Idea Engineering

ORGANS AND REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS OF

ANIMALS IN THE CLASSES OF PISCES,
AMPHIBIANS, AND MAMMALS

ANIMAL DEVELOPMENT
Lecturer : Eko Prasetyo, M.Sc

By Group 1
Anisa Pramesti (4222441010)
Grace Elizabeth Victoria Sitorus (4223141060)
Hotma Uli Christianita Sianipar (4223141007)
Natasya Regina Sitanggang (4223141032)
Syakilah Kurnia Fahmi Panggabean (4222441008)

Laboratory Assistant :
Akehke Rezekine
Khazanah Istiqomah
George Gamaliel Simanjuntak

BIOLOGY EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM

FACULTY OF MATH AND SCIENCE
UNIVERSITAS NEGERI MEDAN
NOVEMBER 2023
 FOREWORD
After a long struggle, this paper was finally completed. Of course. We, as the team that
wrote this paper, are very grateful for the completion of this paper. We express our deepest
gratitude to God, the Almighty Guide. We would also like to express our thanks to the parties
involved for providing support to us in completing this paper. This paper was prepared to
provide an overview of the comparison of the reproductive organs of three classes of
vertebrates, namely pisces, amphibians and mammals. Each individual will certainly
reproduce. Breeding is carried out to maintain a species with the aim of ensuring that the
ecosystem can be maintained and have a variety of biodiversity. Therefore, we need to know
how the reproductive system works in creatures, especially vertebrates, and know the organs
that function as reproductive organs. At least, by understanding these reproductive organs,
readers can understand, care for, or help in maintaining other living creatures, especially
animals. Apart from that, it is hoped that readers can also pass on this knowledge to the next
generation so that this knowledge does not just stop with the readers. Our hope is that this paper
can provide the greatest possible benefit to anyone who reads it. Hopefully readers will also be
willing to forgive if this paper contains shortcomings and errors. We would also be happier if
there were readers who were willing to provide suggestions and constructive criticism for us.
So, in preparing the next paper, we can present something better. Thank You.

Medan, November 2023

Group 1
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
FOREWORD .......................................................................................................................................... 2
ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................................ 4
CHAPTER I : INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................... 5
1.1. Background ............................................................................................................................. 5
1.2 Problem formulation ............................................................................................................... 5
1.3. Purpose.................................................................................................................................... 5
CHAPTER II : METHOD ...................................................................................................................... 6
2.1. Research Design...................................................................................................................... 6
2.2. Data Collection Method .......................................................................................................... 6
2.3. Data Analysis Method ............................................................................................................. 7
CHAPTER III : DATA AND DISCUSSION .......................................................................................... 8
3.1 Data ............................................................................................................................................... 8
3.2. Discussion .................................................................................................................................... 8
3.2.1. Pisces..................................................................................................................................... 8
3.2.2. Amphibian ........................................................................................................................... 11
3.2.3. Mammals............................................................................................................................. 19
CHAPTER IV : CLOSING ................................................................................................................... 24
4.1. Conclusion ............................................................................................................................ 24
REFERENCE........................................................................................................................................ 25
 ABSTRACT

One of the characteristics of living things is the ability to reproduce themselves. Reproduction
is a biological process carried out by organisms to produce new offspring. Reproduction in
animalia is carried out in a generative or sexual way by involving the genital organs in it. 5he
reproductive organs in each class have differences due to differences in the mechanism during
the reproductive process. This difference exists due to the form of adaptation and evolution of
the previous level of creatures. the method used in this research is a literature study of various
articles and books on the internet. this research aims to understand and compare fertilization,
organs and reproductive systems, generative development between the pisces, amphibian class,
and mammals.
 CHAPTER I : INTRODUCTION

1.1. Background
Animal development and reproduction within the three vertebrate classes has driven
the need to better understand the complexity of life at multiple structural and functional
levels. In the field of biology, this understanding is crucial as it provides deep insights into
adaptation, evolution and interactions between organisms. By comparing vertebrate
classes, this research can open the door to a more comprehensive understanding of the
differences and similarities in developmental and reproductive mechanisms.

As science and technology advance, understanding animal development and

reproduction, particularly within the three vertebrate classes, has become an increasingly
in-depth focus of research. This research plays an important role in studying the various
developments of animal life, providing deep insights into the different developmental and
reproductive mechanisms among vertebrates. By comparing these processes across
different classes, we can dig deeper and enrich our knowledge of the evolution of living
things. This paper aims to review and explore the development and reproduction of animals
within the vertebrate class.

1.2 Problem formulation

1. How does fertilization compare between the Pisces, amphibian and mammal classes?
2. How are the reproductive organs and reproductive system organs in each class of
pisces, amphibians and mammals?
3. How generative development in the pisces,amphibian class, and mammals works?

