CHAPTER #1 – Basic Concepts of Information Technology

XI-COMPUTER SCIENCE
What is Computer Science, Information Technology

Computer science
 It is the study of computers, design (architecture) their uses for computations, data
processing, and systems controlling.

 It includes engineering activities such as the design of computers and of the hardware
and software that make up computer systems. Since computer systems are often too
large and complicated to allow one' to predict the failure or success of a design without
testing it, experimentation is incorporated into their development cycle.

 Computer science is generally considered a discipline separate from computer

engineering, although the two disciplines overlap extensively in the area of
computer architecture, which is the design (and study) of computer systems.
 The major sub-disciplines of computer science have traditionally been:

1. Architecture/Hardware (including all levels of hardware design, as well as

the integration of hardware and software components to form computer
systems).
2. Software (the programs or sets of instructions that tell a computer how to
carry out tasks). The field is subdivided into software engineering,
programming languages, operating systems, information systems and
databases, artificial intelligence, and computer graphics.
3. Theory, which includes computational methods and numerical analysis on
the one hand and data structures and algorithms on the other.

Information technology

Information Technology is a term that describes the combination of computer technology

(hardware and software) with telecommunications technology (data, image, and voice
networks). Information Technology having powerful consequences, the most notable being
the gradual fusion of several important industries in a phenomenon that has been called
technological convergence.

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When information technology is used, the user is responsible for the efficient
capture of data from its organization’s source, the flow of that data to the computer,
the processing and storage of that data by the computer, and the flow of useful and
timely information back to the organization and its people. In short information
technology is a term that refers to the efficient usage of information in a domain of
interest.

Characteristics of a Computer

1.Speed: Speed of a computer are the microseconds (10-6), the nanoseconds

(10-9), picoseconds (10-12). A powerful computer is capable of performing about 3
to 4 million simple arithmetic operations per second.

2.Accuracy: High degree of accuracy of computer depends upon its design.

Errors can occur in a computer, but these are mainly due to human rather than'
technological weaknesses, that is, due to imprecise thinking by the programmer or
due to inaccurate data. . -

3.Diligence: Computer is free from monotony, tiredness, lack of

concentration, etc., and hence can work for hours together without creating any
error and without slackness. If ten million calculations have to be performed, a
computer will perform the ten millionth calculation with exactly the same accuracy
and speed as the first one.
4.Versatility: Versatility is One moment it is preparing the results- of particular
examination, next moment it is busy preparing electricity bills, and in between, it
may be helping an office secretary to send a fax in seconds. Briefly, a computer is
capable of performing almost any task provided that the task can be reduced to a
series of logical steps.

5.Power of Remembering: A computer can store and recall any amount of

information because of its secondary storage capability. Every piece of information
can be retained as' long as desired by the user and can be recalled as and when
required. Even after several years, the information recalled will be as accurate as
on the day when it was fed to the computer.

6.No I.Q.: Computer performs these tasks with unthinkable speed and accuracy.
It possesses no intelligence of its own'. Its I.Q. (intelligence quotient) is zero. It has
to be told what to do and in what sequence. Hence, only the user can determine
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what tasks a computer will perform. A computer cannot take its own decision in
this regard.

7.No Feeling: Computers do not have emotions, no feelings. Computers cannot

make such judgements on. their own. Their judgement is based on the instructions
given to them in the form of programs that are written by us. They are only as good
as man makes and uses them. .

Computer System
Computer is made up of integrated components (input and output devices,
storage, CPU) that work together to perform the steps called for in the program
being executed, it is a system. The input or output units cannot function until they
receive signals from the CPU. Usefulness of each unit depends on other units and
can be realized only when all units are put together (integrated) to form a system.

Parts of Computer System

A complete computer system consist of five parts:

1. Hardware: The physical equipments that make up the computer are called
hardware. Hardware is any part of the computer you can touch. Hardware consists
of interconnected electronic devices such as keyboard, mouse, monitor, printer etc.

2. Software: Software is the set of instructions (also called a program) that tell the
computer how to perform a task, Software tells the computer what to do. .

3.Data: Data consists of raw facts and figures, which the computer stores and
reads in the form of numbers. Computer processes data according to the

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instructions contained in the software, after data is processed through the
computer, it is called information. A useful model to describe the relationship
between data and information is called data processing cycle. It shows that data
goes into a process and information is then output as:

input data --------processing ------ output information

4.Procedures: Procedures are the steps that you must follow to accomplish a
specific computer-related task. Manuals containing rules and guidelines to follow
when using software, hardware, and data are available. These manuals may be
written by computer specialists for a particular organisation. Usually, however,
software and hardware manufacturers provide manuals with their prod~ct.

4.People: People are the computer operators, also known as users (or sometimes
end user). People operate the hardware, create the software, put data into the
system, and use the information that comes nut of it.

A typical digital computer system has four basic functional elements:

1.Input
2.Processing
3.Output
4.Storage
Let us consider these elements in detail.

Input Devices

Computers can understand only the machine language of binary 0s and Is. Input
devices convert what people understand to what computers understand. Input
devices consist of devices for entering data into a computer system in a form that
can be processed by the computer.

There are two kinds of input hardware. They are:

1.Keyboard devices

2.Non-keyboard, or direct-entry, devices

Keyboard

 Keyboard, data is input to the computer through a keyboard. Like a typewriter

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 keyboard but has additional keys for specific/purposes.

 IBM-compatible computers, the most common keyboard layout is the IBM

enhanced keyboard has 101 keys. User reads from an original document called
the source document and copies that document by typing on the keyboard.

 The most common means by which you will input data is through a Keyboard.
Keyboard can be arranged in following Five groups. .

1.Character keys

2.Function keys

3.Special-purpose keys

4.Numeric keys

5.Cursor-movement keys

Character Keys: The character keys are used to type in text (letters and numbers,
such as A, B, C and 1, 2, 3), punctuation marks (such as ? and ;), and special
characters (such as $, *, and #). Keys are positioned in same location as on a
typewriter. This layout is called the QWERTY layout because the first rows of
alphabetic keys are QWERTY.

Function Keys: The function keys are those labeled F1 – F10, F11. F12, are used
to issue frequently used commands. Most keyboards have 10 to 12 function keys.
Function keys do exactly is determined b the software you are using at the moment.
For example, in most software, F1 is commonly used help key When you press it,
a screen displays information about using the program. F2 is the key used to
support system BIOS configuration.

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Special-Purpose Keys: Special-purpose keys are used to help enter and edit data
and execute commands

1. Enter Key -Execute command) The Enter key, often indicated by a left-facing
bent arrow, is used to enter commands into the computer. Mostly two, 1st in
alpha-numeric keypad and 2nd in Numeric keypad.

2. Ctrl, Alt Shift modifiers: Three special-purpose keys are Ctrl (Control), Alt
(Alternate), and Shift, which are modifier keys. Can do nothing alone, but when
pressed with another key, they modify the function of the other key.
3.Del and Ins Editting: The special-purpose keys Del (Delete) and Ins (Insert) are
used for editing. Word processing use them frequently to delete and insert text.
4.Caps Lock uppercase: The Caps Lock key is used to make all letters -keys upper
case-that is, type all CAPITAL LETTERS as here.

5.Numeric Keys: The numeric keys, or numeric keypad, located on the right
side of the keyboard, is the part that looks like an adding machine, with 0
through 9 keys and mathematical operators ( +, -, *, and / and enter key).

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6.Cursor-Movement Keys: Cursor is the blinking mark/ symbol on the
screen that shows where data may be entered next. Cursor-movement keys,
which are represented by directional arrows, move the cursor around the
screen, including insert, home, delete and End key along with page-up and
page-down keys.

Concept Keyboard :
A concept keyboard is a flat board that contains a grid of buttons. Each button can be
programmed to do whatever you want. An overlay sheet with pictures or symbols is placed
on the grid so that the user can tell what pressing on different areas will do used at
restaurants for immediate on sale desk counter for order placement like KFC, MacDonald.

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Terminals
 Terminal is an input (and output) device that consists of a keyboard, display
screen, and communications cables connection to a main computer system
(server).

 Terminals are used for inputting data to and retrieving data from remotely located
main computer system(Server). Most terminals are desktop size, some are small
enough to be easily portable.

 There are three types of terminals:

1. Dumb Terminals
2. Smart Terminals
3. Intelligent Terminals

Dumb Terminal Dumb terminal hooked up to a mainframe system. They cannot

process data independently. It is used only to gain access to information from a main
computer system. An example be a terminal used by an Airline Reservations
Clerk/Desk which consist of display screen, keyboard mouse and communication
cable directly attached to main server (no memory for dumb terminals individually).

