IT Application in Business

UNIT 1

Basics of information technology - Introduction

The technology, which is exclusively designed to store, process, and transmit information, is known as
Information Technology. it is the key driver of economic growth of not only a nation, but rather the whole
world.The growth and progress of every sector of the country today depends on the level of Information
Technology.

Components of Information Systems

1. Computer Hardware: Physical equipment used for input, output and processing. The hardware
structure depends upon the type and size of the organization. It consists of an input and an output device,
operating system, processor, and media devices. This also includes computer peripheral devices.

2. Computer Software: The programs/ application program used to control and coordinate the hardware
components. It is used for analysing and processing of the data. These programs include a set of
instruction used for processing information. Software is further classified into 3 types:

 System Software, such as an operating system program, which con controls and supports the
operations of a computer system.
 Application Software, which are programs that direct processing for a particular use of computers by
end users. Examples are a sales analysis program, a payroll program, and a work processing program.
 Procedures, which are operating instructions for the people who will use an information system.
Examples are instructions for filling out a paper form or using a software package.

3. Data: Data are the raw facts and figures that are unorganized that are later processed to generate
information. Softwares are used for organizing and serving data to the user, managing physical storage of
media and virtual resources. As the hardware can’t work without software the same as software needs
data for processing. Data are managed using Database management system.
Database software is used for efficient access for required data, and to manage knowledge bases.

4. Network: Networks resources refer to the telecommunication networks like the intranet, extranet and
the internet.These resources facilitate the flow of information in the organization. Networks consists of
both the physical devices such as networks cards, routers, hubs and cables and software such as operating
systems, web servers, data servers and application servers.

Telecommunications networks consist of computers, communications processors, and other devices

interconnected by communications media and controlled by software. Networks include communication
media, and Network Support.
5. People: It is associated with the manpower required to run and manage the system. People are the end
user of the information system, end-user use information produced for their own purpose, the main
purpose of the information system is to benefit the end user. The end user can be accountants, engineers,
salespersons, customers, clerks, or managers etc. People are also responsible to develop and operate
information systems. They include systems analysts, computer operators, programmers, and other clerical
IS personnel, and managerial techniques.

What is computer

Computer is an electronic device that receives input, stores or processes the input as per user instructions
and provides output in desired format.
It renders output just after performing mathematical and logical operations and can save the output for
future use. It can process numerical as well as non-numerical calculations. The term "computer" is derived
from the Latin word "computare" which means to calculate.
A computer is designed to execute applications and provides a variety of solutions through
integrated hardware and software components. It works with the help of programs and represents the
decimal numbers through a string of binary digits. It also has a memory that stores the data, programs,
and result of processing. The components of a computer such as machinery that includes wires,
transistors, circuits, hard disk are called hardware. Whereas, the programs and data are called software.

Characteristics of Computer System

1. Speed:- Executing mathematical calculation, a computer works faster and more accurately than
human. Computers have the ability to process so many millions (1,000,000) of instructions per second.
Computer operations are performed in micro and nano seconds. A computer is a time saving device. It
performs several calculations and tasks in few seconds that we take hours to solve. The speed of a
computer is measure in terms of GigaHertz and MegaHertz.

2. Diligence:- A human cannot work for several hours without resting, yet a computer never tires. A
computer can conduct millions of calculations per second with complete precision without stopping. A
computer can consistently and accurately do millions of jobs or calculations. There is no weariness or lack
of concentration. Its memory ability also places it ahead of humans.

3. Reliability :- A computer is reliable. The output results never differ unless the input varies. the output is
totally depend on the input. when an input is the same the output will also be the same. A computer
produces consistent results for similar sets of data, if we provide the same set of input at any time we will
get the same result.

4. Automation :- The world is quickly moving toward AI-based technology. A computer may conduct tasks
automatically after instructions are programmed. By executing jobs automatically, this computer feature
replaces thousands of workers. Automation in computing is often achieved by the use of a program, a
script, or batch processing.