1.3. Purpose
1. Understand and compare fertilization between the Pisces, amphibian and mammal
classes
2. Know the organs and reproductive systems in each class of pisces, amphibians and
mammals
3. Understanding generative development in the pisces,amphibian class, and mammals
 CHAPTER II : METHOD

2.1. Research Design

This research is a research using the literature study method or literature review.
Literature review is a comprehensive overview of research that has been done on a specific
topic to show readers what is already known about the topic and what is not yet known, to
find rationales for research that has been done or for further research ideas (Denney &
Tewksbury, 2013). Literature studies can be obtained from various sources including
journals, books, documentation, the internet and libraries. The literature study method is a
series of activities related to library data collection methods, reading and recording, and
processing writing materials (Zed, 2008). The type of writing used is a literature review
study that focuses on the results of writing related to the writing topic or variable. The
author conducts this literature study after determining the writing topic and determining
the problem formulation, before going to the field to collect the necessary data (Darmadi,
2011).

2.2. Data Collection Method

The data used in this study come from research results that have been conducted and
published in national and international online journals and online books. In conducting
this research, researchers searched for research journals published on the internet using
ProQuest, PubMed, Research Gate, SagePub and Schoolar search engines with keywords:
self-directed reproduction, vertebrates, pisces, amphibians, mammals, female genital
organs, internal genital organs.

Literature review begins with the written material, which is sequentially considered
from the most relevant, relevant, and moderately relevant. Then read the abstract of each
journal first to assess whether the problems discussed are appropriate for the journal to
solve. To avoid being trapped in plagiarism, the writer should also note the source of the
information and include a bibliography. If the information comes from someone else's
ideas or writing. Make notes, quotations, or information that is organized systematically.
so that writing can easily search back if needed at any time (Darmadi, 2011).

Each journal that has been selected based on the criteria, a conclusion is made that
describes the explanation of self-directed learning in the explanation of the reproductive
system of each class. Before the author makes a conclusion from several literature results,
the author will identify in the form of a brief summary in the form of a table containing
the author's name, year of writing, study design, sample, instrument (measuring
instrument), and research results. After the results of writing from several literatures have
been collected, the author will analyze the application of self-directed learning in
improving the competence of biology students in the form of discussion.

2.3. Data Analysis Method

In analyzing the data from journals and books using the literature method, the approach
taken involved systematically searching and selecting a wide range of literature related to
the research topic. The information gathered from these sources is then comprehensively
analyzed to detail key findings and emerging trends. By integrating data from the literature,
this approach provides a broad and in-depth view of the issues or concepts discussed in
the research, creating a solid foundation to support the research arguments and findings.
 CHAPTER III : DATA AND DISCUSSION

3.1 Data

Characteristic
Pisces Amphibi Mammals
features
Fertilization External External Internal
Mechanism Body swiping Amplexus Copulation
Generative
Ovipar Ovipar Ovipar and Vivipar
development
A pair of testes
(plural: testes),
Testis, sinus Testis, corpus
ductus epididymidis,
Organ genital urogenitalis, adiposum,
ductus deferens,
Masculina Vesica urinaria, epidydimis, vas
glandulae
porus urogenitalis deferens, cloaca
accessoriae and
penis
Ovary, sinus
Ovarium, corpus
urogenitalis, Ovary, Oviduct,
Organ genital Femina adiposum,
Vesica urinaria, Uterus, vagina
oviduct, uterus
porus urogenitalis
Table 1. Differences in reproductive system 5 Vertebrate class

3.2. Discussion

3.2.1. Pisces
Fish have a reproductive system that involves the process of breeding individuals whose
success rate is influenced by habitat conditions or aquatic environment. Different species
of fish may respond differently to changes in the environment. Other species travel long
distances to lay eggs, while some species lay eggs in their habitat [4]. To sustain the
species, reproduction occurs naturally in fish and other living things. To successfully
reproduce, fish utilize a variety of reproductive techniques. Reproductive organs are
important in this situation. Different species of fish will respond differently to
environmental changes (Astriyah et al., 2023).

The reproduction organ of fish can be classified as testis for males and ovary for
females. The sexes of most fishes can be distinguished by examination of the gonad. Both
the testes and ovary are typically paired structures that are suspended by mesenteries
across the roof of the body cavity, in close association with the kidney (Muchlisin, 2014).
 Fish gonad consists of germ cells, which produce gametes and somatic cells, which
functions to support, nourish, and regulate the development of germ cells. Gonadal ducts
are present in most species to carry gametes to their appropriate internal or external
destinations. The majorities of teleosts are oviparous and much more fecund than
elasmobranchs. The oviparous fishes are mostly external fertilization, while the fish with
viviparous mode usually had internal fertilization, for example in killifishes, Poeciliidae,
Elasmobranches and Sebates sp. The oviparous fishes can be classified as broadcast
spawning, demersal non-guarding, demersal guarding and brooders (Muchlisin, 2014).