2.Smart Terminals: Smart terminal look like a computer system having display unit,
input/output devices attached has some memory, can do limited processing as
well as data entry and data retrieval. An Example is Savings and loan manager
might use a smart terminal to do simple computations on a customer's loan
application before sending it to the company's mainframe computer.

3.Intelligent· Terminals: Intelligent terminals includes processing unit, primary

storage, secondary storage such as magnetic disk, and software for processing data.
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It can do independent processing of their own, as well as act as terminals. An
intelligent terminal, which is also called a workstation, is actually a microcomputer
with a communications link to a mainframe. Nearly all large organisations have
terminals connected (mini/micro computers) connected to mainframe computers. A
trend has been the use of microcomputers as terminals in client-server environment.

Non-Keyboard Input Devices

Direct Input devices (automatic input devices): Data is input into the computer directly
by a machine or device. Direct input devices do not require much human interaction to get
their data into a computer system. For Example Barcode scanner, Magnetic stripe reader,
OMR reader, OCR reader, biometric scanner, Sensor.

For each one you will know about :

• Information about the device

• Uses of the device

• Advantages of the device

• Disadvantages of the device

Many people feel uncomfortable with a keyboard system, those who don't want to
use a keyboard-regardless of its convenient design. Executives consider keyboarding
to be clerical work and are concerned about loss of status. Keyboard use is also slow
and often requires that you split your attention between the screen and the keyboard

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to find special keys. Several alternatives to the keyboard that allow a user to point
to options or functions on the screen. Direct entry means that data is not entered
into the computer through a keyboard.

Some common direct-entry devices used to input data into computer-usable form
are as follows:

1.Scanning devices: bar-code reader, mark and character reader, image

scanner, and fax machine
2.Voice-input devices·
3.Pointing" devices: mouse, trackball, joystick, touch screen, light pen, digitizer,
and pen-based computer.

.
Scanning Devices
Scanning devices use light-sensitive equipment to record data in the form of bar
codes, optical marks, typewritten character's, or magnetic-ink symbols, or even just
plain text or graphics. This data is then converted to electronic form that can be
processed by the computer.
The principal devices include the following:

Bar Code Readers:

 The barcode was invented by Norman Joseph Woodland and Bernard Silver in the
US in 1951. The invention was based on Morse code. Cost of the Barcode Readers
are from Rs 4,000 up to Rs 450,000, Use red light because the cheapest laser
diode is of red color with minimum wavelength of 633nm (nano-meter)

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 Striped bar codes that appear on food products, cosmetics, and magazine
covers are the group of vertical zebra color lines. A bar code is 'data
represented in the parallel zebra color lines of a universal coding scheme. An
example of such a coding scheme is the Universal Product Code (UPC).

 Universal Product Code (UPC) UPC is used by food stores and other retail
merchants to represent pricing and other data for various products,

 Bar codes are read by Bar-Code Readers. Bar-code readers are photo-
electric scanners that read bar codes by means of red reflected light working
on the principle of reflection of light and photo-electric effects/
photodiodes(convert light into electrical signals. Distance of product from bar
code scanner must be in the range of 3-20 inches.

 Two types of bar-code readers are hand-held and stationary:

Manufacturer's Identification Number 16000 = General Mills

21000 = Kraft Foods, etc.
Product part Code Number 66210 = 400 gm box of cookies
67670 = 1 kg box of noodles etc.

i). Hand-held Bar code scanner : Hand-held bar-code readers are flat stick-like
scanning devices that analyse the bar codes and translate them into computer-process
able data. Object remained still while the barcode scanner is move to & fro (left to right)
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ii) Stationary Bar code scanner
Stationary bar-code readers are built into a countertop, as in the supermarket When a
super market clerk moves your purchase past the countertop bar-code scanner,
the price and description of the item, which are stored in the store's computer
system (as template), are sent to the cashier's terminal (cash register). This price
and description is printed out on a receipt for the customer.

The information from the terminal is also used by the store for accounting
purposes and for restocking the store's products. It is also used for marketing
purposes-to analyze which products sell and which don't.

Mark and Character Readers: Certain direct-input devices use a light source to
read special marks or characters and convert the data to computer-processable
form. These include the following:

1.Optical-mark Recognition: You have experience optical-mark recognition if you have

taken the Test of English .as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) or Graduate Record
Examination (GRE). That test requires you to mark your answers on a pre-printed-
examination sheet with a pencil (see Fig. 1.7). An optical-mark recognition (OMR)
device detects the presence or absence of a mark and converts the data to computer-
usable form.

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2.Optical-Character Recognition: Optical-character recognition (OCR) devices, shown
in read pre-printed characters through the use of light-sensitive device and convert
them to computer-usable form. It has ability to read printed numerals, special
characters, alphabetic characters, and hand written characters.

There are two basic OCR fonts in use, both of which are approved by the
International Standards Organisation: (a) OCR-A and (b) OCR·-B. The OCR-A
was developed, and widely used, in the United States. It comprises 66 characters.
The OCR- B was developed by the European Computer Manufacturers'
Association (ECMA) , and is widely used in Europe. It comprises 113 characters
1.9). Special ink is not required for printing OCR characters.

3. Magnetic-ink Character Recognition: Magnetic-ink character recognition (MICR) devices

read pre-printed characters printed with special magnetic ink containing iron oxide)
and convert them to computer-usable form.
To handle the giant activity of processing check, the banking industry uses MICR
technology. The magnetic-ink characters and a few special symbols are printed at
the bottom of the cheque. The numbers are read and sorted by cheque-rea¢ng
machines, such as an IBM system that can sort 2400 cheques per minute .

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Magnetic-ink character recognition-Processing your cheque
1.Cheques are fed into large, high-capacity MICR reader/sorter devices.
2.MICR characters on cheques are read electronically.
3.Cheque data is stored on tape or disk for processing.
4.Cheques are sorted by bank number and returned to your bank.

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Image Scanners:

The scanning devices described above read marks and characters. More recent
types of scanners read images as well as. text.

An image scanner is a direct-entry device that scans, or detects, images on paper

and converts them into computer-usable form. In this process, the scanner may -
read any image, whether of a photograph, a drawing, or a character of" a certain
type style. The device scans each image with light and digitizes it. Digitise means
that the image is converted to computer-processable input data.

Scanners are of several types.

They include:

1.Flatbed: Flatbed scanners are stationary scanners that hold the image document in place
while the scanning mechanism passes over it. A flatbed scanner thus resemble a
photocopying machine .
2.Sheet-fed: Sheet-fed scanners are stationary scanners that use mechanical rollers to
move the image document past the scanning mechanism. Dedicated fax machine contain
sheet-feed scanner.
3.Hand-held: Hand-held scanners are movable scanners that require the scanning
mechanism to be moved over the image document. Barcode scanner , QR code scanner.

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Fax Machines: The word fax stands for "facsimile", or reproduction. A fax
machine, or facsimile transmission machine, is a specialized scanner that sends
and receives document images over telephone lines. Fax machines may be of two
sorts:
1. Dedicated Fax Machine: Dedicated fax machines do nothing except send and receive
documents over telephone lines. The messages are printed out on paper. "These are the
kinds of machines seen on many businesses.

2. Computers with Fax Modem: People with microcomputers have another option.
A fax modem" is an electronic circuit board installed in a computer, permitting people send
fax messages of documents input to their computers or to receive fax messages from
others. Messages can be displayed on the computer screen or printed out.

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Voice Input Devices
 Voice-input devices, or voice-recognition systems
 Convert spoken words into computer-usable code.
 The devices compare the electrical patterns produced by the speaker's voice
with a set of pre-recorded patterns. If a matching pattern is found, the computer'
accepts this pattern as a part of its standard "vocabulary".
 Most of the devices have to be specially "trained" to respond to a particular
user's voice. In fact, voice input is creating new uses for computers.
 Typical users are those with "busy hands", or hands that are too dirty for the
keyboard, or hands that must remain cleaner than using a keyboard would
permit.
Among current uses are:
1. Controlling inventory in automobiles junkyard
2. Reporting analysis of Pathology slides viewed under a microscope.
3. Making a phone call from car while drawing
4. Calculating a correct Anesthetic dosage for a patient in surgery with help of robotics
5. Changing radio frequency in airplane cockpits
6. Asking for stock market quotations over the phone
7. Sorting packages
8. Inspecting items moving along an assembly line
9. Allowing physically disabled users to enter command
10. Starting of motor
11. Locking the door
12. Turning windscreen wipers on/off of a car

We need the support of the following equipment (hardware)/software

a. Microphone .
b. Speech-recognition card
c. Speech-recognition Software
d. Waveform converted into binary code
e. Binary code matching with vocabulary words
f. Waveform of word display on screen

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Pointing Devices

 Direct-entry input device known as pointing devices are easy to use--because

there is nothing easier than pointing.

