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Assignment 02
Assignment 02
2
Unit No. 5 – 9
Educational Research (837)
Tutor: Respected Mrs. Salma Ayyub
Submitted By:
Name: Muhammad Ibrahim
F/Name: Rasheed
Reg. No: 17BQA00340
Roll Number: BO639202
Semester: Spring 2023
Programme: M.Ed. One Year Science Education
District: Quetta, Balochistan
Q. No. 1 Write a detailed note on analysis of data. (20)
Data Analysis is the process of systematically applying statistical and/or logical
techniques to describe and illustrate, condense and recap, and evaluate data.
According to Shamoo and Resnik (2003) various analytic procedures “provide a way
of drawing inductive inferences from data and distinguishing the signal (the
phenomenon of interest) from the noise (statistical fluctuations) present in the data”..
While data analysis in qualitative research can include statistical procedures, many
times analysis becomes an ongoing iterative process where data is continuously
collected and analyzed almost simultaneously. Indeed, researchers generally analyze
for patterns in observations through the entire data collection phase (Savenye,
Robinson, 2004). The form of the analysis is determined by the specific qualitative
approach taken (field study, ethnography content analysis, oral history, biography,
unobtrusive research) and the form of the data (field notes, documents, audiotape,
videotape).
There are a number of issues that researchers should be cognizant of with respect to
data analysis. These include:
While methods of analysis may differ by scientific discipline, the optimal stage for
determining appropriate analytic procedures occurs early in the research process and
should not be an afterthought. According to Smeeton and Goda (2003), “Statistical
advice should be obtained at the stage of initial planning of an investigation so that,
for example, the method of sampling and design of questionnaire are appropriate”.
Every field of study has developed its accepted practices for data analysis. Resnik
(2000) states that it is prudent for investigators to follow these accepted norms.
Resnik further states that the norms are ‘…based on two factors:
(1) the nature of the variables used (i.e., quantitative, comparative, or qualitative),
(2) assumptions about the population from which the data are drawn (i.e., random
distribution, independence, sample size, etc.). If one uses unconventional norms, it
is crucial to clearly state this is being done, and to show how this new and possibly
unaccepted method of analysis is being used, as well as how it differs from other
more traditional methods. For example, Schroder, Carey, and Vanable (2003)
juxtapose their identification of new and powerful data analytic solutions developed
to count data in the area of HIV contraction risk with a discussion of the limitations
of commonly applied methods.
If one uses unconventional norms, it is crucial to clearly state this is being done, and
to show how this new and possibly unaccepted method of analysis is being used, as
well as how it differs from other more traditional methods. For example, Schroder,
Carey, and Vanable (2003) juxtapose their identification of new and powerful data
analytic solutions developed to count data in the area of HIV contraction risk with a
discussion of the limitations of commonly applied methods.
Determining significance
Kendall and Grove (1988) define clinical significance in terms of what happens when
“… troubled and disordered clients are now, after treatment, not distinguishable from
a meaningful and representative non-disturbed reference group”. Thompson and
Noferi (2002) suggest that readers of counseling literature should expect authors to
report either practical or clinical significance indices, or both, within their research
reports. Shepard (2003) questions why some authors fail to point out that the
magnitude of observed changes may too small to have any clinical or practical
significance, “sometimes, a supposed change may be described in some detail, but
the investigator fails to disclose that the trend is not statistically significant ”.
The basis for this issue is the urgency of reducing the likelihood of statistical error.
Common challenges include the exclusion of outliers, filling in missing data, altering
or otherwise changing data, data mining, and developing graphical representations
of the data (Shamoo, Resnik, 2003).
Analyses could also be influenced by the method in which data was recorded. For
example, research events could be documented by:
While each methodology employed has rationale and advantages, issues of objectivity
and subjectivity may be raised when data is analyzed.
During content analysis, staff researchers or ‘raters’ may use inconsistent strategies
in analyzing text material. Some ‘raters’ may analyze comments as a whole while
others may prefer to dissect text material by separating words, phrases, clauses,
sentences or groups of sentences. Every effort should be made to reduce or eliminate
inconsistencies between “raters” so that data integrity is not compromised.