The ovaries of adult fish exist as paired structures attached to the body cavity on either
side of the dorsal mesentery. Three patterns of ovarian development are generally observed
in fishes, i.e. synchronous, group synchronous, and asynchronous. Fish with synchronous
pattern are known as total spawner or , where the whole clutch of yolked oocytes ovulates
at once and the eggs are shed in over a short period of time. While, a fish with
asynchronous ovulator is known as batch spawner or multiple spawner, where only a
portion of the yolked oocytes is spawned in each batch, usually through the hydration
process. Batch spawning is a strategy to release eggs over a long period of time increasing
the survival probability of offspring. In addition, a group synchronous is known as a
fractional multiple spawners, distinct ovulatory events that typically follow seasonal,
lunar, or diurnal cycles. Some species showing the semelparity pattern that fish spawned
once time during their life cycle before death, for example Pacific salmon (Oncorhynchus
spp.), however most of fish have an iteroparity reproductive pattern (Muchlisin, 2014)

The testicles are located below or near gas bubbles in fish. The testicles are paired and
about the same size. One testicle is often larger than the other in chondrichthyes.
Spermatozoa develop in the follicles that make up the testes. Depending on the stage of
development, the size and color of the testicles may vary. The testicles will first have a
ribbon-like shape as they mature. The ribbon makes indentations in some fish
(Siluriformes), such as catfish, but not in others. Spermatozoa originating from the testes
first move through the epididymis, vasa deferentia (sperm duct, Wolffii duct), seminal
vesicles (temporary storage organs), urogenital sinuses, and urogenital papillae before
reaching the urogenital pore. The sperm sac is located on the seminal side of the vesicle.

The reproductive organs of male fish are called male gonads or testes, numbered in
pairs, generally white or yellowish, oval, smooth, strong, smaller in size than the ovaries,
located hanging on the dorsal part of the mesentery (meschorchium) or the middle wall of
the fish’s abdominal cavity (abdomen). , weight can reach 12% of body weight or more.
Testes function to produce spermatozoa. Adult male fish or mature gonads have the
following characteristics, namely the gonads are larger in size, clearly visible, yellowish
white in color; while the body color is bright, slim, and the movements are agile. (Hayati,
2019)

From the epididymis, sperm moves to the vas deferens. Movement this is caused by
muscle contraction of the vas deverent wall, especially in animals whose fertilization takes
place internally. Contractions of the walls of the vas deferent rarely occur and usually occur
during coitus or by strong sexual stimulation. In various types of animals, the vas deferens
can function as a storage place for sperm for months, for example in Pisces, sperm can be
stored for 5-6 months until the mating season arrives.

In various types of animals where fertilization takes place externally, for example
various types of invertebrates, fish and amphibia, sperm is released by the male near the
eggs that have just been laid by the female. This event is called spawning. Sperm move
actively through water to reach the egg, and then carry out fertilization activities. (Adnan,
2022)

28 Testes, 29 Common sperm duct 22 Swim bladder

Fig 1. Organ Reproduction of female Cyprinus carpio (left), male (right)

3.2.2. Amphibian

Amphibians are divided into three orders: Anurans, with frogs, toads and tree-
frogs, Urodelans with salamanders and newts, and Caecilians or Gymnophionans, which
are burrowing lengthened animals living in tropical areas.

In anurans living in temperate countries, at the exit of hibernation, females and

males migrate to their breeding grounds where they unite in amplexus. The female emits
oocytes which are fertilized with sperm emitted by the male. Fertilization is external
excepted in the tailed frogs (Ascaphidae), Nimbaphrynoides (Nectophrynoides)
occidentalis, and Limnonectes larvaepartus. At spring, male and female salamanders head
to the spawning grounds where complex courtship parades bring the sexes together. When
fertilization is external (Cryptobranchidae and Hynobiidae), spawning takes place in water,
females emit oocytes that males fertilize. Fertilization is internal in Ambystomatidae
(Euproctes), Salamandridae (Pleurodeles, Salamandrina, Notopohtalmus, Taricha). In
these families, the males approach females and engage on a courtship with or without
amplexus. The male deposit a spermatophore that the female takes with its cloaca in order
to fertilize oocytes. In all the caecilians, fertilization is internal. The copulation can last
several hours. Caecilian species can be oviparous, viviparous or in direct development,
and early development occurs in the female genital tract. (Exbrayat, 2018)

Amplexus (copulatory embrace) is the reproductive mode exhibited by externally

fertilizing species of amphibians. Diferent types of amplexus have been determined, for
example, inguinal, axillary, cephalic, gular, glued, dorsal straddle, head straddle, and loose
axillary amplexus . In the amplexus position, the male grasps the female with his front legs
by the head, waist, or armpits (Fig. 2a). The duration of amplexus may vary from several
hours up to months (e.g., Atelopus oxyrhynchus, and can persist throughout the time spent
searching for or preparing nests. Ten, females may search for suitable oviposition sites
such as leaves, puddles, and waterbodies. Ascaphus truei is one of the few species of
anurans in which fertilization is internal. In these amplexus is replaced by copulexus (a
combination of amplexus and copulation), and the grip by the male is inguinal rather than
axillary. Te tail is used as a copulatory organ and is always inserted during copulation. Te
sperm transference occurs by extension of the male’s cloaca (Fig. 3b). Te tail contains
vascularized tissue that becomes engorged and forms a sulcus for passage of sperm when
inserted into the female. In Ascaphus truei and Eleutherodactylus jasperi, sperm can be
stored in the female’s oviduct. (Méndez, et all. 2023)