 Pointing devices are used in menu driven programs, that is, programs that offer
varying levels of menus, or choices displayed in lists, to the user.

Pointing devices include the following:

Mouse:

 First time widely used with Apple Computers (Macintosh) by Douglas Enlerbert It is
also used to select options or to draw lines. As it moves, it moves the cursor on the
screen to anywhere. Mouse is an elementary input device essential to operate many
programs. It is an integral part of the GUI (Graphical User Interface) of any personal
computer

 A mouse is a small, hand-operated device that is connected by cable or

wireless to the computer and that moves the cursor on the display screen.
 The mouse is also a primary input device / pointing device it lack text transmission.
Alternative to on-screen keyboard is used It is also called as pointing device that is used
to move a mouse pointer on the computer screen in order to point at the specific place
on the screen.

 Mouse pointer (the cursor) moves across the screen. When the cursor
reaches your desired location, you may push a button on the mouse to
signal a command to the computer.
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The mouse can also be used like a pen or a paintbrush to draw figures and create .
Patterns directly on the video display screen. A sophisticated mouse enables users
to generate very complex and precise images. The keyboard, however, is still used
to type in characters and to issue some commands, depending on the software.
STRUCTURE: A mouse consists of a metal or plastic housing or casing, a ball at its base,
one or more buttons on the top of the casing and a cable that connects the mouse to the
computer. But now we may find a wireless mouse as well.

FUNCTION: As the ball inside the mouse rolls on the flat surface and rubs against the two
cylinders , the cylinder moves and the emitted light and sensor sends the signals to the
computer.

Trackball: A trackball is a pointer device resembling a mouse but is stationary and is

guided by the fingers instead of rolled on the desktop. Some computers have built-in
trackballs: Trackballs may also appear on the side of a computer keyboard. These
devices are useful in situations where there is no room to move a mouse, as in the
airplane’s cockpit. Looks like upside down mouse. Same function as that of the mouse,
but it does not have to be rolled over a flat surface. A trackball is used by rolling the ball with
palm or fingers in the direction where the pointer has to be moved. Trackball has 1 to 3
buttons. Unlike mouse it does not require much space to move Trackball is stationary.
Trackballs are popular among heavy computer users as they cause less strain on hands
and wrists than a regular mouse.

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Q Differentiate between Mouse and Trackball?

MOUSE TRACKBALL

1 Mouse has to be moved on a flat surface. Trackball does not need to be rolled over a flat
surface.

2 While working with mouse whole device has to In trackball only the ball is moved with palm or
be moved. fingers.

3 Mouse needs some space to be moved. Whereas trackball is stationary. It does not
require much space to be used.

4 Movement of mouse causes heavy strain on Trackball causes less strain on hand and wrist.
the wrist.

5 Ball is optional user can have optical mouse Ball is compulsory for trackball

6 Mouse is moveable and commonly use Trackball is stationary but rarely used

7 Popular among light computer users Mostly used by Heavy computer users like CAD/
CAM/ Graphics Designers

Joystick: A joystick is usually used to play games on computer. It is a device that

controls the movement of certain object on the screen . The buttons on the joystick
allow the users to perform different actions depending on the nature of the program.

Touch Screen: A touch screen is a special type of computer display screen that
allows commands to be entered by the user's touching the screen . Labelled boxes
on the screen display choices available to the user. Touch screens are generally
used in the locations such as airports and hotels to display certain type of menu.

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 Fig. 1.17. Touch screen. Making menu choices at a fast-food restaurant.

Light Pen: The light pen consists of a light-sensitive pen-like device that enters
commands into a special display screen when the user touches the screen with the
pen (see Fig. 1.18). Light pens are frequently used by illustrators, graphic
designers, and drafting engineers.

Digitizing Tablet: A digitizing tablet-, or digitiser, consists of a flat drawing surface

and a pointing tool, which creates images that are converted to computer-usable
form The tablet, which is covered by a grid of tiny wires, is connected by cable to
the computer. Drawings 'are entered into the tablet, using the special penlike
device, arid are displayed on the computer screen. Later the drawing can be
printed out. Digitizing tablets are used in aircraft design and computer-chip design.

Pen-Based Computers: Pen-based computers allo~ users to write on the screen

of the computer, which then interprets the hand-writing and displays the result on
the screen in printed form (see Fig. ,1.20). Users can edit what they have entered
and give commands' by circling words, checking boxes, and using symbols
developed by the manufacturer.

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Processing Hardware
Processing hardware comprises the electronic circuitry inside the cabinet of the
computer itself. Two components handle processing in a computer: the central
processing unit and the memory. Both are located on the computer's main system
board, or motherboard.

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 CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)

The central processing unit (CPU) executes program instructions consider as the
brain of computer. The entire CPU contained on a tiny chip called a'
microprocessor, which is no larger than your smallest fingernail. The chip is
mounted on a piece of plastic with metal leads attached to it. This microprocessor
defines type and overall characteristics of a computer. The microprocessor may
have a number like 8088, 80286, 80386, 80486, 80586 etc.

First microprocessor number represents an IBM XT computer, while others

called IBM AT computers. Some companies design many other types of
microprocessors with different microprocessor numbers.
The CPU has two main components:

1. Control unit
2. ALU – Arithmetic logic unit

Control Unit - FUNCTIONS:

1. All the computer's resources are managed from the control unit, whose
function is to coordinate all the computer's activities. Act as a traffic
cop, directing the flow of data around the CPU and around the computer.
2. It contains the CPU's instructions for carrying out commands.
3. The instruction set, which is built into the circuitry of the control unit, is a
list of all the operations that the CPU can perform. Each, instruction in the
instruction set is accompanied by microcode- that tell the CPU how to
execute the instruction. When the 'computer runs a program, it looks in the
CPU's instruction set and executes them in order.

Arithmetic & Logic Unit – functions:

 When the control unit receives any instruction that involves arithmetic or logic
operation, it passes control to the second component of the CPU, the
arithmetic logic unit (ALU).
 Arithmetic operations , such as the fundamental mathematical operations:

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 addition, subtraction, multiplication and division.
 Logical operations consist of comparisons. That is, two pieces of data are
compared to see whether is equal to (=), less than « or grater than » the other.
There are also combinations, such as "grater than or equal to". The ALU also
uses specialized storage areas called registers in which hold data temporarily
while operations are performed on it.

 For example, if a logic function such as "Is number A is equal to number B?" is
called for, the two numbers are placed in registers by the control unit and >z

Main Memory

The CPU does contain registers for data and instructions, but these are small
areas that can hold only a few bytes at a time. In addition to the registers, the CPU
needs to have thousands--or, more often, millions--of bytes of space where it can
hold whole programs and the data befng manipul~ted by those programs.

The main memory-also called main storage, primary storage," internal storage or
simply memory-holds data and instructions for processing: Although closely
associated with the CPU, main memory is technically separate from it. Memory
stores program' instructions or data for only as long as the program they pertain to
is in operation. Keeping these items in memory when the program is not runni ng is
not feasible for three reasons:
1.Most types of memory only store items while the computer is turned on-data is
destroyed when the machine is turned off.
2.If you share your computer, other people will need the memory space.
3.There may not be room in memory to hold the processed data.

How do data and instructions get from an input device into memory? The control
unit sends them. Likewise, when the time is tight, the control unit sends these
items from memory to the arithmeticllogic unit, where an arithmetic operation or
logical operation is performed. After being" processed, the information is sent to
memory, where it is held until it is rea~!, to be released to an output unit.

The chief characteristic of memory is that it allows very fast access to i nstructions
and data, no matter where the items are within it. We will discuss main memory
further in the section that follows.
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How Data and Programs are Represented in the Computer

To understand how processing hardware works, you need to understand ho w data

is represented electronically.