5. Versatility :- Versatility refers to a capacity of computer. Computer perform different types of tasks
with the same accuracy and efficiency. A computer can perform multiple tasks at the same time this is
known as versatility. For example, while listening to music, we may develop our project using power
point and Wordpad, or we can design a website.
6. Memory :- A computer can store millions of records. these records may be accessed with complete
precision. Computer memory storage capacity is measured in Bytes, Kilobytes(KB), Megabytes(MB),
Gigabytes(GB), and Terabytes(TB). A computer has built-in memory known as primary memory.

7. Accuracy:- When a computer performs a computation or operation, the chances of errors occurring
are low. Errors in a computer are caused by human’s submitting incorrect data. A computer can do a
variety of operations and calculations fast and accurately.

Components of a Computer System

A computer is a system of many parts or components that works together with the purpose of converting
data into information. Every computer system comprises multiple electronic components. We can broadly
divide into two categories: hardware and software.
The physical components which we can see and touch are collectively known as computer hardware.
Some examples of computer hardwares are CPU, monitor, mouse, keyboard, hard disk, etc.
On the other hand, software is a set of instructions or programs that tell the hardware what to do. Some
examples of softwares are DOS (Disk Operating System), Windows, Oracle, Tally, etc.
A computer system is a complete computer installation that contains the following main components or
parts. They are as:
 Input unit
 Central processing unit (CPU)
 Output unit
 Memory or storage unit

The general architecture diagram of a computer system is shown in the below figure

Input Unit

The computer components that help humans put data into the computer are called input unit. An input
unit is formed by connecting various input devices, such as a keyboard, mouse, touch screen, modem,
scanner, etc.
A computer receives input in two ways: either manually or directly. In the case of manual data entry, the
user put the data into the computer by hand, either using keyboard or mouse. In case of direct entry, data
is entered into the computer automatically from a source document, such as barcode.
As instructions and data put through different input devices are in the different form, the input unit
converts them into a form that a computer can understand. After it, the input unit sends the data and
instructions to the CPU for further processing.
Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The central processing unit (CPU) is considered as the “brain” of any computer system, which performs all
the processing of input data. Its function is to convert data (input) into meaningful information (output).
In a microcomputer, CPU is a highly complex, extensive set of electronic integrated circuit (IC), which fetch,
examine, and then execute program instructions stored in the main memory of a computer. We also call it
a microprocessor that is basically a single chip.
A central processing unit controls all internal and external devices, as well as performs arithmetic and
logical operations. It operates only on the binary data that consists of “1s” and “0s”.
Moreover, it also controls the usage of main memory to store program instructions and data, as well as
controls the sequence of several operations. The central processing unit has three main subsystems:
 Arithmetic and logic unit
 Control unit
 Registers

Arithmetic and Logic Operations: The CPU performs basic arithmetic operations like addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division. It also handles logical operations such as comparisons, bitwise
operations, and boolean operations.
Control Unit: The CPU includes a control unit that coordinates and manages the execution of
instructions. It controls the flow of data between the CPU, memory, and other peripherals.
Registers: The CPU features a number of registers that are used to store data and interim findings.
Operands, addresses, and other information needed for calculations are temporarily stored in these
registers. Data transfer between registers and memory is controlled by the CPU.

Output Unit

In a microcomputer, output unit is formed by connecting output devices, such as monitor, speakers,
printer, and plotter to the computer.
An output device is a device that outputs or presents the processes data (result or information) to the
user. The basic function of an output unit is just opposite to that of input unit.
It accepts the outputs (in machine coded form) from the CPU, and converts them into the user
understandable form (which are called information) such as texts, audio, video, or graphical. After
converting it, it sends the converted results to the user with the help of output devices.
User can understand and use the output either in the hard copy or soft copy. The physical form of output
is called hard copy. The electronic form of an output, which usually stores in the computer memory
and/or on the hard disk is called soft copy.