Some amphibians are socially monogamous; monogamy is a mating system that is

characterized formation of a pair bond between one male and one female. It often involves
increased territorial defense and other types of parental care. Monogamy also implies
social interaction between a male and a female frog over a more extended period.
Ranitomeya imitator is monogamous and performs parental care that is essential for the
survival of the tadpoles. In this species, the female selects a single male to oviposit the
eggs (Fig. 2c). A week later, the male returns to the oviposition site, carries a tadpole on
his back and transports it to a pond where the tadpole will develop. Other species that
exhibit this behavior are R. favovittata and strawberry-frog (Oophaga pumilio). On the
other hand, polyandry occurs when a female reproduces with more than one male (Fig.
2d). Tere is a hypothesis that Polyandry ensures the fertilization of the female eggs. In
Chiromantis xerampelina, females mate with multiple males. Females that mate with up
to 12 males are more successful at fertilization. For example, Proceratophrys goyan has
multiple matings out of the water, and they move to streams to release their eggs.
Polyandry is reported in eight species, of which only two species (Crinia georgiana and
Litoria peronii) have high reproductive success. The female frogs of Crinia georgiana,
Feirana taihangnicus, and Rana temporaria are fertilized by various males, one in the
dorsal position and the other in the ventral position. Other species, such as Chiromantis
xerampelina, and the Australian quacking frog (Crinia georgiana) can mate with as many
as fve to 12 males. In summary, reproductive strategies in frogs involve the reproductive
modes (amplexus and copulexus). Amplexus results in external fertilization, when the
male fertilizes the eggs as they are being released by the female. In contrast, internal
fertilization is achieved by copulexus, during which the male inserts the tail (“penis”) into
the female and deposits the spermatozoa into the oviducts . Generally, the frog species can
exhibit a mating system of polyandry or monogamy. Polyandry is associated with multiple
ejaculations, sperm transport, and storage, oviposition, and it can also involve parental
care. In contrast, monogamy is associated with the exclusive selection of one partner for
mating. However, detailed information on reproductive biology still needs to be included,
including behavior and mating for many species. (Méndez, et all. 2023)
Fig. 2 Mating systems and modes in frogs. Amplexus; a male can grasp a female with his front legs by the
female’s head, waist, or armpits. This reproductive mode occurs in externally fertilizing species (a).
Copulexus; a male clasps the female inguinally rather than axillary to insert its tail. This reproductive mode
occurs in internally fertilizing species (b). Monogamy is a mating system where females and males select
each other exclusively to couple (c). In contrast, polyandry is when a female mates with two or more diferent
males (d

Female frog reproductive system

Ovary and fat bodies

The ovary is composed of two sacs, each of which includes multiple lobes, and
each lobe contains thousands of oocytes. In addition, the ovaries have melanophore cells
and fnger-shaped fatty bodies in the proximal side, attached to the kidneys. Amphibians’
fat bodies are located in the gonads of both males and females. Te fat bodies of females
are lobular structures that are yellow or orange in color. Histologically, fat bodies are
formed by adipose tissue and blood vessels. The fat bodies are involved in the metabolism
of gonadal processes. Morphologically, the ovaries are composed of the stroma and
epithelium. The ovarian stroma is formed by the cortex and medulla, which originates from
the peritoneum. Te epithelium of the ovary (coelom) derives from the mesoderm and is
formed by squamous cells that cover the outside of the ovary. (Méndez, et all. 2023)

Oviduct

Ovoviviparity is a reproductive mechanism where eggs are retained inside the female.
Ten, eggs hatch into adult frogs after an incubation period in structures that are usually not
involved in reproduction, such as the vocal sac, a dorsal sac, or the stomach. Caecilians
and salamanders have maternal nutrition through the proliferation of oviductal mucus
cells. However, no amphibian species has developed a placenta or pseudoplacenta.
Anatomically, the oviducts are two wide, tangled tubes originating at the Müllerian duct.
Te oviducts extend from the heart to the cloaca to join the rectum and urinary conduit. Tese
organs are suspended dorsally by the mesotubaria tube. In general, the oviduct is divided
into three main sections: the pars recta (infundibulum), pars convoluta (ampulla and
isthmus), and the uterus or ovisac. The “pars recta” has the function of collecting the
oocytes from the coelomic cavity after ovulation. Histologically, the oviduct is formed by
the mucosa (epithelium), serous tissue (connective tissue), and muscle tissue (Méndez, et
all. 2023)

Ovisac

The ovisac or uterus is located after the oviduct. It connects with the cloaca and
forms the oviductal sinus. The oocytes accumulate there for a short time to later be
fertilized. Te ovisac is formed by a ciliated and non-ciliated folded epithelium, with
exocrine glands full of secretory vacuoles that function as tubules for spermatozoa storage.
The oocytes are covered by jelly-like secretions during their passage through the ovisac,
and even cloacal glands accumulate spermatophores. the ovisac is diferent from the
oviduct because it contains thick layers of connective and muscle tissue. That morphology
is essential to support the intense contractions during oviposition (Méndez, et all. 2023).