When you write a document, you use the letters A-Z (both upper- and lower-case);
the numbE'rs 0-9; and numerous punctuation marks and other special symbols,
such as ?, #, and %. People understand what these characters mean; computers
cannot. Computers deal with data converted into the simplest form that can be
processed magnetically or electronically-binary form. The binary system consists
of only two numbers--O and l.

People are used to counting in the decimal system (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9). The
computer uses the binary system (0, l} because it uses electricity. Thus, the 0
can be repres~nted by the electricity being off and the 1 by the electricity being
on. Or the 0

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The ALU also uses specialised storage areas called registers in which data is held
while operations are performed on it. For example, if a logic function such as "Is
number A is equal to number B?" is called for, the two numbers are placed in
registers by the control unit and compared by the ALU; the answer is then returned
to the control unit.
Main Memory

The CPU does contain registers for data and instructions, but these are small
areas that can hold only a few bytes at a time. In addition to the registers, the CPU
needs to have thousands-or, more often, millions-of bytes of space where it can
hold whole programs and the data being manipul~ted by those programs.

The main memory-also called main storage, primary storage" internal storage or
simply memory-holds data and instructions for processing. Although closely ,
associated with the CPU, main memory is technically separate from it. Memory
stores program' instructions or data for only as long as the program they pertain to
is
in operation. Keeping these items in memory when the program is not running is
not feasible for three reasons:
1.Most types of memory only store items while the computer is turned on-data is
destroyed when the machine is turned off.
2.If you share your computer, other people will need the memory space.
3.There may not be room in memory to hold the processed data.

How do data and instructions get from an input device into memory? The control
unit sends them. Likewise, when the time is tight, the control unit sends these
items from memory to the arithmeticllogic unit, where an arithmetic operation or
logical operation is performed. After being' processed, the information is sent to
memory, where it is held until it is rea~!, to be released to an output unit.

The chief characteristic of memory is th'at it allows very fast access to instructions
and data, no matter where the items are within it. We will discuss main memory
further in the section that follows.

How Data and Programs are Represented in the Computer

To understand how processing hardware works, you need to understa nd how data
is represented electronically.
Page 28 of 67
When you write a document, you use the letters A-Z (both upper- and lower-case);
the numbE'rs 0-9; and numerous punctuation marks and other special symbols,
such as ?, #, and %. People understand what these characters mean; computers
cannot. Computers deal with data converted into the simplest form that can be
processed magnetically or electronically-binary form. The binary system consists
of only two numbers-O and l.

People are used to counting in the decimal system (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9). The
computer uses the binary system (0, l} because it uses electricity. Thus, the 0
can be repres~nted by the electricity being off and the 1 by the electricity being
on. Or the 0

Page 29 of 67
can be represented by the absence of a magnetic spot on a magnetic tape or disk,
and the 1 by the presence of a magnetic spot. (The same can be done with
electricity being high voltage or low voltage, '01' with light being on or off, or with a
hole being punched or not being punched in a card.) This on.-off, present-absent,
yes-no state of affair:;: is used to represent data throughout computers. For
example, the letter E could be represented by electrical switches as 01000101 (or
off-on-off-off-off-on-off-on).

Each 0 and 1 in the binary ~ystem is called a bit (for binary digit). The bit is the
basic unit for storing data in computer memory-O means off, 1 means on. Notice
that since a bit is always either on or of!', a bit in computer memory is always
storing some kind of data.

Since single bits by themselves cannot store all the numbers, letters, and special
characters (such as # and ?) that must be processed by a computer, the bits are
put together in a group called a byte (pronounced 'bite'). There are usually 8 bits in
a byte (Fig. 1.22). Each byte usually represents one character of data-a letter, digit,
or . special character.

Fig. 1.22. Bit as light bulb. In this illustration a light bulb operates as a b::1ary digit (bit), with
off
l
representing a and on representing 1. Li~ht bulbs, of course, are not used in computers,
but vacuum tUbes, transistors, silicon chips, or anything else that can conduct an
electrical signa: can be used. The group of eight bulbs, -each of which can be on or off,
represents 1 byte.

Computer manufacturers express the capacity of a computer to hold or store data

Page 30 of 67
in terms of the number of bytes or multiples of bytes.
To summarise:
Bit = Binary digit-O or 1.
Nibble = 4 bits
Byte = 8 bits
Kilobyte: KB - Kilo represents 210 = 1024 Bytes or Approx 1,000 Bytes.)
 Kilobyte is abbreviated KB or, simply, K.
 Memory of a 640K computer can store 640x1024 = 655,360 Bytes.
 1KB = 210 = 1024 Bytes

Megabyte MB A megabyte is 220 = 1024 KB or 1,048,576 Bytes.

 Rounded to 1 million bytes.
 1MB = 1024 KB = 220 = 1024 X 1024 Bytes = 1,048,576 Bytes.

Gigabyte GB: A gigabyte is 230 = 1024 MB or 1,073,741,824 bytes. (This

is commonly rounded to 1 billion bytes.) The gigabyte is a measure. used
with mainframe computers, minicomputers, supercomputers and now also
with microcomputers.

Terabyte: A terabyte is equal to 1024 GB or 1,009,511,627,776 bytes. (This

is commonly rounded to 1 trillion bytes.)

Page 31 of 67
A computer word is defined as the number. of bits or bytes that a microprocessor
can manipulate ~,:; a unit. The length of a word varies by computer (see Table 1.2
in later section).

The parts of a 'computer are connected'by collections of wires called busses, or

bus lines. Each bus has a certain number of data paths along which bits can travel
from one part of the computer to another. Usually, the number of data paths in a
bus is related to the number (If bits in the word size. For instance, a 32-bit central
processing unit has a 32-bit bus, meaning that data can be sent over the bus lines
in groups of 32 bits--that is, a word at a time.

The number of bits a computer can store in a word and carryon its busses is very
important. In general, the larger the word size or the more bits in a bus, the more
powerful the computer. The larger the word or bus size:
1.the more data the computer can transfer at a time, making the computer faster.
2.the larger the address numbers the computer can reference, allowing more
memory.
3.the greater the number and variety of instructions that the computer can support.

For example, the Intel Pentium (Fig. 1.23) central processing unit processes data
by using a 32-bit word size and Intel Pentium III (Fig. 1.24) and Pentium 4 using
64-bit word size. Obviously, sending data 64 bits at. a time is more efficient than
sending it 32 bits at a time, so the computer with the 64-bit bus is more powerful
(and more expensive!).

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For information to be transferred into or out of a computer, numbers, letters, and
several other symbols must be transformed into binary code. There are two
commonly used coding schemes: ASCII and EBCDIC.

ASCII: ASCII (pronollnced "ass-key") which stands for America'}- Standard Code for
Information Interchange, is used in virtually all microcomputers and some largur computers
as well.

The ASCII code was originally developed for electric teletypewriters but eventually
found wide application in personal computers. The stand8rd ASCII code uses
sevendigit binary numbers; i.e., numbers consisting of various sequences of Os
and Is. The code can represent 128 different characters, since there are 128
different possible
combinations of seven Os and Is, .

Page 33 of 67
Digital computers use a binary code that is arranged in groups of eight rather than
of seven digits, or bits. Each such eight-digit group is called a byte. Because digital
computers use 8 bits to form each byte, the popular ASCII coding scheme use an .
eight-bit system which, of course, increase the number of characters the code
could represent to 256. The eight-bit system, which is known as the extended
ASCII code, was introduced in 1981 by the International Business Machines (IBM)
Corporation for use with its first model of personal computer. This extended ASCII
code soon became the industry-wide standard for personal computers.

Both 7-bit and 8-bit ASCII codes are shown and contrasted to EBCDIC in table
1.1. This abbreviated table does not include l~wercase letters or symbols.

Table 1.1. Comparison of ASCII and EBCDIC codes for Numbers and
Uppercase Letters

Page 34 of 67
21

EBCDIC: EBCDIC (pronounced "eb-c-dick") stands for Extended Binary Coded

Decimal Interchange Code. It is the standard for .most IBM and IBM-compatible
mainframe computers, and it uses an 8-bit code. See table 1.1 for the EBCDIC code
for numbers and letters.

A.T} important aspect of these coding E-chemes is the change they make in the way
numbers are represented. Under normal circumstances, base 2 would require four
bits-1111-to represent the decimal number 15. In a similar way, base 2 would
require eight bits-:10111001-to represent the decimal number 185. The problem is
that base 2 requires a different number of bits to represent different decimal
numbers. Both EBCDIC and ASCII avoid this problem by converting each digit
individually. Thus, the decimal number 15 would be encoded in EBCDIC as two
bytes of eight bits each, 11110001 (the 1) and 11110101 (the 5).