Memory Unit or Storage Unit

Memory or storage unit is that component of a computer system, which stores the program instructions,
and data before processing starts and stores the information generated by computer before sending them
to the output unit.
A memory unit is basically that area within the computer system, where the CPU stores the program
instructions and data. The memory unit or storage unit of a computer consists of two types of memory or
storage. They are as:
 Primary memory (also known as main memory)
 Secondary memory
The main memory holds the program instructions and data currently being processed by the CPU, the
intermediate results generated during the calculations, and the recently processed data. When the
instructions and data remain in the main memory, the CPU can access them directly and quickly.
Because of the limited size of main memory, a computer system uses a secondary memory, which is
extensively used to store instructions and data. Then, it sends the stored information to other units of the
computer as and when need.
There are several types of secondary memory devices, such as hard disk drives (HDD), solid-state drives
(SSD), optical disks (including CDs and DVDs), and USB flash drives. These devices have varying storage
capacities, read and write speeds, and different capabilities that make them appropriate for different
types of applications.

Input and Output Devices( Hardware, Software, Human ware and Firmware)

An input/output device, often known as an IO device, is any hardware that allows a human operator or
other systems to interface with a computer. Input/output devices, as the name implies, are capable of
delivering data (output) to and receiving data from a computer (input). An input/output (I/O) device is a
piece of hardware that can take, output, or process data. It receives data as input and provides it to a
computer, as well as sends computer data to storage media as a storage output.
Input Devices

Input devices are the devices that are used to send signals to the computer for performing tasks. The
receiver at the end is the CPU (Central Processing Unit), which has work to send signals to the output
devices. Some of the classifications of Input devices are:

Keyboard

The keyboard is the most frequent and widely used input device for entering data into a computer.
Although there are some additional keys for performing other operations, the keyboard layout is similar to
that of a typical typewriter.
Generally, keyboards come in two sizes: 84 keys or 101/102 keys but currently keyboards with 104 keys or
108 keys are also available for Windows and the Internet.

Keyboard

Types of Keys

Numeric Keys: It is used to enter numeric data or move the cursor. It usually consists of a set of 17 keys.

Typing Keys: The letter keys (A-Z) and number keys (09) are among these keys.

Control Keys: These keys control the pointer and the screen. There are four directional arrow keys on it.
Home, End, Insert, Alternate(Alt), Delete, Control(Ctrl), etc., and Escape are all control keys (Esc).

Special Keys: Enter, Shift, Caps Lock, NumLk, Tab, etc., and Print Screen are among the special function
keys on the keyboard.
Function Keys: The 12 keys from F1 to F12 are on the topmost row of the keyboard.

Mouse

The most common pointing device is the mouse. The mouse is used to move a little cursor across the
screen while clicking and dragging. The cursor will stop if you let go of the mouse. The computer is
dependent on you to move the mouse; it won’t move by itself. As a result, it’s an input device.
A mouse is an input device that lets you move the mouse on a flat surface to control the coordinates and
movement of the on-screen cursor/pointer.
The left mouse button can be used to select or move items, while the right mouse button when clicked
displays extra menus.

Mouse

Joystick

A joystick is a pointing device that is used to move the cursor on a computer screen. A spherical ball is
attached to both the bottom and top ends of the stick. In a socket, the lower spherical ball slides. You can
move the joystick in all four directions.

Joystick

The joystick’s function is comparable to that of a mouse. It is primarily used in CAD (Computer-Aided
Design) and playing video games on the computer.

Track Ball

Track Ball is an accessory for notebooks and laptops, which works on behalf of a mouse. It has a similar
structure to a mouse. Its structure is like a half-inserted ball and we use fingers for cursor movement.
Different shapes are used for this like balls, buttons, or squares.
 Track Ball

Light Pen

A light pen is a type of pointing device that looks like a pen. It can be used to select a menu item or to
draw on the monitor screen. A photocell and an optical system are enclosed in a tiny tube. When the tip
of a light pen is moved across a monitor screen while the pen button is pushed, the photocell sensor
element identifies the screen location and provides a signal to the CPU.

