods found their way into Rome through this route
• main exports:Ivory,saffron,pepper,food products
• imports:Clothes,glassware,lead,wine,copper Red polished pottery
404
 TRADE,TOWNS AND CRAFTS
• issue of gold coins in large nubers boosted trade activities
• money economy was spreading faster
• craftsmen were organised into GUILDS/SRENIS
• guilds prtected by states
• Another type of mercantile group was called sartha,
• which signified mobile or caravan trading corporation of interregional
traders.
• The leader of such a guild was called ‘Sarthavaha’
• guilds acted as banks recieved deposits and offred interest
• UTTARAPATHA (NORTH -EAST)
• DAKSHINA PATHA(NORTH-WEST-SOUTH)
405
 SOCIETY
• Artisans and Craftsmen largely drawn from shudras
• gained wealth
• distinction between vaishyas and shudras blurring
• but still continued as labourers and slaves
• MANUSMRITI/MANAVA DHARMASASTRA/LAWS OF MANU
• Disputes about origin-Legend that he was ancestor of humans, many
scholars authored it etc
• it laid down laws

406
 MANUSMRITHI
• on social and economic position of varnas
• He said: shudra are born to serve upper varna
• prescribe harsh punishments
• Cuting limbs,arms,tongue
• but says upper varna men canMARRY lower varna women but not
vice versa
• It was one of the first Sanskrit texts to be translated into English in
1776, by British philologist Sir William Jones,[3]
• and was used to construct the Hindu law code, for the East India
Company administered enclaves
• patanjali :DASI/VRISHALI(shudra women) meant for the pleasures of
men of upper verna

407
 SOCIETY
• Increased discontent among shudras agaisnt upper varna
• produced conflicts
• again further increased sanctions against them
• while giving these sanctions deprived women of their property rights
• lowered the age of marriage
• no freedom
• MANU :she must be under the constan protection
of:FATHER,HUSBAND,SON

408
 SOCIETY
• Foreigners assmilated into Indian society
• Buddhism egaliatrian approach made it easy to follow
• Brahminism also attracted considerable yavanas
• donated to both the religion
• Brahmanas gave status of kshatriyas to these rulers and tried to
assimilate into their fold

409
 RELIGIOUS DEVELOPMENTS
qBUDDHISM
• Underwent a massive change
• Mahayana Buddhism originated
• divided into 18 sects by the time of kanishka
• features of Mahayana:
Ø divinity of Buddha
Ø salvation for universal Beings
Ø thoery of incarnation
Ø image /idol worship of Buddha and Bodhisattvas
Ø worship them with rituals
Ø First image of Buddha from MATHURA
Ø COMPLETELY CHNAGED FROM WHAT BUDDHA imagined
410
 RELIGIOUS DEVELOPMENTS
qBRAHMINISM
• received set back
• becuase foreigners were more supportive of Buddhism
• in place of vedic Gods
• new trinity of Gods emerged
• BRHAMA :Creator
• VISHNU : Preserver
• SHIVA : Destroyer
• vaishnavism and shaivism became important
• vishnu avataras/incarnations to save the world
• animals,tress,mountains and rivers attained divinity status
• cow became an object of worship
• snake
• KAILASH mountain
• pipal,Banyan,Tulasi/BASIL 411
 DECCAN AND SOUTH POLITICS
• SATAVAHANAS IN DECCAN

• THREE EARLY KINGDOMS IN SOUTH

• CHOLAS
• PANDYAS
• CHERAS (Keralaputras)

412
 THE SATAVAHANAS
• Second century BCE - THIRD CENTURY CE/AD(BY:220 AD)
• Puranas mention them as “ANDHRAS”
• but satavahanas do not mention that word anywhere
• defeated Kanvas in central India and established their rule
• capital: PRATISHTANA(PAITHAN)(MH)
• Spread their rule over MH ,AP, TL,KA
• conflict with SHAKAS of western branch
• Brahmana descent
• worshipped KRISHNA and VASUDEVA
• evident Naneghat(MH,in WG) cave inscription of (1st century BCE),
• started the practice of Land grants to BRAHMANAS and BUDDHIST MONKS
413
 SATAVAHANAS
qSIMUKA
• the founder