A major challenge to data integrity could occur with the unmonitored supervision of
inductive techniques. Content analysis requires raters to assign topics to text material
(comments). The threat to integrity may arise when raters have received inconsistent
training, or may have received previous training experience(s). Previous experience
may affect how raters perceive the material or even perceive the nature of the
analyses to be conducted. Thus one rater could assign topics or codes to material
that is significantly different from another rater. Strategies to address this would
include clearly stating a list of analyses procedures in the protocol manual, consistent
training, and routine monitoring of raters.
stability , or the tendency for coders to consistently re-code the same data in the
same way over a period of time
reproducibility , or the tendency for a group of coders to classify categories
membership in the same way
accuracy , or the extent to which the classification of a text corresponds to a standard
or norm statistically
The potential for compromising data integrity arises when researchers cannot
consistently demonstrate stability, reproducibility, or accuracy of data analysis
According Gottschalk, (1995), the validity of a content analysis study refers to the
correspondence of the categories (the classification that raters’ assigned to text
content) to the conclusions, and the generalizability of results to a theory (did the
categories support the study’s conclusion, and was the finding adequately robust to
support or be applied to a selected theoretical rationale?).
Extent of analysis
Upon coding text material for content analysis, raters must classify each code into an
appropriate category of a cross-reference matrix. Relying on computer software to
determine a frequency or word count can lead to inaccuracies. “One may obtain an
accurate count of that word's occurrence and frequency, but not have an accurate
accounting of the meaning inherent in each particular usage” (Gottschalk, 1995).
Further analyses might be appropriate to discover the dimensionality of the data set
or identity new meaningful underlying variables.
Q. No. 2Write a detailed note on the procedure of the study. (20)
There are various approaches to conducting basic and applied research. This article
explains the research process steps you should know. Whether you are doing basic
research or applied research, there are many ways of doing it. In some ways, each
research study is unique since it is conducted at a different time and place. Conducting
research might be difficult, but there are clear processes to follow. The research
process starts with a broad idea for a topic. This article will assist you through the
research process steps, helping you focus and develop your topic.
• A preliminary survey
• Case studies
• Interviews with a small group of people
• Observational survey
• Experiment
• Questionnaire
• Observation
• Interview
• Secondary data categories are:
• Literature survey
• Official, unofficial reports
• An approach based on library resources
Step 7: Data Analysis
During research design, the researcher plans data analysis. After collecting data, the
researcher analyzes it. The data is examined based on the approach in this step. The
research findings are reviewed and reported. Data analysis involves a number of
closely related stages, such as setting up categories, applying these categories to raw
data through coding and tabulation, and then drawing statistical conclusions. The
researcher can examine the acquired data using a variety of statistical methods.
Introduction: It should state the research’s purpose and methods. This section
should include the study’s scope and limits.
Summary of Findings: A non-technical summary of findings and recommendations will
follow the introduction. The findings should be summarized if they’re lengthy.
Principal Report: The main body of the report should make sense and be broken
up into sections that are easy to understand.
Conclusion: The researcher should restate his findings at the end of the main text.
It’s the final result.
Key Features:
• Nearly 700 signed entries are contained in an authoritative work spanning four
volumes and available in electronic and/or print formats.
• Although organized A-to-Z, front matter includes a Reader’s Guide grouping
entries thematically to help students interested in a specific aspect of education
research, measurement, and evaluation to more easily locate directly related
entries.
• Back matter includes a Chronology of the development of the field; a Resource
Guide to classic books, journals, and associations; and a detailed Index.
• Entries conclude with Further Readings and cross-references to related entries.
• The Index, Reader’s Guide themes, and cross-references combine to provide a
robust search-and-browse in the electronic version.
Educational Index.