Light Pen

Scanner

A scanner is an input device that functions similarly to a photocopier. It’s employed when there’s
information on paper that needs to be transferred to the computer’s hard disc for subsequent
manipulation. The scanner collects images from the source and converts them to a digital format that may
be saved on a disc. Before they are printed, these images can be modified.

Scanner

Optical Mark Reader (OMR)

An Optical Mark Reader is a device that is generally used in educational institutions to check the answers
to objective exams. It recognizes the marks present by pencil and pen.
 Optical Mark Reader

Optical Character Reader (OCR)

OCI stands for optical character recognition, and it is a device that reads printed text. OCR optically scans
the text, character by character turns it into a machine-readable code, and saves it to the system memory.

Optical Character Reader

Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR)

It is a device that is generally used in banks to deal with the cheques given to the bank by the customer. It
helps in reading the magnetic ink present in the code number and cheque number. This process is very
fast compared to any other process.

Magnetic Ink Card Reader

Bar Code Reader

A bar code reader is a device that reads data that is bar-coded (data that is represented by light and dark
lines).Bar-coded data is commonly used to mark things, number books, and so on. It could be a handheld
scanner or part of a stationary scanner. A bar code reader scans a bar code image, converts it to an
alphanumeric value, and then sends it to the computer to which it is connected.
 Bar Code Reader

Digitizer

Digitizer is a device that is used to convert analog signals to digital signals. it converts signals into numeric
values. An example of a Digitizer is Graphic Tablet, which is used to convert graphics to binary data.

Digitizer

Microphone

The microphone works as an input device that receives input voice signals and also has the responsibility
of converting it also to digital form. It is a very common device that is present in every device which is
related to music.

Output Devices

Output devices are the devices that show us the result after giving the input to a computer system.
Output can be of many different forms like image, graphic audio, video, etc. Some of the output devices
are described below.
Monitor

The monitor is the display unit or screen of the computer. It is the main output device that displays the
processed data or information as text, images, audio or video.The types of monitors are given below.

o CRT Monitor
o LCD Monitor
o LED Monitor
o Plasma Monitor

i) CRT Monitor(Cathode rays tube)

CRT monitors are based on the cathode ray tubes. They are like vacuum tubes which produce images in
the form of video signals. Cathode rays tube produces a beam of electrons through electron guns that
strike on the inner phosphorescent surface of the screen to produce images on the screen.

ii) LCD Monitor(Liquid Crystal Display)

The LCD monitor is a flat panel screen that is compact and light-weight as compared to CRT monitors. It is based on
liquid crystal display technology which is used in the screens of laptops, tablets, smart phones, etc.

iii) LED monitor(Light Emmited Display)

The LED monitor is an improved version of an LCD monitor. It also has a flat panel display and uses liquid
crystal display technology like the LCD monitors. The LED monitor has many LED panels, and each panel
has several LEDs to backlight the display,

iv) Plasma Monitor

The plasma monitor is also a flat panel display that is based on plasma display technology. It has small tiny
cells between two glass panels. These cells contain mixtures of noble gases and a small amount of
mercury. When voltage is applied, the gas in the cells turns into a plasma and emits ultraviolet light that
creates images on the screen.

Printer

A printer produces hard copies of the processed data. It enables the user, to print images, text or any other
information onto the paper. Printers enable the generation of tangible copies for record-keeping, presentations,
marketing materials, and other purposes, from household to professional settings. Printers are essential for personal
and commercial use due to their simplicity and adaptability.

o Impact Printers
1. Character Printers
1. Dot Matrix printers
2. Daisy Wheel printers
2. Line printers

1. Chain printers
2. Drum Printer
o Non-impact printers
1. Laser printers
2. Inkjet printers

Speakers

Speakers are important output devices that transform electrical impulses into audible sounds. They're essential to
many modern devices, including computers, televisions, music players, and mobile phones. The audio system
improves the multimedia experience by providing high-quality audio output, whether listening to the song, viewing
films, playing video games, or participating in virtual meetings.
Headphones/Earphones

Headphones and earphones are personal audio devices worn over the ears or inserted into the ear canal, respectively.
They deliver Music to the user directly, giving a private and immersive listening experience. Earphones are tiny and fit
within the ear, whereas headphones have two speakers that cover both ears.