qSATAKARNI
• his name in sanchi stupa gateways

qGAUTAMIPUTRA SATAKARNI
• 106 CE-130 CE/AD
• defeated the sakas:NAHAPANA
• extend his kingdom to KA
• eulogised in NASIK inscription
• Karle inscription mentions donating land to Buddhist monks
• acquired the title:ONLY BRAHMANA and LORD OF DAKSHINAPATHA
414
 SATAVAHANAS
qVashishthiputra Pulumayi -CAPITAL AT:Paithan(Godavari banks)
• 130 CE–154 CE
• Married daughter of RUDRADAMAN

qHALA
• authored GATHA SATTASSAI/GATASAPTASATI
• erotic poem
• on Maharashtri Prakrit

Øafter Satavahanas :Vakatakas (C.I), Kadambas(KA), Ikshavaku(AP) etc

415
 ADMINISTRATION OF SATAVAHANAS
• Amatyas/Mahamatras to advise king (Mauryan influence)
• senapati was the provincial governor
• kingdom was subdivided into :AHARAS/RASHTRAS(districts)
• Village under:GAULMIKA/Village head
• KATAKA and SKANDHAVARA terms were used for military feudators
• Three grades of feudatories
1. RAJA-rigtht to strike coins
2. MAHABHOJA
3. SENAPATI

Ørevenue collected both incash and kind

Øfirst Indian rulers to grant lands to religious figures to earn religious merit 416
 LANGUAGE
• Prakrit was the admin. language

417
 ECONOMY OF SATAVAHANAS
• fertile Godavari and Krishna region
• so surplus producton with iron use
• paddy transplantation, cotton were common
• issues coins in LEAD, COPPER ,SILVER ,POTIN(silver alloy) AND BRONZE
• first native rulers to issue own coins with the portraits of the rulers.
• exploited the rich resources of DECCAN iron ore,
• Gold from KGF

418
 SATAVAHANA SOCIETY
• were Deccan tribe -Brhamanised beofre becoming kings
• beacuse North India Brahmanas considered them as mixed caste
• protected varna system-perofrmed vedic sacrifices
• liberal grants to Buddhist also
• evidence NAGARJUNA KONDA, AMARAVATI, NASIK impt Buddhist
centres
• matrilineal social structure in traces
• as Kings were named after Mother:GAUTAMIPUTRA
• Nasik inscription issued by his mother:GAUTAMI BALASHRI
• indicate good position of women(atleast for royal women)
• thorne ,however, passed onto SON 419
 MEGALITHS OF SOUTH INDIA
• 1200 BCE-300 BCE
• big stone structures in graves not in settlements
• outside settlement areas
• this culture yielded first Iron objects from South India
• Black and Red ware pottery
• Three early kingdoms followed these culture
• SANGAM AGE

420
 SANGAM LITERATURE
• SANGAM means
• college or assembly of Tamil poets
• under the patronage of kINGS
• in MADURAI
• Early Tamil classical Literature
• it is difficult to pinpoint exact dates
• orally transmitted for centuries from 300 BCE-300 AD
• present available sangam literature compiled during 300 AD-600 AD

421
 SANGAM
• it is believd Three assemblies(ACADEMY OF TAMIL POETS) were
convened
• popularly called Muchchangam
• under the patronage of Pandyas of MADURAI
• FIRST: AT: Thenmadurai
• chair: AGASTYA

• SECOND: AT:Kapatapuram
• chair:AGASTYA TOLKAPIYYAR

• THIRD: AT: Madurai

• chair: NAKKIRAR
422
 CLASSIFICATION OF SANGAM LITERATURE
qNARRATIVE qDIDACTIC
qcalled : Melkannakku (18 Major qmeans:informative
Works) qcalled Kilkanakku (18 Minor
qheroic poetry(anthology) Works)
qwars and cattle raids are qethics, philosophy,love ,polity
mentioned