The Education Index is a component of the Human Development Index published
annually by the United Nations Development Programme. Along with economic
indicators and life expectancy index, it is useful for measuring educational
background. GNI per capita (PPP) and life expectancy are also used along with the
education index to obtain the HDI for each country. Since 2010, the Education Index
has been measured by combining the average number of years of schooling for adults
and the expected number of years of schooling for students under the age of 25, each
weighted by 50%. Prior to 2010, the education index was measured by the adult
literacy rate (weighted by two-thirds) and the primary, secondary and tertiary gross
enrollment ratio (weighted by one-third). Education is a key component of well-being
and is used as a measure of economic development and quality of life. This is a key
factor in determining whether a country is developed, developing or underdeveloped.
Education Component of SHDI. The educational dimension is measured with two
indicators. The first one, mean years of schooling of adults aged 25+ (MYS), reflects
the current situation with regard to education in a society. The second one, expected
years of schooling (EYS), indicates the future level of education of the population.
EYS is defined as the number of years of schooling a child of school entrance age can
expect to receive, if prevailing patterns of age-specific enrolment rates persist
throughout the child’s schooling life. When computing the dimension index for
education, the values of MYS and EYS are weighted equally.For most Low- and Middle
Income Countries (LMICs), both variables could be directly obtained from the Global
Data Lab Area Database.
To create the dimension indices and SHDI on the basis of the four indicators (mean
years of schooling of adults aged 25+, expected years of schooling, life expectancy,
and gross national income per capita) the same procedures were used as are used
by the UNDP to compute the regular HDI. To obtain the dimension index for
education, the geometric mean of the separate indices for expected years of schooling
and mean years of schooling is taken.
Since 2010, the education index has been measured by combining average adult years
of schooling with expected years of schooling for students under the age of 25, each
receiving 50% weighting. Before 2010, the education index was measured by the
adult literacy rate (with two-thirds weighting) and the combined primary, secondary,
and tertiary gross enrollment ratio (with one-third weighting). Education is a major
component of well-being and is used in the measure of economic development and
quality of life, which is a key factor determining whether a country is a developed,
developing, or underdeveloped country.
Data Collection
Data are facts, numbers, letters or symbols that describe an object, idea, condition,
situation or other factors. They serve as raw material for analysis and provide the
facts and figures which are preparing various measurement scales. They also make
the results of the study publicly available. Collecting data is one of the most important
components of research. Good data plays a significant role in gaining insight on the
on the existing problem or opportunity. Lack of good data limits the effectiveness of
other data tools. Data is vital in every step of the entire process. However, data is
most necessary at the initial step since it helps the researcher to narrow down the
scope of the problem being investigated. There are a number of methods which are
utilized during the data collection process. Some of the most common data collection
methods include use of interviews, questionnaires and observations.
Data Types
Qualitative: qualitative data are measures of ‘types’ and may be represented by a
name, symbol, or a number code. Quantitative: quantitative data are measures of
values or counts and are expressed as numbers. They are data about numeric
variables (e.g. how many; how much; or how often).
Research Tools
A data collection tool or research tool is any tool used to measure a variable, or to
collect the information needed to answer a research question. Careful selection of
data collection tools can help the researcher achieve goals and save time.
Any research is only as good as the data that drives it, so choosing the right technique
of data collection can make all the difference. In this article, and the next two articles
to be published in the coming days, we will look at three different data collection
techniques – observation, questionnaire and interview, and evaluate their suitability
under different circumstances.
Observation
Observation is one of the most important research tools in the social and human
sciences, having a vital role to play in helping to understand and interpret the social,
cultural and economic environment. Any research benefits from observation, which
entails use of senses to collect data from the external environment, because this tool
is widely used.
observation
The observer must be able to free himself from the constraints of personal values in
order to observe the facts as it is. While doing observation, we must go beyond the
surface and penetrate the depth.
All social researches begin with observation, and ends with it; in other words
observation is an inevitable part of any study or research on any social phenomenon.
The most important positive aspect of observation is that it directly examines the
phenomenon, enabling the behavior to be observed as it happens.
Observation Types
Structured or Controlled: It is characterized by a careful definition of the units to be
observed, the style of recording the information, standardized condition of
observation and selection of pertinent data of observation.
Participant: It is the observer by making himself, more or less a member of the group
he is observing. So that he can experience what the members of the group
experience.