Refer to Fig. 1.25. List the 6 a-bit ASCII keyboard-encoder outputs for entering the
message "SCHOOL".

To computer system MSB LSB

ASCII Message for keyboard operator -7

keyboard
encoder

Fig. 1.25. ASCII key board-encoder system Th~ ASCII codes for the
character in the message are as follows:
(a) S = 1011 0011 '{c)'H = 1010 1000 (e) a = 1010 1111
(b) C = 10100011 (d) a = 1010 1111 (£) L = 1010 1100
The Parity Bit: Check for Errors

Data is constantly moving from one part of the computer to another, and often from
one computer to another. Data is transmitted as electronic impulses in the on state
and off state, so slight irregularities in the electrical power supply occasionally cause
errors to enter the stream of data. One way to verify, that data was accurately
transmitted would be to transmit it twice and compare the two transmissions, but that

Page 35 of 67
could double processing. time and' costs. The parity bit or check bit is an alternative
solution to this problem.

The parity bit is a single bit attached to the end of each byte; the code itself
determines whether the parity bit is a 0 or a 1. Thus, in an 8-bit EBCDIC byte, the
parity bit i~ the ninth bit. There are, even-parity an? odd-parity computers. In even-
parity computers, an even number of bits must alw'ays be "on" at any given time; in
odd-parity computers, an odd number of bits must always be on.
With even-parity computers, if the number of 1 bits in any byte is odd, the parity bit
is

Page 36 of 67
automatically turned on or set to ]. Also, in an even-parit.y computer, if the number
of 1 bits is even, the parity bit is set to O. This means that when all the 1 bits are
added up, there is always an even number of them. This concept is called even
parity.

For example, the ASCII letter S (1011 0011) contains five Is. Thus, the ninth bit, the
parity bit would be 1 in order to make the sum of the bits come out even. With the
letter C (1010 0011), which has four Is, the ninth bit would be 0 to make the byte
come out even (see Fig.2.26). The systems software in the computer automatically
and continually checks the parity scheme for accuracy. (If the message "Parity
Error" appears on your screen, you need a technician to look at the computer to see
what. is causing the problem.)

7.
Computers using odd parity work in exactly the same way except that the parity bit
is used to ensure an odd number of 1 bits.

Parity checking is guaranteed to detect an error only if exactly one bit is transmitted
incorrectly. If, however, two bits were transmitted incorrectly, the error would not be
detected, because the number of 1 bits would still be even for even-parity
computers and odd for odd-parity computers. Although the chance for double
transmission errors is very remote, some systems do protect against it. To guard
against the possibility of multiple errors, a scheme called longitudinal parity can be
used. In this scheme, a check byte is added to the end. of each record that is
transmitted, where each bit of the check byte is used to preserve the appropriate
parity of each bit position in each byte of the record.

Parity checking can detect errors, but it cannot correct them. A number of encoding
schemes are now available that both detect and correct single or multiple errors
when large volumes of data are transmitted over communications lines. Because
they are much more elaborate than parity checks, these encoding schemes require
a great deal of additional processing at the receiving end. Their major use is for the

Page 37 of 67
longdistance transmission of data to a site where retransmission would be difficult-
the transmission of data to a space probe, for example.

Page 38 of 67
 8.
9.

23 The System Unit of a

MicrocOInputer Game
port for
joystick
The part of the microcomputer that houses the CPU is called the
system unit and is housed within a system cabinet. If you take off the
Vi,deo
cabinet, you will find that many parts can be ea.sily port
removed for
replacement. In addition, many microcomputers are for monitor
expandl:!ble.
Thus, more main memory may be added aR well as certain other
devices.

Power Serial ports Un1:1sed expansion

supply slots
connectio Keyboard ports
ns

VGA
Disk 5%-inch
card Floppy
Controller card drive
.

(b) Inside view of a PC system L!nit

Fig. 1.27. Two different views of a PC system unit

Page 39 of 67
The components of the system unit that we shall describe are (see
Fig. 1.27):
1.The power supply
2.The motherboard 10.
3.Microprocessors-including registers, bus, clock, and coprocessors
4.Main memory or random access memory (RAM)
5.Read-only memory (ROM)
6.Other Forms of Memory-cache, VRAM, flash
7.Expansion cards and slots
8.Ports
The Power Supply

Power supply is a box inside the system unit that provide,s electrical
power to all components in system unit. It converts 220 volt main AC
supply.to the r~quired 5 or 12 volt DC supply which computer
components use. If the monitor is built into the system unit, as it is in
the Macintosh, the power supply also provides electricity to it. Since
electricity generates a lot of heat, the power supply unit is equipped
with a fan that prevents the system and components from over
heating.
The MotherbQard

.. The motherboard also called the system board or logic board, is

an· electronic circuit board that contains the CPU, memory, and other
basic electronic compone?ts ..

The CPU and memory are contained on chips. A chip, also called a
Metal leads (a) Relative size of a
semiconductor or integrated circuit, comprises tiny circuitry etched on
microprocessor chip
a small rectangle of sand-like material . called silicon. Chip-mounted
carriers are plugged into sockets on the motherboard.

A motherboard also includes expansion slots. Expansion slots are

places for connecting additional circuit boards or electrical
components.
The Microprocessor Page 40 of 67

As computers have evolved, the size of the microprocessor has

electronic circuitry has been etched. The chip is mounted on a pieQe of plastic,
called carrier, with metal leads attached to it (Fig. 1.28). The microprocessor
manages the computer processing and the transfer of data to and from primary
storage, commonly called ran~om access memory (RAM).
Some features of microprocessors are:
1.Registers and word size
2.Bus and bus width
3.Clock and clock speed
4.Coprocessors

Registers and Word Size: Registers are the temporary holding areas within the
CPU for data, and instructions that are to be processed immediately. The size
(capacity) and number of registers,' which vary according to a CPU's design,
dramati,cally affect a computer's processing speed. The size of a register
determines how many bits can be processed at once. The size or capacity of a
register is referred' to as word size. Some microcomputers have registers that hold
only 16 bits; other hold 32 bits. Newer microcomputers have 64-bit registers, which
can process data twice as fast as 32-bit ones. A computer with a smaller word size
will eventually get the same amount of data processed as will a computer with a
larger word size. However, it bikes longer.

Bus and Bus Width: A bus is a kind of electronic pathway that connects parts of the
CPU with each other and the CPU with other important devices (refer back to Fig.
1.21). There are different types of busses (address bus, control bus, data bus), but
the most important kind of ,bus to know about is the data bus. A data bus caries data
throughout the CPl). The more data the data bus can carry ,at one time, the faster the
processing speed of the computer.'

The data-carrying capacity of a bus is expressed in terms of its bus width,

measured in bits. Older computers had microprocessors with data buses that were
8 bits wide; this meant they could carry 8 bits, or one byte (or character), at'a time.
Newer microprocessors are 32 bits wide, which means they can move four times
more data through their data buses. The Intel Pentium microprocessor has a data
bus that is 64 bits wide. Some supercomputers contain data buses that are 128
bits wide.

Clock: The clock controls how fast all the operations within a CPU take place. If

Page 41 of 67
you are buying a microcomputer system, clock speed is an important
measurement to know about. Clock speed, which is expressed in megahertz or
gigahertz, indicates how fast a computer processes information. Clock speed is a
function of the ease with which electricity passes through the CPU. Hertz (Hz) is
equivalent to cycle per second (cis); 1 MHz is equal to 1 million cycles per second
and 1 GHz is equal to 1 billion cycles per second.

Word ,size, bus width, and clock speed of common microprocessors are shown in
the table 1.2. The higher the number, the faster the microprocessor.

CoprocessQrs: Coprocessor are microprocessors that are subordinate to the CPU

and nelp it handle data overload and speed up the computer's operation. The best
example of a coprocessor is that used for mathematical calculations.