423
 MAJOR WORKS OF SANGAM LITERATURE
qDIDACTIC WORKS
1. Tiruvalluvar’s -Tirukkural
• considered 5th veda in Tamil
2. Epics such as
Silappadikaram(ILANGO ADIGAL)
and Manimekalai(SATTANAR)
qSILAPPADIKARAM:story of an Anklet
Ølove story of KOVALAN
(wife :KANNAGI )and MADHAVI
qMANIMEKALAI:
ØODYSSEY OF TAMIL POETRY
Øsequel to Silappadikaram
Ødeals with adventures of Kovalan
and Madhavi’s Daughter
Manimekalai
Øshe later converted to Buddhism
424
 SANGAM LITERATURE
• other works :
• Tolkappiyam (a book on Tamilgrammar and poetics)
• BY : Tolkappiyar

vWomen poets were also there

vAvvaiyar- She wrote 58 poems
vNachchellaiyar, and Kakkaipadiniyar
vsecular in character
vthemes of love and war mainly

425
 POLITICS
qPANDYAS
• capital :Madurai
• port:KORKAI
• S-E part of peninsula
• contacts with Roman empire -AUGUSTUS
• vedic sacrifices , Sati, caste, idol worship

Ø NEDUNJELIYAN I
Ø ordered the killing of KOVALAN
Ø died of remorse

Ø NEDUNJELIYAN II
Ø Defeated Cholas and Cheras and 5 other chiefs in
Ø battle of Talaiyalanganam. 426
 PANDYAS
• Their power declined with the invasion of a tribe called the Kalabhras

427
 POLITICS
qCHOLAS
• seat of power :Uraiyur(famous for cotton trade)
• between the Penner and the Velar rivers
• north-east of pandyas

ØKARIKALA
Ødefeated Pandyas and Cheras in
Øbattle of Venni
Øfounded the port city of PUHAR(KAVERIPATTANAM)(Capital also
Øa dam on river Kaveri
428
 POLITICS
qCHERAS
• Kerala region
• capital:Vanji
• west of Pandyas
• prosperous trade with Romans
• Roman regiment at:MUZIRIS/MUCHIRI-near Kochi
• TONDI Port

qFamous king:Senguttuvan(the Red Chera or the Good Chera, - 2nd century A.D)
• Senguttuvan introduced the Pattini cult or the worship of Kannagi as the ideal wife in
Tamil Nadu
• He was the first to send an embassy to China from South India.
• Ilango Adigal was his brother 429
 SANGAM ADMINISTRATION
• Monarchy
• ministers -amaichar
• priests -anthanar
• envoys-thuthar-
• military commanders -senapathi
• spies-orrar

430
 SOCIAL STRUCTURE SOUTH
• Varna distinction were there -but not as rigid as north India
• Brahmanas were rewarded by chiefs -acted as advisors
• they ate meat and had wine -no special privileges
• but later stages they acquired

• Society was clasn based :KUTI

• no restrictions on inter dining and marriages

• Rich PEASANTS: VELLALAS

• AGRI LABOURERS :KADAISIYAN
• ANIMAL skin workers : PARIYARS
• COMMANDERS OF ARMY : ENADI
• lower castes of pariyans, pananas, and velans
431
 SOCIETY :WOMEN POSITION
• education was given
• poets also
• engaged in other economic activities like agri, basket making ,cattle
rearing etc
• sati was exist
• known as : tippayadal.
• not obligatory as widows were present
• aslo mentions :chevilittai, who were like foster mothers

432
 SANGAM RELIGION
• interaction between north and south tradition
• Brahminical gods were popularise like vishnu,indra,shiva
• cheifs earned merit through sacrifices
• Buddhism and Jainism were also present
• local people worshipped God named :MURUGAN (KARTHIKEYA IN
NORTH)
• medieval times became SUBRAMANYA
• Belived in magical forces called :ANANKU
• Worshipped :NATUKAL (MEMORIAL STONES)

433
 SANGAM ECONOMY
• Tamilakam/sangam territories
• divided into 5 TinaiS :ECO-ZONES
• kurinji (hilly region);
• palai (arid zone);
• mullai (pastoral tracts);
• marudam (wet lands); and
• neital (seacoast).
• people in different regions had different subsistence
• rice was staple
• barter exchange trade-inland
• non-perennial rivers-so kings built dams and tanks
• flourishing trade with Roman empire 434
 SANGAM ECONOMY
• evidence of Roman trade in
• PERIPLUS OF THE ERYTHREAN SEA (1 CENTURY AD)
• Discover of Monsson winds by HIPPATUS, a Greek naviagtor helped
trade further
• Exports:YAVANAPRIYA(pepper),cotton,sandalwood,
• Imports:Gold and Silver, Red pottery
• major ports :MUZIRIS, ARIKAMEDU,KAVERIPATTANAM,KORKAI