Projector

A projector is an output device that enables the user to project the output onto a large surface such as a big screen or
wall. It can be connected to a computer and similar devices to project their output onto a screen. It uses light and
lenses to produce magnified texts, images, and videos.

Hardware, Software, Human ware and Firmware

Firmware, software, hardware, and humanware are four distinct components in the realm of computing
and technology, each serving a unique purpose. Here are the key differences between them:

1. Hardware: Hardware refers to the physical components of a computer or electronic devices and
resources information. includes components like the central processing unit (CPU), memory (RAM),
storage devices (hard drives, SSDs), input/output devices (keyboard, mouse, monitor), and other
tangible parts. Hardware provides the foundation for a computing system and is responsible for
executing instructions provided by software.

Examples of hardware

There are many different types of hardware. Below are some examples of common hardware components:

 CPU: The brain of the computer; responsible for processing all instructions
 Hard Drive: A type of long-term storage; used to store data permanently
 Graphics Card: Generates images for the monitor
 Monitor: Displays images and text generated by the graphics card
 Keyboard: Allows users to input text instructions
 Mouse: Allows users to input graphical instructions
 Printers: Produce physical copies of documents
 Scanners : Digitise physical documents into digital format

2. Firmware: Firmware is a type of software that is permanently or semi-permanently programmed

into hardware devices, typically responsible for controlling and managing the essential functions and
operations of hardware components. The term firmware comes from FIRM softWARE. Firmware is
often stored in non-volatile memory, such as ROM (Read-Only Memory). It can hold its content
without power. It is found on computer motherboards where it holds hardware settings and boot
data
Examples of firmware

One example of firmware is the BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) found in computers. The BIOS controls
how the computer starts up and interacts with other devices and software. Another example of firmware
is found in smartphones. The firmware in a smartphone holds the operating system and applications and
so controls how the phone operates and runs applications.

3. Software: Software refers to a collection of programs, data, and instructions that are stored
electronically and run on a computer or electronic device's includes operating systems, applications,
utilities, and any other code that provides specific functionality or services to users. Software can be
categorized into two categories:-

System Software(OS): This type of software manages all of the hardware resources associated with your
computer. For example, when you want to print a document, the OS will send that request to the printer
connected to your computer.
Application software: This type of software allows users to perform specific tasks. For example, Microsoft
Word is application software that allows you to edit text, create layouts,web browser and more.

4. Humanware: Humanware, sometimes called "peopleware," is a term used to describe the

human aspect of computing and encompasses the skills, knowledge, expertise, and interactions of
individuals who use and interact with hardware and software systems. Humanware is crucial for
designing, developing, using, and maintaining technology effectively and efficiently. It includes
factors such as user interface design, user experience, training, and support.

In summary, hardware is the physical foundation of computing systems, firmware is software embedded
in hardware, software is a collection of programs and data that run on hardware, and humanware
represents the human factor in technology, including user expertise and interaction. All of these
components work together to create a functional and usable technology ecosystem.

Classification of Computers
The computer systems can be classified on the following basis:
1. On the basis of size.
2. On the basis of purpose.
3. On the basis of work type.
Classification on the basis of size

Super computers : The super computers are the most high performing system. Supercomputers are very
expensive and are employed for specialized applications that require an immense amount of
mathematical calculations (number-crunching). They are big and may have multiple CPUs [Central
Processing Units] for faster data and information access. The supercomputer also uses parallel processing
for better functionality, performance, and processing. A speed is measured or counted in “FLOPS”
(Floating Point Operation per Second). It can perform a speed of over 1 billion per second. supercomputer
is a million times faster than the mini, mainframe, and microcomputers because of thousands of
processors installed on them

The supercomputer is designed and developed for special purposes like weather forecasting, scientific
simulations, (animated) graphics, fluid dynamic calculations, nuclear energy research, electronic design,
and analysis of geological data (e.g. in petrochemical prospecting).