Page 42 of 67
Microproces Year Register Data Bus Clock Speed
sor Introduced Size
<Word Capacity (Hz)
_. , Size)
8086 1978 16 bits 16 bits 5-10 MHz
8088 1979 16 bits 8 bits 0-8 MHz
8028 1982 16 bits 16 bits 8-20 MHz
80386 DX 1985 32 bits 32 bits 16-33 MHz
6
80386 SX. 1988 32 bits 16 bits 16-33 MHz'
80486 DX 1989 32 bits 32 bits 50-66 MHz
80486 SX 1991 32 bits 32 bits 20-50 MHz
Pentium 1993 32 bits 64 bits 66-233 MHz
Pentium II 1997 64 bits 64 bits 266-450 MHz
Pentium III 1999 64 bits 64 bits 450 MHz -1.13
Pentium 4 2000 64 bits 64 bits 1.30-3.06
GHz GHz
A math coprocessor chip can be installed in a computer to.perform complex
numerical calculations. This coprocessor speeds up the processing of financial and
scientific applications. It can also speed up the computer calculations needed to
display complex graphics on the screen.
Main Memory or Random Access Memory (RAM)

RAM, or random access memory described earlier as main memory or primary

storage, is used to stor~ programs and data that the CPUis presently processing.
The reason it is called "random access" memory is. that data can be retrieved at
random from anywhere in a RAM chip in equal amounts of time. RAM is volatile
memory which means that any data stored in RAM is lost when the computer is
switched off; that is , it is temporary storage. (Secondary storage, which is
described in the next section, is permanent ,storage, such as data stored on
diskettes. Data from this kind of stprage must be loaded into RAM before it can be
used.)

RAM capacity is expressed in kilobytes or megabytes. This capacity has grown

over the years. In 1979, a microcomputer with 64 KB of RAM (about 64 thousand
characters of data) was considered satisfactory. Today many users have 512 M B
(about 512 million characters) or more of RAM. Physically, it consists of some
chips on a small circuit board.
In general, the greater your machine's memory capacity, the better because: .
1.It can receive and use much larger programs.
2.It can hold copies of more than one program in main memory to support the
Page 43 of 67
sharing of computer by more than one user at a time.
3.It can operate faster and more efficiently.
4.It will be able to use new, sophisticated software.
5: It can hold images for creating graphics and animation. 6. It
can work with and manipulate more data at one time.

Page 44 of 67
Like the microprocessor, RAM consists of circuit-inscribed silicon chips attached to
the motherboard. RAM chips are often mounted on a small circuit board, such as a
SIMM or DIMM, which is plugged into the motherboard. A SIMM (single inline
memory module) has RAM chips on only one side. A DIMM (dual in line memory
module) has RAM chips on both sides. The two principal types of RAM chips are
DRAM (for dynamic random access memory) chips, used for most main memory,
and SRAM (for static random access memory) chips, used for some specialised
purposes within main memory.

Microcomputers .come with different amounts of RAM. In many cases, additional

RAM chips can be added by plugging a memory-expansion card into the
motherboard. The more RAM you have, the faster the computer operates, and the
better your software performs.
Other Forms of Memory

The performance of microcomputer can be enhanced further by adding other forms

of memory, as follows.

Cache Memory: Moving data between RAM and the CPU's registers is one of
the most time-consuming operations a CPU must perform, simply because RA1\1
is much slower than the CPU. A partial solution to this problem is to include a
cache memory on the microprocessor chip or elsewhere on the motherboard.
Cache (pronounced "cash"), is similar to RAM, except that it is extremely fast
compared to normal memory, and is used in a different way.

The most frequently used instructions are kept in cache memory so the CPU can
look ther~? first. This allows the _CPU to run faster because it do~sn't have to take
time to swap instructions in and out of main mem'ory. Large, complex progTams
benefit the most from ha.ving a cache memory available. Cache chips are faster but
much more expensive than main RAM chips.

Virtual Memory: Virtual memory, or virtual storage, is a condition in which part of

a program is stored on disk and is brought into memory only as needed. This
feature, which requires special software, uses the disk as an exten.sion of RAM.
The virtualmemory program puts as many pieces of the program into ~\1: as
possible. It runs them while putting the remaining pieces on disk, which are
retrieved as appropriate.

For example, a microcomputer that has only 2 ME of RAM can run a 4 ME program
Page 45 of 67
(or even up to 1 GB) by using virtual memory.

Video Memory: Video memory or video RAM (VRAM) chips are used to store
display images for the monitor. The amount of video memory determines how fast
images appear and how many 'colors are available. Video memory chips are
particularly desirable if you are running programs that display a lot of graphics.

Flash Memory: Used primarily in notebook and subnotebook computers, flash

memory, or flash RAM, cards consist of circuitry on credit-card-size cards that can
be inserted into slots connected to the motherboard. Unlike standard RAM chips,
flash memory is non-volatile. That is, it retains data even when the power is
turned off. Flash memory can be used not only to simulate main memory but also
to supplement or replace hard disk drives for permanent storage.

Page 46 of 67
Read-Only Memory (ROM)

Read-only Memory (ROM) is memory from which data may be retrieved, but the
contents cannot be changed by the user. They store instructions in permanent, or
non-volatile, form. Non-volatile storage does not lose it&~ontents when- the power is
turned off. .

ROM chips typically contain special instructions for detailed computer operations.
For example, ROM-BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) chip fitted in your PC contains
a set of programs that perform the most basic· control and supervision operation for
your PC. Other ROM instructions help the CPU transfer information from the -
keyboard to the screen or printer. ROMs are also called firmware because the
instructions are "firm" and cannot be altered.

A variation of ROM chip is Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM): ROM chips
are supplied by the computer system manufacturer and it is not possible for a user to
modify to programs stored inside the ROM chip. However, it is possible for a user to
"customise" a system by writing his own programs and storing them in a PROM chip.
However, once the chip has been programmed, the recorded information cannot be
changed, i.e., the PROM becomes a ROM and it is only possible to read the stored
information. PROM is also non-volatile storage, i.e., the stored information remains
intact even if power is switched off.

Once information is stored in a ROM chip or a PROM chip it cannot be changed or

altered. However, there is another type of memory chip called Erasable
Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM) that overcomes this problem. As the
name implies, it is possible to erase information stored in an EPROM chip and the
chip can be reprogrammed to store new information. When an EPROM is in use,
information can only be ~read' and the information remains on the chip until it is
erased. EPROMs are mainly used by Research and Development (R & D)
personnel because they frequently change the program written in EPROM to
test the efficiency of the computer system in different atmospheres.
Expansion Cards and Slots

Computers are known for having different kinds of "architectures". Machines that

Page 47 of 67
have closed architectures are those manufactured in such a way that users cannot
get inside to add any new devices. Most computers have open architectures. They
allow' users to expand their systems. This permits users to insert optional devices
known as expansion cards (also known as expansion boards or plug-in boards)
which give the computer additional options. Most motherboards in IBM-type
computers have expansion' slots. Expansion slots are sockets on the motherboard
into which expansion cards may be plugged. The slot connects the expansion card
with the power supply and the buses for moving data and instructions. Among the
kinds of expansion cards available are the following:'

1.Memory: Memory expansion cards (or SIMMs) containing additional RAM chips will give
the user additional main memory.
2.Modem: A modem changes the electronic signals of the computer into a form that can be
sent over telephone lines. An internal modem is installed as an expansion card.

Page 48 of 67
~9

3.Video Display: Video-display cards enable users to have better resolution or more
colors on their monitor.

3.Sound: Circuit boards are available to give computers sound output, if speakers
and supporting software are available.
In order to make these expansion cards wa"rk, it is usually necessary to follow
special
software instructions that come with them. '
Ports

Ports are connecting sockets on the

outside of the system unit. This allows you
to plug in other devices, such as monitor, keyboard,
modem' or printer. Cables connected to the ports transmit streams of bits, such as
those in an 8-bit ASCII character, to the outside devices.'

Ports are of several types:

1.Serial Ports: Serial ports are for connecting cables that transmit bits one after the
other. Serial lines are used for connecting faraway devices, such as linking a modem
to a telephone line.

1.Parallel Ports: Parallel ports are for connecting cables that transmit several bits
simultaneously. Parallel lines are used to connect devices located close by, such as a
Page 49 of 67
printer. Sending eight or so bits simultaneously transmits the information faster than is
possible in a serial line (Fig. 1.29).

1.USB Ports: The USB (Universal Serial Bus) port is rapidly gaining popularity for
PCs, because the USB port allows 127 peripheral devices to be connected to the one
general-purpose port (Fig. 1.29). USB ports are useful for peripherals such as digital
cameras, digital speakers, scanners, high-speed modems, and joysticks. The USB
port allows peripheral devices to be connected or disconnected even while the PC is
running. ln addition, USB permits plug and play, which allows peripheral devices and
expansion cards to be automatically configured while they are being installed. Many
experts believe that USB will emerge as the single standard port of the future. Today,
mcstnew computers feature at least two or three USB ports.