435
THE GUPTA EMPIRE
300 CE-600 CE

436
 ORIGIN OF GUPTAS
• Feudatories of Kushanas
• most likley Vyshayas
• Called as ‘GOLDNE AGE’
• due to political unification and immense cultural and literary
contribution
• samller than Maurya empire

437
 KINGS
qFOUNDER: Sri Gupta

qCHANDRAGUPTA 1
• 319-335 AD
• started Gupta era in 319-20 AD
• capital : Pataliputra
• Coins were struck in the joint names of the Emperor and queen-
KUMARADEVI(LICHCHAVI CLAN,NEPAL)

438
 KINGS
qSAMUDRAGUPTA
• 335 -380 AD
• GREAT CONQUERER
• his military exploit by :HARISENA, his court poet, IN SANSKRIT
• engraved in ALLAHABAD pillar(stone) inscription(PRAYAGA PRASASTHI)
• Ashoka’s inscription on the same pillar
• Jahangir inscription is also there
• Unlike Ashoka, Samudragupta’s inscription extolling his deeds and virtues
stresses on violence and military conquest,
• defeated powers in:Punjab, Ganga-Yamuna doab, Deccan and South(Pallavas
accepted his suzerainty-VISHNUGOPA), sakas-kushanas, Nepal-Assam-Bengal,
Vindhya region . Sri Lanka rulers submitted to him.
• So called :NAPOLEON OF INDIA by V.A.Smith 439
 SAMUDRAGUPTA
• Called as :ANUKAMPAVAN-compassionate-
• as he granted permission to MEGHAVARMAN of CEYLON to build a
Buddhist monastery at GAYA
• He played veena ,as depicted in his coins
• patron of art and music- title of Kaviraja
• Hinduism
• supported other religion also
• VASUBANDHU, a Buddhist philosopher was his minister

440
 CHANDRAGUPTA II
• high watermark of the empire
• 376 – 413/15 CE
• married his daughter Prabhavati to Vakataka prince(Rudrasena ) in Central
India
• she became ruler after his death
• he captured MATHURA from Kushanas
• Ujjain seems to have been the second capital
• his exploits in IRON pillar inscription in DELHI
• adopted the title:VIKRAMADITYA
• his court had :KALIDASA AND 9 GEMS/Navaratnas
• chinese traveller :FA HSIEN(399-414 AD) visited India
• his gold coins are called :DINARA
441
 NAVARATNAS OF CHANDRAGUPTA II
1. Kalidasa-poet
2. Amarasimha-AMARAKOSHA-sankrit lexicon
3. Varahamihira-mathematician and astrolegr-PANCHASIDDANTIKA
4. Dhanvantri-court physician
5. Vetala Bhatta-magician-MANTRASASTHRA
6. Vararuchi-Scholar in Prakrit and Sanskrit-PRAKRIT PRAKASHA-its 1st
grammar
7. Kahapanaka-astrolger-JYOTHISYA SASTHRA
8. Shanku-architect-SHILPASASTHRA
9. Ghatakarapara-sculpture
442
 KUMARAGUPTA
• 415 – 455 CE
• founded NALANDA university
• Bilsad inscription(U.P.)
• Karamdanda-stone linga inscription (U.P.)
• Damodarpur Copper plate inscriptions (mentions that trade guilds
served as banks)(WB)
• Mandasur inscription (written by:VATSABHATTA)
• central asian HUNS invasion began during his time

443
 SKANDAGUPTA
• last major ruler
• 455 – 467 CE
• adopted the title:VIKRAMADITYA
• repulsed HUNS invasion
• Junagarh/Girnarinscription of his reign tells that his governor
Parnadatta got the Sudarshan lake repaired.