Fig 3. Images of the female genital organs of Amphibia

Male reproductive system in frogs

Fat bodies and testicles

In amphibians, the urogenital system consists of the testicles attached to fat bodies
and accessory ducts. They are located above the testicles and are whitish, yellowish, or
orange in color. Te testicles are located in the ventral region of the kidney in the abdominal
cavity. The kidneys are closely bound to the testicles by the mesentery. These gonads are
divided into a germinal compartment and an interstitial compartment. The germinal
compartment comprises the seminiferous tubules, spermatogonia, spermatocytes,
spermatids, spermatozoa, and Sertoli cells, while the interstitial compartment is composed
of collagen fbers, blood vessels, Leydig cells, and connective tissue. Histologically, the
testicles are composed of a network of seminiferous tubules, connective tissue, and the
tunica albuginea (fne collagen fibers).

Fat body weight, plasma testosterone, and spermatogenesis vary with seasonality
in Rana perezi. It has been determined that the fatty bodies represent an anatomical
structure necessary for transporting hepatic lipids to the testicle, with blood being the main
channel between the liver and the fatty body (Méndez, et all. 2023).

Fig 4. Images of the female genital organs of Amphibia

Seminiferous tubules

The testicles are formed by the seminiferous tubules, where spermatogenesis

occurs. Te epithelium of the seminiferous tubules consists of Sertoli cells organized into
groups that form spermatocytes, or spermatogenetic cysts. Additionally, seminiferous
epithelium contains cells flled with glycogen. Germ cells and Sertoli cells form a
hematotesticular barrier in seminiferous tubules to generate a microenvironment that is
appropriate for developing spermatozoa. Diferent cell types (spermatogonia,
spermatocytes, spermatids, spermatozoids) are located in the germ tissue in the
seminiferous tubule lumen. Te seminiferous tubules are formed of smooth muscle cells
organized in a cell sheath without blood vessels (Méndez, et all. 2023)

for regenerative repair, to name just a few.

A Frog’s Life

Quoting (Barresi and Scott F. Gilbert, 2001) as for the life circle in frogs as follows:

Gametogenesis and fertilization

The end of one life cycle and the beginning of the next are often intricately
intertwined. Life cycles are often controlled by environmental factors (tadpoles wouldn’t
survive if they hatched in the fall, when their food is dying), so in most frogs,
gametogenesis and fertilization are seasonal events. A combination of photoperiod (hours
of daylight) and temperature informs the pituitary gland of the mature female frog that it
is spring. The pituitary secretions cause the eggs and sperm to mature.In most species of
frogs, fertilization is external The male frog grabs the female’s back and fertilizes the eggs
as the female releases them.Some species lay their eggs in pond vegetation, and the egg
jelly adheres to the plants and anchors the eggs. The eggs of other species float into the
center of the pond without any support. So an important thing to remember about life
cycles is that they are intimatelyintertwined with environmental factors.Fertilization
accomplishes both sex (genetic recombination) and reproduction (the generation of a new
individual). The genomes of the haploid male and female pronuclei merge and recombine
to form the diploid zygote nucleus. In addition, the entry of the sperm facilitates the
movement of cytoplasm inside the newlyfertilized egg. This migration will be critical in
determining the three body axes of the frog: anterior-posterior (head-tail), dorsal-ventral
(back-belly), and right-left. And importantly, fertilization activates those molecules
necessary to begin cell cleavage and gastrulation.

Fig 5. Developmental history of the leopard frog Rana pipiens. The stages from fertilization through hatching
(birth) are known collectively as embryogenesis. The region set aside for producing germ cells is shown in
purple. Gametogenesis, which is completed in the sexually mature adult, begins at different times during
development, depending on the species. (The sizes of the varicolored wedges shown here are arbitrary and
do not correspond to the proportion of the life cycle spent in each stage.
Cleavage and gastrulation

During cleavage, the volume of the frog egg stays the same, but it is divided into tens of
thousands of cells. Gastrulation in the frog begins at a point on the embryo surface roughly
180° opposite the point of sperm entry with the formation of a dimple called the
blastopore). The blastopore, which marks the future dorsal side of the embryo, expands to
become a ring. Cells migrating through theblastopore to the embryo’s interior become the
mesoderm and endoderm; cells remaining outside become the ectoderm, and this outer
layer expands to enclose the entire embryo. Thus, at the end of gastrulation, the ectoderm
(precursor of the epidermis, brain, and nerves) is on the outside of the embryo, the
endoderm (precursor of the lining of the gut and respiratory systems) is deep inside the
embryo, and the mesoderm (precursor of the connective tissue, muscle, blood, heart,
skeleton, gonads, and kidneys) is between them.