Can you really connect up to 127 devices to a single port? An Intel engineer did
set a world record at an industry trade show before .a live audience by connecting
111 peripheral devices to a single USB port on aPC.

Page 50 of 67
11.
Output Devices

Output devices convert machine-readable information into people-readable user

understandable format/form. Output takes two forms
1. Softcopy
2. Hardcopy

DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN SOFTCOPY & HARDCOPY

SOFTCOPY HARDCOPY

1 Softcopy output format cannot be 1 Hardcopy output format can be touched

touched physically. physically

2 The output it Temporarily(not 2 The output is tangible permanent cannot be

tangible) , can be changed/ Editable changed/ Non-Editable and slow
and quick

3 Mostly the output is one the screen 3 Mostly the output is one the paper (Printout
(CRT/LCD or on Projector) or it can /Plotter/ Microfilm).
be file saved on disk

4 Example software/programs used at 4 Example printout or plotted map of building

Airline departure/arrival display at or microfilm data
Airport.

5 Screen output is also called Softcopy 5 Paper output is also called Hardcopy

6 Softcopy is best where the output 6 Hardcopy is better or any data information
viewed only occasionally when user that can be viewed later stored on paper
want for few moments example out
put of Source program

7 Example of Softcopy is the computer 7 Example of hardcopy are Newspaper

Page 51 of 67
 program or application file ,Books and magazines.

Softcopy Output Hardware

Softcopy output devices are of three principal types:

1.Monitors
2.Voice output devices
3.Sound output devices

Page 52 of 67
22-Dec-2020

Monitors
 Most common form of output device is a monitor, television-like device to display text
and graphics from a computer.
 Also known as: Screen, Video Display Terminal (VDT), Console
There are two main types of monitors:
1.Cathode-ray tube (CRT) monitor.
2.Flat panel monitor.
The following chart shows these types and some common varieties of monitors included
in these categories.

Cathode-ray tube (CRT) Monitors

 Cathode-ray tube (CRT) is an output display device resembles a television screen
 Mostly used with microcomputers.
 CRTs contain an electron "gun" that fires a beam of electrons.
 Front of the CRT screen is coated with phosphor. When a beam of electrons from the
electron gun hits the phosphor, it lights up tiny points of phosphor for 'a short period of
time. Each tiny point of light is called a pixel.
 Gun constantly scans the screen, relighting the pixels so rapidly that you see the screen
characters as continuously glowing.
Page 53 of 67
Some aspects to consider in buying a CRT monitor are:
1.Resolution – Related to image clarity.
2.Colors-monochrome or multiple colors.

Resolution:
 Resolution refers to image clarity. Resolution is determined by the number of
pixels in the screen.
 Pixel is the smallest unit on the screen that can be turned on or off.
 Each pixel can also be assigned a color and level of sharpness. The smaller
the pixels and the closer together an image can be illuminated on the CRT
screen, and the better the resolution.
 High resolution starts from 800x 600 , 1024 x 768, 1280 x 1024, 1600 x 1200

Monochrome Screens: CRT screens are either monochrome or color.

 Monochrome monitor displays only a single-color image, one color for foreground
and one for background color. Examples are:
1.Paper-white: This monitor displays black on white or white on black.
2.Amber: This monitor displays black on a yellow (amber) background.
3.Green-screen: This monitor displays black on light screen background.

Pixels are selectively tuned on to form characters Red, green, and blue are the three primary
colors that are "electronically" mixed to produce other colors of the spectrum. Different
combinations of the RGB electron guns create different colors by "firing" on triads of phosphor
dots.

The common color and resolution standards for monitors are SVGA, XGA, SXGA, and
UXGA.

SVGA: A SVGA (Super Video Graphics Array) supports a resolution of 800x600 pixels,
producing 16 million possible simultaneous colors. SVGA is the most common standard
used today with 15-inch monitors.

XGA: An XGA (Extended Graphics Array) has a resolution of up to 1024x768 pixels,

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with 65,536 possible colors. It is used mainly with 17- and 19-inch monitors.

SXGA: An SXGA (Super Extended-Graphics Array) has a resolution of 1280XI024

pixels. It is often used with 19- and 21-inch monitors.

UXGA: An UXGA (Ultra Extended Graphics Array) ·has a resolution of 1600x1200

pixels; It is expected to become more popular with graphic artists, engineering
designers, and others using 21-inch monitors.
Flat Panel Monitors

CRT monitors are the standard for use with desktop computers because they provide
the brightest and clearest picture for the money. There are, however, certain major
disadvantages associated with CRT monitors. They include large size, high power
consumption, fragility, and occasional flickering images. These drawbacks have led to

4.Paper-white: This monitor displays black on white or white on black.

5.Amber~' This monitor displays black on a yellow (amber)
background.
6.Green-screen: This monitor displays black on light screen background.

Monochrome screens are satisfactory for tasks not requiring color,

such as word processing.

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12.
13.
33

the development of flat panel technologies. Flat panel technology is particularly

useful for laptop computers (Fig. 1.33), which are small enough to . fit in a briefcase
and powered by a small battery built into the computer.

_ There are three types of flat panel monitors-LCD (liquid crystal display, EL
(electroluminescent display), and gasplasma display.

Liquid Cryst~l Display (LCD): The LCD . Fig. 1.33. A portable laptop computer,
uses a clear liquid chemical trapped in tiny compact enough to go into a
briefcase.

pockets between two pieces of glass. Each pocket of liquid is covered both front arid
back by very. thin wires. When a small amount of current is.applied to both wires, a
chemical reaction turns the chemical a dark color-thereby blocking light. The point of
blocked light is the pixel.
The principal advantages of LCDs are:
1.Low power consumption.
2.Low cost.
3.Small size .
. The biggest disadvantages are:
1.LCDs do not emit light; as a result, the image has very little contrast.
2.The screen is' very susceptible to glare, so the optimum viewing angle is v:zry
narrow.
3.The resolution is not as good as that of a C~T.

Electrolumines~ent . (EL) Display: Th~ EL dif':-,lay uses' a thin film of solid,

specially treated material that glows in response to electric current. To form a pixel
on the screen, current is sent to the intersection of the appropriate row and column;
the combined voltages from the row and the column cause the screen to glow at that

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point.

EL displays provide very high image 're~oiufion and excellent graphics capabjJities.
full-color EL displays are expected soon. A disadvantage of the technology is its cost.
"
Gas-Plasma' Display: The gas-
plasma display (see Fig. 1.34) uses a . gas that emits light when it is electrically
charged. This technology resembles that of a neon light bulb. Depending on the
mixture of gases, the color displayed ranges from orange
to red.' Fig. 1.34. A Flat-Panel Plasma display

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The principal a~vantages of gas-plasma display are:
1.The images are much brighter than on a standard CRT.
2.The resolution is excellent.
3.Glare is not a significant problem.
4.The screen does not flicker like some CRTs. The
main disadvantages are:
. 1. Only a single color is available (reddish Orange).
2.The technology is expensive.
3.It uses a lot of power.
4.It does not show sharp contrast.

Sound is one of the more recent areas in which there have been developments for
softcopy output. The two categories are voice output and sound output.

Voice-Output Devices

Voice-output devices, or voice synthesisers, convert data in the computer into

vocalised sounds understandable to human.

"Please close the door". "Please fasten your seatbelt". "Asalamo-alaikum, the
number you have dialled is temporarily disconnected". "You are now 8xceeding 60
kilometres per hour". Machine voices are not real human voices. ·They are the
product of voice synthesisers. The voice synthesis~rs are relatively new and can be
used in some
. situations where traditional diEplay screen Eoftcnpy output is inappropriate: It is
certainly more helpful to hear a warning that you are speeding th2.n to take your
eyes off the road to check a display. .

Fig. 1.35. A blind person "reads" using reading machine. The reading machine
uses an optical scanner. to convert typeset and typewritten material into speech. It
can also be used to write and store information.

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14.
There are two basic approaches to getting a co!;nputer to talk. The first is synthesis
by analysis, in which the device analyses the input of an actual human voice
speaking words, stores and processes the spoken sounds, and reproduces them as
needed. In essence, synthesis by analysis uses the computer as a digital tape
recorder.

The second approach to synthesising speech is synthesis by rule, in which the

device applies a complex set of linguistic rules to create artificial speech. Synthesis
based on the human voice (i.e. synthesis by analysis) has the advantage of
sounding more natural, but it is limited to the number of words stored in the
computer. Synthesis by rule has no vocabulary restriction, but the spoken product
is often mechanical and sounds like no voice from this planet.