444
 ADMINISTRATION OF GUPTAS
• administrative divisons of the empire
• BHUKTHI-province-UPARIKA (viceroy)

• VISHAYA -disrict-VISHAYAPATI

• VITHIS-sub-districts

• GRAMA (Gramika)

445
 ADMINISTRATION
• Provinces also called as desha ,rashtra
• centralisation to decentralisation
• power in the hands of local chiefs and feudatories
• submitted to king but had considerable autonomy
• local chiefs called themselves :Raja and Maharaja
• beacuse of this bureaucracy was less elaborate
• high officials were called :KUMARAMATYAS
• Mahasandhivigrahika(Minister for war and peace)
• admin post tended to become HEREDITARY
• evidence in Allahabad Prasasthi
• naturally weakened the Kings powers
• feudalism starting to emerge
446
 TOWN ADMINISTRATION
• 5 members council
• the uparika,
• the nagara- sreshthin (chief merchant),
• sarthavaha (chief caravan trader),
• prathama-kulika (chief artisan or merchant) and
• prathama-kayastha (chief in-charge of revenue collection).

447
 JUDICIAL ADMINISTRATION
• MAHADANDANAYAKA -chief justice
• first time civil and criminal laws were clealy demarcated
• inheritance laws were laid down
• uparikas and vishayapatis dispensed justice in their domain

448
 SOCIETY UNDER GUPTAS
• Brahmanas given god status to king
• Brahmanas supremacy increased due to land grants-BRAHMADEYA,AGRAHARAS
• BRAHAMANA LAND LORDS CLASS CREATED
• Gupta rulers also patronised Brahminism
• proliferation of castes
• due to many reasons:
1. assimilation of foreigners into Indian society-
• As they were conquerers-gave the status of kshatriya
2. Absorption of forest tribes into shudra catergory and given lower status
3.Guilds were turned into castes
4.Administrative officials became caste ex: KAYASTHAS

449
 SOCIETY UNDER GUPTAS
• untouchability became more common
• ex:Chandalas
• lived outisde the villages
• dealt in cleaning works
• strike a piece of wood to announce arrival
• even their shadow is considered impure
• FORCED LABOUR ON THEM:VISHTI

ØShudras position slightly improved

Ødue to agriculture and crafts
Ønow allowed to listen to Epics
Øpuranas said:a shudra can attain brahminhood in next birth ifhe serve the upper caste
with good conduct 450
• With reference to forced labour (Vishti) in India during the Gupta period, which one
of the following statements is correct?(2019)

A. It was considered a source of income for the State, a sort of tax paid by the people.

B. It was totally absent in the Madhya Pradesh and Kathiawar regions of Gupta
Empire.

C. The forced labourer was entitled to weekly wages.

D. The eldest son of the labourers was sent as the forced labourer.

üANSWER:A

451
 POSITION OF WOMEN IN GUPTA SOCIETY
• kept on detriorating
• education was denied
• advocated child marriage
• celibacy by widow is must
• practice of sati gained approval of law givrers
• first example 510 AD at ERAN (M.P)
• Denied right to property except
• STRIDHAN during marriage
• that led to dowry
• women came to be reagarded as property
• lower varna omen could work in fields as labourerslittle freedom from men/husband
• but not upper varna women-more orthodox control even today 452
 RELIGION DURING GUPTAS

• consolidation of Brahminical ideology

• Sanskrit was firmly established
• as personal gods were increasing
• needed a place to worship
• so temple based cult emerged
• IDOL WORHSIP BECAME COMMON FEATURE
• Hinduism acquired its present shape during this age

453
 RELIGION
• gave patronage to Bhagavatism
• worship of lord Krishna
• it emphasised on personal devotion/BHAKTHI
• chief text of Bhagavatism :BHAGAVAD GITA
• theory of incarnation BEGAN
• VISHNU-9
• SHIVA-28
• Mother goddesses worship popularised
• called ;SHAKTHI CULT

454
 RELIGION DURING GUPTA TIMES
• Shakti cult:Male could be activated only through union with female
• Female divinities merged into Brahmanism/Hinduism
• Laxmi with Vishnu
• Parvathi with Shiva
• tantric practices becoming vogue
• superstitions found their wayn into religion
• composite divinities:HARI-HARA (Vishnu n Shiva)

• Temple construction began with royal patronage

• individuals could earn merit by donating to temples or constructing them
455
 RELIGION DURING GUPTA TIMES
• Buddhism recevied set back
• Buddhism had adopted ritulas and magic with
• Mahayana and Vajrayana sects
• To withstand Growing Buddhism culture
• as answer to show Brahminism was greater
• made BUDDHA one of the avataras of VISHNU
• BLURRING DISTINCTION between the two
• as trade declined towards the end vysyas support also dwindled