Organogenesis

Organogenesis in the frog begins when the cells of the most dorsal region of the
mesoderm condense to form the rod of cells called the notochord.5 These notochord cells
produce chemical signals that redirect the fate of the ectodermal cells above it. Instead of
forming epidermis, the cells above the notochord are instructed to become the cells of the
nervous system. The cells change their shapes and rise up from the round body. At this
stage, the embryo is called a neurula. The neural precursor cells elongate, stretch, and fold
into the embryo, forming the neural tube. The future epidermal cells of the back cover the
neural tube. Once the neural tube has formed, it and the notochord induce changes in the
neighboring regions, and organogenesis continues. The mesodermal tissue adjacent to the
neural tube and notochord becomes segmented into somites—the precursors of the frog’s
back muscles, spinal vertebrae, and dermis (the inner portion of the skin). The embryo
develops a mouth and an anus, and it elongates into the familiar tadpole structure. The
neurons make connections to the muscles and to other neurons, the gills form, and the larva
is ready to hatch from its egg. The hatched tadpole will feed for itself as soon as the yolk
supplied by its mother is exhausted.

Metamorphosis and gametogenesis

Metamorphosis of the fully aquatic tadpole larva into an adult frog that can live on land is
one of the most striking transformations in all of biology. Almost every organ is subject to
modification, and the resulting changes in form are striking (FIGURE 1.7). The hindlimbs
and forelimbs the adult will use for locomotion differentiate as the tadpole’s paddle tail
recedes. The cartilaginous tadpole skull is replaced by the predominantly bony skull of the
young frog. The horny teeth the tadpole uses to tear up pond plants disappear as the mouth
and jaw take a new shape, and the fly-catching tongue muscle of the frog develops.
Meanwhile, the tadpole’s lengthy intestine—a characteristic of herbivores—shortens to
suit the more carnivorous diet of the adult frog. The gills regress and the lungs enlarge.
Amphibian metamorphosis is initiated by hormones from thetadpole’s thyroid gland. The
speed of metamorphosis is keyed to environmental pressures. In temperate regions, for
instance, Rana metamorphosis must occur before ponds freeze in winter. An adult leopard
frog can burrow into the mud and survive the winter; its tadpole cannot.

As metamorphosis ends, the development of the germ cells (sperm and eggs) begins.
Gametogenesis can take a long time. In Rana pipiens, it takes 3 years for the eggs to mature
in the female’s ovaries. Sperm take less time; Rana males are often fertile soon after
metamorphosis. To become mature, the germ cells must be competent to complete meiosis,
the cell divisions that halve the number of chromosomes to produce haploid gametes.
Having undergone meiosis, the mature sperm and egg nuclei can unite in fertilization,
restoring thediploid chromosome number and initiating the events that lead to development
and the continuation of the circle of life

Fig 6. Metamorphosis of the frog. (A) Huge changes are obvious when one contrasts the tadpole and the
adult bullfrog. Note especially the differences in jaw structure and limbs. (B) Premetamorphic tadpole. (C)
Prometamorphic tadpole, showing hindlimb growth. (D) Onset of metamorphic climax as forelimbs emerge.
(E,F) Climax stages
3.2.3. Mammals

Mammals are vivipar animals, except the platypus and eqidna. Mammals have complete
reproductive organs externally or internally so that fertilization occurs internally.
Mammals have a pair of ovaries, as the primary reproductive organ and has two The main
function is to produce egg cells (oocytes) and steroid hormones. The oviducts are lined by
ciliated epithelial cells which helps transport the egg to the uterus, cervix, and exit the
body through the vagina (external organ between the cervix and vulva). Or the vulva
(reproductive organ the outside part). Mammalian testes are just like other animals
composed of seminiferous tubules as a place spermatogenesis occurs.

The male reproductive organs of mammals consist of a pair of testes (plural: testes),
ductus epididymidis, ductus deferens, glandulae accessoriae and penis. Testes have the
functions of gametogenesis and steroidogenesis. The spermatozoa located in the lumen of
the testicular seminiferous tubules, it is transferred from the rete testis to the efferent duct,
and then to the epididymidis duct which forms the head, corpus and cauda epididymis. The
three parts of the ductus epididymidis have specific functions in the process maturation
and storage of spermatozoa before being distributed through the ductus deferens to the
ampulla and urethra, and ejaculated through the penis as a copulatory organ. Glandulae
accessoryae (accessory glands) in male animals include the vesicular gland, prostate,
bulbourethral gland and ampulla. Accessory gland secretions along with secretions from
the testicles and the ductus epididymidis, play an important role in maintaining the motility
and metabolic activity of spermatozoa. The presence of accessory glands is species
specific. Not all species have these four accessory glands, and the morphology of the
glands also differs (Akmal et all. 2014).