The largest application to date for the speech synthesisers is the reading
machines. for the blinn, which convert printed textbooks into "spoken" words.
Scanning a page, it recognises letters and words, applies phonetic rules, and
produces spoken sentences (Fig. 1.35).

Sound-Output Devices Sound~output devices produce music, special-effects,

noises, or other sounds. Sound capabilities can be added to some microcomputers
by inserting a sound circuit board or by other means. Appropriate software and
speakers are also required (see Fig. 1.36).

There has been increasing interest in computer-generated sound with the rise in
popularity of multimedia systems, which combine uses of text, graphics, video,
animations, and sound.

Hardcopy Output Hardware Hardcopy output devices are of

three principal types:
1.Printers
2.Plotters
3.Computer output microfilm/microfiche (COM)

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PRINTERS

Printers are the most commonly used output device beside monitor. Printer is a device
that produced printed output paper also known as Hardcopy as it is tangible and
permanent. They provide hardcopy of information. Printers are available in low, high speed,
colored and black and white. Number of colors can be increased by installing application
software. Printers have built-in microprocessor to help control the printer-head movement
across, up and down on the paper. Printer has its own control language called PCL – Printer
Control Language.

CLASSIFICATION CHART OF PRINTERS

PRINTERS

IMPACT PRINTERS NON-IMPACT PRINTERS

CHARACTER LINE INK JET LASER LCD THERMAL

PRINTER PRINTER

DOT MATRIX DAISY WHEEL DRUM CHAIN

PRINTER PRINTER PRINTER PRINTER

TYPES OF PRINTERS

Printers are classified into two main categories:

1) Impact Printers 2) Non-Impact Printers

IMPACT PRINTERS

Impact Printers makes some sort of physical contact with paper like hammer like substance sticking
paper against the ribbon to make an expression on paper, just like a typewriter. Biggest advantage
is that it can produce carbon copies 3 at a time. They are called noisy printers as they produce noise
while printing. Impact printers are further divided into Character Printers and Line Printers.

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1) CHARACTER PRINTERS: Character printers are just like typewriters. They print one character at
a time also called serial printers. They have only one printing head. Normally they can print upto 120
characters per sec.

EXAMPLES

a) DOT MATRIX PRINTER: The single head is used to print the entire line, use a matrix of pins.
Printer head consist of pins which strike the ribbon against paper to print characters. It prints one
character at a time and moves on to the next character position. Characters are formed with the
series of dots. Typical matrix of 5 x 7 is used to make the pattern 5 dots width and 7 dots high,
sometimes called 9, 18 pins or 24 pins printers. In 9 pins two extra pins are used for the lowercase
letters like g, j, p and y. They produce Draft quality and NLQ – Near letter quality printing
characters. Inexpensive fast and can produce graphics on paper. Noisy printers can prints with
variable speed as :

1. 80-200 cps draft quality 2. 80 cps for NLQ-near letter quality

B) DAISY-WHEEL PRINTER: Similar to a ball-head typewriter, a wheel with each petal contain
embossed character. Motor spins with 320 rpm speed of can produced 30-100 cps this type of
printer has a plastic or metal wheel on which the shape of each character stands out in relief. A
hammer presses the wheel against a ribbon which in turn makes an ink stain in the shape of the
character on the paper. Daisy- wheel printer produces letter quality print but cannot print graphics.

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2) LINE PRINTERS: They can print entire line at a time. It normally covers 80 or 132 characters.
That means printer has 80 or 132 heads to print each character. It can print 2500 lines per minute.

EXAMPLES: 1) Drum Printers 2) Chain Printers

A) DRUM PRINTERS: It consists of solid cylindrical steel drum having embossed characters in
bands on its surface. Each band contains all the possible characters. At each printing position
hammers are located which strike the paper along the inked ribbon on the drum as the characters
passes. It prints 300 to 2000 lines per minute. The drum rotates at high speed (it takes about 60
milliseconds to make one complete revolution)

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NON-IMPACT PRINTERS

They use magnetic, electrostatic, chemical, thermal, optical, inkjet or laser principles to print
characters on the paper. They get the image of the data and then transfer it to the paper, without
striking the paper directly. It cannot produce carbon copies. It has to print the same data repeatedly
to produce large number of copies. They are costly but quite printers.

EXAMPLES

1) THERMAL PRINTERS: Thermal action is used for printing. Ink is transferred to the paper as the
wax melts when ribbon is heated. It is an inexpensive printer that works by pushing heated pins
against heat sensitive paper. Thermal printers are widely used in calculators and fax machines.
Speed is form 1-4 page per min (ppm). Uses are ATM machine receipts, Health care insurance
cards, departmental store POS receipts. Coffee mugs printing, airline booking tickets

2) LASER PRINTERS (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Rays): They use the
technology of both normal printers and photocopier machine. Laser beam electrically charged the
paper exposed to it. Exposed area attracts ink powder called toner, which prints on the paper
permanently with heat or pressure. They are quite and produce high quality printouts. Normal speed
up to 20 page per minute. Draft normal 600 dpi best 1200 dpi and excellent 2400 DPI for top-
quality professional printing.

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 ]

INK-JET PRINTERS: Sprays ink on sheet of paper form images by spraying tiny droplets of ink from
jet nozzles onto paper. Characters are formed by many tiny ink dots formed from ink droplets. These
ink droplets are electrically charged guided by the electrically charged deflection plates to proper
position on paper. Ink-jet printers produce high quality text and graphics. One variation of the ink-
jet printer is the bubble-jet printer. This printer uses a rising and falling bubble to force a
droplet of ink onto the paper. Resolution support upto 360 dots per inch (dpi).

PostScript is a printer language, or page description language, that has become· a

standard for printing graphics with laser printers. A page description language (software)
describes the shape and position of letters and graphics to the printer. PostScript printers
are essential if you are printing a lot of graphics or want to generate fonts in various sizes.
Another page description language used with laser printers is Printer Control Language
(PCL), which has resolutions and speeds similar to those of PostScript

LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) and LED (Light Emitting Diodes): Similar to Laser printer but uses
liquid crystals or light emitting diodes rather than a laser beam to produce an image on the drum.

Page # 43

Plotters

Plotters are special purpose output devices like a printer to produce images on paper. They
are designed to produced large drawing or image like construction plan of newly design
building but they are recommended to be used very precision/accurate measurement is
mandatory and few inch difference on scale lead to disaster output. Printer do simulation but
plotters used scaling and correct calculation for drawing and maps. They are recommended
for :
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 a. Drawing maps of any country/state/district

b. Drawing construction plan of newly designed building

c. Drawing 3D Sketch of newly launch electronic product/ card designed approved

d. Drawing of sketch for ECG Machine, Earth quake rector scale(Seismograph as

plotter)

Plotter used robotic arm to draw with colored pens on a sheet of paper as instruction are
received from computer for marking beginning and end point of a line/curve.

 Plotter draw curves lines by creating a sequence of very short straight lines

Types of plotters are :

1. Pen Plotter

They used different colored pens to draw on paper of fixed thickness/breadth.

a. Drum Plotter are used to draw construction plan and sketches accurately with
fixed width/breadth in this case paper move forward direction vertically where the
pens are moved horizontally because the paper is rolled over the drum.

b. Flatbed Plotter are used with fixed length and breadth of paper is held steady
position without movement and pens moves in both directions/axis horizontally ,
vertically and diagonally.

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2. Electrostatic Plotter. Creates images by creating electrostatic charge on special paper
and then running a paper through a special purpose developer to create image as
negatively charge paper attract the positively charge ink while passing through the
developer. Output produced is fast as compare to Pen plotters to produce high quality
image but it is not good quality standard images.

3. Thermal Plotter. Thermal plotters similar to thermal printer used a heat sensitive paper
against the electrically heated colored pens as the ink in the form of vax-ink dropped on
the paper but in only two colors (black and red)

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Page # 44

Computer Output Microfilm/ Microfiche (COM) System

Paper was taking lot of room space and need to produce hard copies as backup to
overcome the problem of using paper as output Microfilm and Microfiche (COM) were used
as solution to output.

A very small images on roll or sheets of film, usually it is on roll on 35mm microfilm or sheet
of size 4 x6 inches as microfiche.

Advantages are :

1. Speed with COM system can produce output at the rate of 30,000 lines pre min on
the projector screen which is 50% faster then output produce by laser printer.

2.

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