Mainframe computers : They are small in size compared to a supercomputer. Mainframes are fast and
can store a massive amount of data and information. They have extremely impressive data processing and
handling abilities, and hence the number of users can connect to them quickly for better data sharing and
functionality.
Mainframe computers can connect to another microcomputer to form a network.They support
tens of thousands of remote computers and can work as a “Host Computer”; they are pretty good when
considering working with different operating systems.They can store data and deliver millions of
instructions and guidelines per second.
Uses of Mainframe computers
Banking, Government Databases, Airline and Railway Reservation, Population Database.
Mini computers :Minicomputers are considerably smaller in size compared to supercomputers and
mainframe computers.
Minicomputer consists of more than 1 CPU [Central Processing Unit], making them faster than
microcomputers and costlier than microcomputers.
Mini computers work slower than mainframe computers. Minicomputers are called "Workstations" or
"Midrange Computers". Mini computers are extensively used in small businesses and medium-sized
companies.
Micro computers : Microcomputers are compact in shape and size and use a microprocessor, processor,
or CPU for processing and calculations. They are comparatively relatively smaller than other computers.
The microprocessor is cheaper than the technology used by [Mini, Mainframe, and Super].
This computer can be accommodated inside a briefcase and placed on a desk. Therefore these tiny
computers are called “Microcomputers“. The microprocessor is also called CPU [Central Processing Unit]
or Processor. The microprocessors are also known as the heart or brain of a computer. The primary
function of the microprocessor is to perform arithmetic and logical operations at high speed with great
accuracy. Microcomputers can perform trillions of operations per second. Microcomputers are also
called “Personal Computers” [PC]. These are personal computers at low cost, and users can purchase
them from the market.
Uses of Microcomputers.
 They are personal or home computers, abundantly used in our daily activities.
 They can comfortably work in the banking sector.
 Small shops.
 Shopping Malls.

Classification on the basis of purpose

General-purpose computer:- A general-purpose computer can be used for this task, as well as many
others. In the early days of computing, general-purpose computers were often referred to as general-
purpose digital computers or general-purpose electronic computers.

Special-purpose computer: Special-purpose computers are designed for one specific task or class of tasks
and wouldn't be able to perform general computing tasks.For example, a router is a special-purpose
computer designed to move data around a network,

Classification on the basis work type

Analog Computer: Analog computers are that computer that works with physical quantities like length,
current, height, temperature, pressure, and voltage. Analog computers were used in science and
engineering. Analog computers are designed and developed to measure things despite checking and
counting.
Some Examples of Analog Computers.
Operational Amplifiers, Mechanical integrators, Slide rules, Tide Predictors, Electric Integrators,
Thermometer, Speedometer, Seismometer, Voltmeter, Flight Simulators.
Digital Computers:- Digital computers are those computers that calculate numbers and digits. Today,
analog computers are almost obsolete, and digital computers are used and utilized globally. These
computers convert 0s and 1s to digital format. In other words, convert them into human-readable form.
Examples of Digital Computers
Digital Clock, Calculator, Weighing Machine, Consumer Electronic Equipment, Laptop, ATM Machines,
Smart Phones, Automobiles.
Hybrid Computer:- Hybrid computers are a combination of analog computers and digital computers.
They possess all the qualities of both analog and digital computers.
Examples of Hybrid Computers.
Gasoline Station, Electrocardiogram Machine, Monitoring Machine, Ultrasound Machine.