456
ECONOMY AND TRADE DURING GUPTA TIMES
• towards the end trade started to decline
• Braek up of Roman empire reduced the demand for Indian and Chinese goods
• They also learnt the technique of silk worm rearing which was the major item of export on silk
road
• adversly affected Indias exports
• The Mandasor inscription is testimony to the fact that a guild of silk weavers left their original
profession
• in turn port cities declined -less activities
• reduced connection with rural hinterlands
• less demand for arts and crafts
• less demand for coins AND less incoming of gold aso
• as evident in GUPTAS coins-less gold content compared to Kushanas
• silver (RUPYAKAS) coins were there for local exchange
• very few copper coins show less demand for coins from people
• cowries became medium of exchange 457
 ECONOMY DURING THE GUPTAS
• feudalisation also affected
• artisans and peasants came under the control of big landlords
• they explioted them for revenue and forced labour
• affected production function

458
 DECLINE OF THE GUPTAS/HUNS INVASION
1.HUNS INVASION:
• Toramana was able to conquer large parts of Western India
• Banabhatta during Harsha mentions about them
• Even though MIHIRKULA, successor, got defeated by YASHODHARMAN of Malwa
• gupta empire could not be revived

2.REVOLT OF FEUDATORIES
• local chiefs had become independent as central power weakened

3.DECLINE OF ECONOMIC PROSPERITY

• less revenue geneartion to pay salaries
• more land grants
• more feudal tendencies
459
 GOLDEN AGE:SCIENCE AND LITERATURE
• peak of sanskrit literature
• NAGARI script evolved from Brahmi

460
 LITERATURE
• KALIDASA:
• PLAYS /drama -
1. Abhijnanashakuntala-King Dusyanta and Shakuntala
2. Malavikagnimitra-Agnimitra, who falls in love with the picture of an exiled servant girl named
Malavika
3. Vikramorvasiyam-story of King Pururavas and celestial sprit Urvasi who fall in love

• EPICS -
1. Raghuvamsa-about the kings of the Raghu dynasty.
2. Kumarasambhava-describes the birth and adolescence of the goddess Parvati, her marriage to
Saiva and the subsequent birth of their son Kumara (Kartikeya).

• LYRICS/POEM-
1. Ritusamhara- experiences of two lovers in 6 seasons
2. Meghaduta-story of a Yakṣa trying to send a message to his lover through a cloud. 461
 LITERATURE
• Vishakhadatta
• The famous plays of Vishakhadatta are

qMudrarakṣhasa
• means “Ring of the Demon” and it recites the ascent of Chandragupta
Maurya to throne.

qDevichandraguptam
• In the play, king Ramagupta decides to surrender his queen Dhruvadevi to a
Shaka enemy when besieged.
• Ramagupta's younger brother Chandragupta enters the enemy camp
disguised as the queen, and kills the enemy ruler.
462
 LITERATURE
• Shudraka
• He is a king as well as poet

• The famous three Sanskrit plays contributed by him are

1. Mrichchhakatika (The Little Clay Cart)

2. Vinavasavadatta
3. Padmaprabhritaka

463
 LITERATURE
• Bharavi- Kritarjuniya -story of the conflict between Arjuna and Siva.

• Dandin- Kavyadarsa and Dasakumaracharita

• Vishnusharma-Panchatantra

• most of Puranas were composed during this age

• Vatsyayana

• Vatsyayana-Nyaya Sutra Bhashya and Kamasutra

• Bhaṭṭikāvya which is also known as Rāvaṇavadha was written by Bhatt

464
 SCIENCE
• Aryabhatta -476-550 ce-Kusumapura-patna
• mathematician and astronomer.
• Aryabhatiyam in 499 A.D.
• determination of square and cube roots,
• geometrical figures with their properties and mensuration
• arithmetric progression
• calculated the value of pi
• calculations on solar, lunar eclipses.
• westward motion of stars is due to the spherical Earth's rotation about its own axis.
• Aryabhata also noted that the luminosity of the Moon and other planets is due to
reflected sunlight
465
 SCIENCE
• VARAHAMIHIRA- 505-587 CE-UJJAIN
• Pancha-Siddhāntikā,
• Brihat-Samhita-architecture, temples, planetary motions, eclipses,
timekeeping, astrology, seasons, cloud formation, rainfall, agriculture,
mathematics, gemology, perfumes and many other topics.
• that book quoted by :Al-Beruni
• Brihat Jataka-astrology