Advantages:
• Direct access to research phenomena: because the researcher directly
participates in the social environment of the study, he/she can receive large
amount of information at one time; while other methods may not provide much
information in the short term.
• Trusted data: because the researcher directly collects data when something
happens, so the data can be more trusted.
• High levels of flexibility: in some cases, because research is done on children
with mental illness, addiction and the like, and these people are not able to
provide the researcher with data, he or she uses observation as the best way
to gather information.
• No need for consent: in many cases, people under research do not wish to
cooperate with the researcher for various reasons, such as lack of time; by
observation, the researcher is not obliged to encourage people to participate in
research process; he leads it by his/her own.
• Generating a permanent record of phenomena to be referred to later.
• The researcher can identify the accuracy of materials and statements.
Disadvantages
• Ethical issues: fully informed consent of research participant(s) is one of the
basic ethical considerations to be adhered to by researchers.
• Longer time requirements.
• Impact of observer on primary data: the presence of observer may influence
the behavior of sample group elements and poise negative implications on the
level of research validity.
• Limitation: The environment in which the observation is done is limited and all
data collected are limited to that study environment.
• Unpredictability: since the time and occurrence of many social events is
unpredictable, it is not possible for the researcher to use observation technique
in all research cases.
• High levels of observer bias: in some cases, the observer becomes so
accustomed to his or her environment that he or she loses neutrality.
• Qualitative nature of observation: information obtained by the researcher is
often of a qualitative nature; converting qualitative data to quantitative ones,
analyzing and using statistical methods, are issues that diminish the importance
and value of the qualitative information collected.
INTRODUCTION
The introduction states the problem and its significance, states the technical goals of
the work, and usually contains background information that the reader needs to know
in order to understand the report. Consider, as you begin your introduction, who your
readers are and what background knowledge they have. For example, the information
needed by someone educated in medicine could be very different from someone
working in your own field of engineering.
SUMMARY OR BACKGROUND
This section gives the theory or previous work on which the experimental work is
based in that information has not been included in the introduction.
METHODS/PROCEDURES
This section describes the major pieces of equipment used and recaps the essential
step of what was done. In scholarly articles, a complete account of the procedures is
important. However, general readers of technical reports are not interested in a
detailed methodology. This is another instance in which it is necessary to think about
who will be using your document and tailor it according to their experience, needs,
and situation. A common mistake in reporting procedures is to use the present tense.
This use of the present tense results in what is sometimes called “the cookbook
approach” because the description sounds like a set of instructions. Avoid this and
use the past tense in your “methods/procedures” sections.
RESULTS
This section presents the data or the end product of the study, test, or project and
includes tables and/or graphs and a brief interpretation of what the data show. When
interpreting your data, be sure to consider your reader, what their situation is and
how the data you have collected will pertain to them.
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
This section explains what the results show, analyzes uncertainties, notes significant
trends, compares results with theory, evaluates limitations or the chance for faulty
interpretation, or discusses assumptions. The discussion section sometimes is a very
important section of the report, and sometimes it is not appropriate at all, depending
on your reader, situation, and purpose. It is important to remember that when you
are discussing the results, you must be specific. Avoid vague statements such as “the
results were very promising.”
CONCLUSIONS
This section interprets the results and is a product of thinking about the implications
of the results. Conclusions are often confused with results. A conclusion is a
generalization about the problem that can reasonably be deduced from the results.
Be sure to spend some time thinking carefully about your conclusions. Avoid such
obvious statements as “X doesn’t work well under difficult conditions.” Be sure to also
consider how your conclusions will be received by your readers, and as well as by
your shadow readers—those to whom the report is not addressed, but will still read
and be influenced by your report.
RECOMMENDATIONS
The recommendations are the direction or actions that you think must be taken or
additional work that is need to expand the knowledge obtained in your report. In this
part of your report, it is essential to understand your reader. At this point you are
asking the reader to think or do something about the information you have presented.
In order to achieve your purposes and have your reader do what you want, consider
how they will react to your recommendations and phrase your words in a way to best
achieve your purposes.