Spermatozoa that have entered the female reproductive tract move towards the uterus
and oviduct to carry out their function, namely fertilization (fertilizing the egg). The egg
cell is fertilized by spermatozoa which then forms a zygote that moves towards and
attaches to the egg endometrial wall of the uterus. The zygote will develop into an embryo
and fetus. The zygote obtains food and oxygen from the mother's uterus through the
placenta.
Fig 7. In situ position of male pangolin (Manis javanica) reproductive organs after removal from the body,
ventral view (A) and dorsal view (B) after the digestive tract was separated. A pair of oval-shaped testes (1)
connected by a ductus deferens (2) whose tip has a conical enlargement (3), as well as an enlargement at the
base of the urethra (4). A pair of ureters (5) from the kidneys (6) also empty into the urethra at the base of the
vesica urinaria (7). The penis (8), which is small and covered by a prepuce (9), is located in the perineum just
anterior to the anus (10), with a pair of anal glandulae (11) located dexter and sinister. The large intestine (12)
is dorsal to the vesica urinaria

Fig 8. In situ position of male pangolin (Manis javanica) reproductive organs after removal from the body,
ventral view (A) and dorsal view (B) after the digestive tract was separated. A pair of oval-shaped testes (1)
connected by a ductus deferens (2) whose tip has a conical enlargement (3), as well as an enlargement at the
base of the urethra (4). A pair of ureters (5) from the kidneys (6) also empty into the urethra at the base of
the vesica urinaria (7). The penis (8), which is small and covered by a prepuce (9), is located in the perineum
just anterior to the anus (10), with a pair of anal glandulae (11) located dexter and sinister. The large intestine
(12) is dorsal to the vesica urinaria
 Fig 9. Image of the genital organs of females mamamls

Just like other animals rabbits reproduce with the aim of maintain its kind, in the process
reproduction process involves various kinds glands and reproductive organs. The
reproductive system is composed of internal and external systems. In male rabbits have
internal reproductive organs internal reproductive organs consist of testes that there is a
pair which is the organ producing spermatozoa and epididymis as a spermatozoa
maturation channel, while externally there is a penis that function as an organ of
transferring spermatozoa. Spermatozoa are formed in the semeniferous tubules that are
inside the testis. The shape of normal spermatozoa are generally elongated cells, which
consisting of head and tail. Spermatozoa in each species have different sizes but the shape
is almost the same. The relative difference size and shape of spermatozoa in various types
of animals. Generally, the reproductive organs and reproductive system of vertebrate
animals are the same, but due to other factors such as type race, place of life cause
differences in the reproductive organs. Male rabbits will have the same internal and
external reproductive organs are the same as well as their functions, but due to differences
in type, race will have a different picture of reproductive organs both in terms of size and
weight. (Susetyarini. 2019)

In mammals, gonadal sex determination (the determination of gonadal sex) is a function

of the sex chromosomes. XX individuals are usually females, and XY individuals are
usually males. The mammalian Y chromosome plays a key role in male sex determination.
XY and XX embryos both have a bipotential gonad. In XY embryos, Sertoli cells
differentiate and enclose the germ cells within testis cords. The interstitial mesenchyme
generates other testicular cell types, including the testosterone-secreting Leydig cells. In
XX mammals, the germ cells become surrounded by follicle cells in the cortex (outer
portion) of the gonadal rudiment. The epithelium of the follicles becomes the granulosa
cells; the mesenchyme generates the thecal cells. SRY gene encodes the testis-determining
factor on the Y chromosome, a nucleic acid-binding protein that functions as a
transcription factor to activate the evolutionarily conserved SOX9 gene. (Barresi&Scott
2016)

Fig 10. Development of gonads and their ducts in mammals. Originally, a bipotential (indifferent) gonad
develops, withundifferentiated Müllerian ducts (female) and Wolffian ducts (male) both present. If XY, the
gonads become testes and the Wolffian duct persists. If XX, the gonads become ovaries and the Müllerian
duct persists. Hormones from the gonads cause the external genitalia to develop in either the male direction
(penis, scrotum) or the female direction (clitoris, labia majora) (listed in table) (Barresi&Scott 2020)

The Sox9 gene product can also initiate testis formation. Functioning as a genital ridge
transcription factor, it binds to the gene encoding anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH) and
other genes whose products promote testis development. Fgf9 and Sox9 proteins have a
positive feedback loop that activates testicular development and suppresses ovarian
development.Wnt4 and Rspo1 are involved in mammalian ovary formation. These proteins
upregulate production of β-catenin; the functions of β-catenin include promoting the
ovarian pathway of development while blocking the testicular pathway of development.
Secondary sex determination in mammals involves factors produced by the developing
gonads. In males, the Müllerian duct is destroyed by the AMH produced by the Sertoli
cells, while testosterone produced by the Leydig cells enables the Wolffian duct to
differentiate into the vas deferens and seminal vesicles. In females, the Wolffian duct
degenerates with the lack of testosterone, whereas the Müllerian duct persists and is
differentiated by estrogen into the oviducts, uterus, cervix, and upper portion of the vagina.
Individuals with mutations of these hormones or their receptors may have adiscordance
between their gonadal sex and secondary sex characteristics. In humans and mice, germ
cells entering ovaries initiate meiosis while in the embryo; germ cells entering testes do
not initiate meiosis until puberty. (Barresi&Scott 2020)