466
 SCIENCE
• VAGHABHATTA-SIND-
• Sushruta, "Father of Surgery" and "Father of Plastic Surgery",
• Charaka, a medical genius, and
• Vāgbhaṭa are considered to be "The Trinity" of Ayurvedic knowledge
• MAJOR WORK: Ashtāṅgasaṅgraha AND Aṣṭāṅgahṛdayasaṃhitā

467
• With reference to the scholars/litterateurs of ancient India, consider
the following statements:(2020
1. Panini is associated with Pushyamitra Shunga.
2. Amarasimha is- associated with Harshavardhana
3. Kalidasa is associated with Chandra Gupta – II
• Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A. 1 and 2 only
B. 2 and 3 only
C. 3 only
D. 1, 2 and 3

üANSWER: C
468
 PANINI
• 4th century BCE
• the father of linguistics
• sanskrit grammarian
• work:ASHTADYAYI

469
THE VAKATAKAS

470
 GENERAL
• 250 CE -500 CE
• contemporaries of Guptas
• Succeeded Satavahanas in Deccan region
• capital : VATSAGULMA/WASHIM(MH)/many are there
• supported : Hinduism, jainism and Buddhism(THEY WERE BRAHMINS)
• The Puranas refer to the dynasty as the Vindhyakas.
• matrimonial ties with Guptas , Kadambas
• culturally, it was a link between North and south
• brahminical culture spread in the south though them
• The rock-cut Buddhist viharas and chaityas of the Ajanta Caves were
built under the patronage of the Vakataka king, Harisena.
471
 CULTURAL CONTRIBUTION
• Ajanta cave numbers XVI, XVII and XIX are the best examples of Vakataka excellence in
the field of painting,
• in particular the painting titled Mahabhinishkramana.
• Not only the Vakataka rulers, but their ministers or governors like
• Hastibhoja and Varahadeva also extended their benevolent patronage to the Ajanta cave
painters.
• Kings like Pravarasena II (celebrated author of the Setubandhakavya) and Sarvasena
(author of the Harivijaya)
• themselves poets of great repute in Prakrit.
• A style by name Vaidharbhariti was developed in Sanskrit during their rule, which was
praised by the poets of the likes of Kalidasa, Banabhatta, and Dandin.
• The Vakatakas had a stamp of their own in their rulership, which is truly unmatched.
472
 KINGS
qVindhyashakti I
• 250 – 270 CE
• Founder of the Vakataka dynasty

qPravarasena
• 270 – 330 CE
• Vindhayasakti’s son and successor, who is considered the founder of the real power and greatness
of the Vakatakas.
• He extended the empire southwards into Vidarbha and adjoining areas of the Deccan
• After the death of Pravarasena, his four sons divided the
• empire and ruled independently in separate provinces.
• different branches/lines-Vatsagulma Branch and Nandivardhana Branch
473
 KINGS
• Pravarasena II
• belong to nandivardhana line
• 395 – 440 CE
• Largest number of Vakataka inscriptions belong to his reign.
• copper plate inscriptions
• Even though he was a devotee of Shiva, he composed a Prakrit kavya
glorifying Rama,
• the Setubandha/Ravanavaha, which is about Rama’s journey to Lanka
and his victory over Ravana.

474
 KINGS
qSarvasena
• 330 – 355 CE
• vatsagulma line
• Was believed to be a renowned Prakrit poet -
• the Harivijaya, (his work)
• Some of his verses were incorporated into the Gathasattasai of Hala

qHarisena
• 475 – 500 CE
• vatsagulma line
• united the two Vakataka branches
• many of Ajanta caves belonged to his period

Ø Nalas, the Kadambas, the Kalachuris, and Yasodharman of Malwa occupied their territory.
475
HARSHAVARDHANA
590 AD-647 AD

476
 POST -GUPTA
• Many regional kingdoms were ruling
• one of these kingdoms from THANESAR (HR)
• PUSHYABUTHI DYNASTY
• established sway over BH, UP, PJ,RJ etc