What is Computer Memory

Computer memory is just like the human brain. It is used to store data/information and instructions. It is
a data storage unit or a data storage device where data is to be processed and instructions required for
processing are stored. It can store both the input and output can be stored here.
Characteristics of Computer Memory
 It is faster computer memory as compared to secondary memory.
 It is semiconductor memories.
 It is usually a volatile memory, and main memory of the computer.
 A computer system cannot run without primary memory.
Types of Computer Memory
In general, computer memory is of three types:
1. Primary memory
2. Secondary memory
3. Cache memory

1. Primary Memory
It is also known as the main memory of the computer system. It is used to store data and programs or
instructions during computer operations. It uses semiconductor technology and hence is commonly called
semiconductor memory. Primary memory is of two types:
RAM (Random Access Memory): It is a volatile memory. Volatile memory stores information based on
the power supply. If the power supply fails/ interrupted/stopped, all the data and information on this
memory will be lost. RAM is used for booting up or start the computer. It temporarily
stores programs/data which has to be executed by the processor. RAM is of two types:
S RAM (Static RAM): S RAM uses transistors and the circuits of this memory are capable of
retaining their state as long as the power is applied. This memory consists of the number of flip flops with
each flip flop storing 1 bit. It has less access time and hence, it is faster.
D RAM (Dynamic RAM): D RAM uses capacitors and transistors and stores the data as a charge on
the capacitors. They contain thousands of memory cells. It needs refreshing of charge on capacitor after a
few milliseconds. This memory is slower than S RAM.
ROM (Read Only Memory): It is a non-volatile memory. Non-volatile memory stores information even
when there is a power supply failed/ interrupted/stopped. ROM is used to store information that is used
to operate the system. As its name refers to read-only memory, we can only read the programs and data
that is stored on it. It contains some electronic fuses that can be programmed for a piece of specific
information. The information stored in the ROM in binary format. It is also known as permanent memory.
ROM is of four types:
 PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory): This read-only memory is modifiable once by the user.
The user purchases a blank PROM and uses a PROM program to put the required contents into the PROM.
Its content can’t be erased once written.
EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory): EPROM is an extension to PROM where you
can erase the content of ROM by exposing it to Ultraviolet rays for nearly 40 minutes.
EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory): Here the written contents can be
erased electrically. You can delete and reprogramme EEPROM up to 10,000 times. Erasing and
programming take very little time, i.e., nearly 4 -10 ms(milliseconds). Any area in an EEPROM can be
wiped and programmed selectively.
2. Secondary Memory
It is also known as auxiliary memory and backup memory. It is a non-volatile memory and used to store a
large amount of data or information. The data or information stored in secondary memory is permanent,
and it is slower than primary memory. A CPU cannot access secondary memory directly. The
data/information from the auxiliary memory is first transferred to the main memory, and then the CPU
can access it.
Characteristics of Secondary Memory
 It is a slow memory but reusable.
 It is a reliable and non-volatile memory.
 It is cheaper than primary memory.
 The storage capacity of secondary memory is large.
 A computer system can run without secondary memory.
In secondary memory, data is stored permanently even when the power is off.
Types of Secondary Memory
a) Magnetic Tapes: Magnetic tape is a long, narrow strip of plastic film with a thin, magnetic coating on it
that is used for magnetic recording. Bits are recorded on tape as magnetic patches called RECORDS that
run along many tracks. Typically, 7 or 9 bits are recorded concurrently. Each track has one read/write head,
which allows data to be recorded and read as a sequence of characters. It can be stopped, started moving
forward or backward, or rewound.
b Magnetic Disks: A magnetic disk is a circular metal or a plastic plate and these plates are coated with
magnetic material. The disc is used on both sides. Bits are stored in magnetized surfaces in locations called
tracks that run in concentric rings. Sectors are typically used to break tracks into pieces. Hard discs are
discs that are permanently attached and cannot be removed by a single user.
c) Optical Disks: It’s a laser-based storage medium that can be written to and read. It is reasonably priced
and has a long lifespan. The optical disc can be taken out of the computer by occasional users.
d) Floppy Disk: A floppy disk consists of a magnetic disc in a square plastic case. It is used to store data
and to transfer data from one device to another device. Floppy disks are available in two sizes (a) Size: 3.5
inches, the Storage capacity of 1.44 MB (b) Size: 5.25 inches, the Storage capacity of 1.2 MB. To use a
floppy disk, our computer needs to have a floppy disk drive. This storage device becomes obsolete now
and has been replaced by CDs, DVDs, and flash drives.
e) Compact Disc: A Compact Disc (CD) is a commonly used secondary storage device. It contains tracks
and sectors on its surface. Its shape is circular and is made up of polycarbonate plastic. The storage
capacity of CD is up to 700 MB of data. A CD may also be called a CD-ROM (Compact Disc Read-Only
Memory), in this computers can read the data present in a CD-ROM, but cannot write new data onto it.
For a CD-ROM, we require a CD-ROM.
f) Flash Drive: A flash drive or pen drive comes in various storage capacities, such as 1 GB, 2 GB, 4 GB, 8
GB, 16 GB, 32 GB, 64 GB, up to 1 TB. A flash drive is used to transfer and store data. To use a flash drive,
we need to plug it into a USB port on a computer. As a flash drive is easy to use and compact in size,
Nowadays it is very popular.