The first division of meiosis separates homologous chromosomes, creating haploid

cells. The second division of meiosis splits the kinetochore and separates sister chromatids.
Spermatogenic meiosis in mammals is characterized by the production of four gametes per
meiosis and by the absence of meiotic arrest. Oogenic meiosis is characterized by the
production of one gamete permeiosis and by a prolonged first meiotic prophase that allows
the egg to grow. In male mammals, the PGCs generate stem cells that last for the life of
the organism. PGCs do not become stem cells in female mammals (although in many other
animal groups, PGCs do become germ stem cells in the ovaries). In female mammals, germ
cells initiate meiosis and are retained in the first meiotic prophase (dictyate stage) until
ovulation. In this stage, they synthesize mRNAs and proteins that will be used for gamete
recognition and early development. Certain principles of organogenesis are easily seen in
gonad development: (1) gene products that promote one pathway often act to inhibit
another possible pathway (think Sox9 and β-catenin); (2) a gene, once activated by one
signal, can produce other signals that keep it on, allowing its activity to be independent of
the original signal (think Sox9 again); and (3) an activator is often the inhibitor of an
inhibitor (think oocyte meiotic spindles). (Barresi&Scott 2010)
 CHAPTER IV : CLOSING

4.1. Conclusion
The organs and reproductive systems and also compare in each class of pisces,
amphibians and mammals The fertilization between the Pisces, amphibian and mammal
classes are. Pisces Fish have a reproductive system that involves the process of breeding
individuals whose success rate is influenced by habitat conditions or aquatic environment
or external fertilization. Know the organs and reproductive systems in pisces is The
reproduction organ of fish can be classified as testis for males and ovary for females. The
sexes of most fishes can be distinguished by examination of the gonad. Both the testes and
ovary are typically paired structures that are suspended by mesenteries across the roof of
the body cavity, in close association with the kidney. Amphibian have a reproductive
system that females and males migrate to their breeding grounds where they unite in
amplexus, and fertilization is external. Female frog reproductive system is ovary include
fat bodies, oviduct and ovisac, and male frog is testicle include fat bodies, tubulus
seminiferous. Mammals are vivipar animals, except the platypus and eqidna. Mammals
have complete reproductive organs externally or internally so that fertilization occurs
internally. Mammals have a pair of ovaries, as the primary reproductive organ and has two.
The main function is to produce egg cells (oocytes) and steroid hormones. The oviducts
are lined by ciliated epithelial cells which helps transport the egg to the uterus, cervix, and
exit the body through the vagina (external organ between the cervix and vulva). Or the
vulva (reproductive organ the outside part). Mammalian testes are just like other animals
composed of seminiferous tubules as a place spermatogenesis occurs. The male
reproductive organs of mammals consist of a pair of testes (plural: testes), ductus
epididymidis, ductus deferens, glandulae accessoriae and penis. Testes have the functions
of gametogenesis and steroidogenesis.
 REFERENCE
Adnan 2022. PERKEMBANGAN HEWAN EMBRIOGENESIS JILID I. Edisi I. Pusat
Pengembangan Pendidikan dan Penelitian Indonesia. Halaman 218.

Akmal Yusrizal, Nisa Chairun, Novelina Savitri.2014. Anatomi Organ Reproduksi Jantan
Trenggiling (Manis javanica). ACTA VETERINARIA INDONESIANA. (2)2: 74-81.

Astriyah, Safira, A. dan Amrullah, S.H. 2023. Sistem Reproduksi, Pertumbuhan Dan
Perkembangan Ikan. 1(1): 1–19.
Barresi and Scott F. Gilbert, (2001). Development Biology. Sinaeur Assiciates: Oxford.
Barresi, F, J, M., & Scott F, G. Developmental Biology 12th edition. (2020). UK: Oxford
University Press
Barresi, F, J, M., & Scott F, G. Developmental Biology 7th edition. (2016). UK: Oxford
University Press
Barresi, F, J, M., & Scott F, G. Developmental Biology 9th edition. (2010). USA: Sinauer
Associates, Inc.
Darmadi, Hamid. 2011. Metode Penelitian Pendidikan. Bandung: Alfabeta.
Denney, A. S., & Tewksbury, R. (2013). How to write a literature review. Journal of criminal
justice education, 24(2), 218-234.

Exbrayat, Jean-Marie. (2018). From Oviparity to Marsupialism: Strange Modes of

Reproduction in Amphibians. International Journal of Zoology and Animal Biology. 1:2.
DOI:10.23880/IZAB-16000108

Hayati, A. 2019. BIOLOGI REPRODUKSI IKAN. Surabaya: AIRLANGGA UNIVERSITY

PRESS. Halaman 110.

Méndez-Tepepa, M., Morales-Cruz, C., García-Nieto, E. et al. A review of the reproductive

system in anuran amphibians. Journal Zoological Lett 9, 3 (2023).
https://doi.org/10.1186/s40851-023-00201-0

Muchlisin, Z.A. 2014. A General Overview on Some Aspects of Fish Reproduction. Aceh
International Journal of Science and Technology. 3(1): 43–52.

Susetyarini Eko, Wahyono Poncojari, Latifa Roimil, Nurrohman Endrik. (2019) Gambaran
Organ Reproduksi Jantan dan Spermatozoa Kelinci New Zealand dan Kelinci Lokal.
Proceeding Biology Education Conference. (16)1:151- 157

Zed, Mestika. 2008. Metode Penelitian Kepustakaan. Jakarta : Yayasan Obor Indonesia.