477
 PUSHYABUTHI DYNASTY
• capital :THANESWAR
• major sources :HARSHACHARITHA of BANABHATTA
• Chinese traveller: HUEN-TSANG/Xuanzang.
• Prabhakar Vardhana
• Rajyavardhana

478
 HARSHA VARDHANA
• described as the
• lord of the north (sakalauttarapathanatha)
• he was a Shaiva
• supported Buddhism massively
• Harsha occupied Kannuaj
• from Shashanka of GAUDA
• Rescued his sister RAJYASHRI from committing sati
• title :SILADITYA ,after occupying 5 regions
• Punjab, Kannauj,Bengal, Orissa, Mithila (BH/JH)
• Mentioned by Huen Tsang, Prince of Travelers and author of Si-Yu-Ki, visited India
• during 629–644 CE.

479
 HARSHAVARDHANA
• a grand assembly held at Kannauj in 643 CE,
• attended by the representatives of Hinduism, Jainism, and Buddhism,
• Xuanzang gave discourse on Mahayana doctrines.
• Harsha supported Mahayana Buddhism
• patron af arts:
• wrote three dramas
• Priyadarshika, Ratnavali and Nagananda
• flute player acc to BANABHATTA
• he himself compose two inscriptions:Madhuban(U.P) and Banskhera (U.P)
• monastery at NALANDA
• PATRONISED:BANABHATTA,MAYURA,BHARTRIHARI
480
 TWO ASSEMBLIES
• KANNUAJ
• a religious assembly to honour the Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsang
• ALLAHABAD
• Hiuen Tsang mentions in his account
• known as Prayag.
• routinely convenedby Harsha once in five years.
• gave away gifts to all religious sects.

481
• The Chinese traveller Yuan Chwang (Hiuen Tsang) who visited India recorded the general conditions
and culture of India at that time. In this context, which of the following statements is/are correct?
(2013)

1. The roads and river-routes were completely immune from robbery.

2. As regards punishment for offences, ordeals by fire, water and poison were the instruments for
determining the innocence or guilt of a person.
3. The tradesmen had to pay duties at ferries and barrier stations.
• Select the correct answer using the codes given below.

A. 1 only
B. 2 and 3 only
C. 1 and 3 only
D. 1, 2 and 3

üANSWER: B
482
 ADMINISTRATION
• same as GUPTAS
• feudal
• feudatories of Harsha were Bhaskaravarmana of Kamarupa,(Assam)
• Dhruvabhatta of Vallabhi, (GJ)
• Purnavarman of Magadha, and
• Udita of Jalandhar (PJ)
• decentralised
• land grants to officers with charters
• less coins have been discovered

483
 OTHER REGIONAL KINGDOMS
qTHE MAITRAKAS
• 475-776 CE
• ruling over Saurashtra
• capital:VALLABHI
• Dhruvasena II BALADITYA was important ruler
• contemporary of Harsha

484
 OTHER REGIONAL KINGDOMS
qTHE MAUKHARIES
• ruled over Kannauj
• Harsha Vardhana’s sister Rajyashri was married to
• Grahavarmana(600 CE)
• he was killed by Shasanka of Gauda and Devagupta of Malwa
• HARSHA reconquered Kannauj

qISHANAVARMANA I (554 CE)

qnotable for defeating HUNAS

485
 ANCIENT TERMINOLOGIES
1. kulyavapa and dronavapa-measurement of land
2. Eripatti-A part of Land revenue for the maintenance of the village tank
3. Ghatikas-Higher educational institutions attached to temples
4. Agrahara-Brahmana settlements
5. Brahmadeya-Brahmana villages
6. Aihole 500-Merchant guild
7. Matha-A center of education attached to a religious establishment
8. Taniyurs -large village and were distinct revenue units under Cholas.
9. Parivrajaka – Renunciant and Wanderer
10. Upasaka – common followers of Buddhism other than monks
11. Kshetra-fertile land
12. Khil-unfertile land
13. Hiranya- Tax on special produce taken in cash 486
 TERMS
• Sangam age :
1. Kalbhu- Marriage without permission of Parent and without any
customary.
2. Karpu- Marriage with permission of parents
3. Pinch Tinnal- Love marriage
4. Muhir -Wine
5. Kanigaichar- Prostitutes
6. Aniars -Hunters

487