3. Cache Memory
It is a type of high-speed semiconductor memory that can help the CPU run faster. Between the CPU and
the main memory, it serves as a buffer. It is used to store the data and programs that the CPU uses the
most frequently.

Mass Storage System

Magnetic disk (Hard disk)

Magnetic Disk provides the bulk of mass storage on computer systems.

Each DISK platter has a flat circular shape like CD

We store information on magnetic disks by recording it magnetically (on two surfaces of the platters)

A "read-write" HEAD flies just above each surface on every platter.

1. The heads are attached to a disk arm that moves all of the heads as a unit.

2. The surface of a platter is divided into circular tracks - which are subdivided into sectors.

3. The set of tracks that are at ONE ARM position make up a cylinder

There are thousands of cylinders in a disk drive, and each track has thousands of sectors.

When the disk is in use, a driver motor spins it at high speed. Typical disks can transfer several megabytes
of data/second, and they have seek times/rotational latencies of several ms.

A disk CAN be removable - allowing different disks to be mounted as needed.

Solid State Disks (SSD)
Old technologies are frequently employed in new ways as economic conditions and technology evolve.
The growing usage of solid state drives, or SSDs, is one illustration of this.
SSDs function as a tiny, quick hard disk using memory technology. To maintain the information over power
cycles, certain implementations may employ either flash memory or DRAM chips protected by a battery.
Due to the lack of moving components, SSDs operate far more quickly than conventional hard drives, and
some issues, such the scheduling of disk accesses, simply do not exist.
SSDs do have certain drawbacks, too, including the fact that they cost more than hard drives, are often
smaller, and may have shorter life spans.
As a high-speed cache for information on hard disks that has to be retrieved fast, SSDs are particularly
helpful. One use is to store frequently requested file system meta-data, such as directory and I node
information. A boot drive is another version that has the OS and certain application executables but no
essential user data. In order to make laptops thinner, lighter, and quicker, SSDs are also employed in them.
The throughput of the bus may become a limiting problem due to how much quicker SSDs are than
conventional hard drives, which leads to certain SSDs being linked directly to the system PCI bus.
Magnetic Tapes
Prior to the advent of hard disk drives, magnetic tapes were frequently utilized for secondary storage;
today, they are mostly used for backups.
It might take a while to get to a specific location on a magnetic tape, but once reading or writing starts,
access rates are on par with disk drives.
Tape drive capacities may be anywhere from 20 and 200 GB, and compression can increase that capacity
by double.

What is Cloud Computing

The term cloud refers to a network or the internet. It is a technology that uses remote servers on the
internet to store, manage, and access data online rather than local drives. The data can be anything such
as files, images, documents, audio, video, and more.
There are the following operations that we can do using cloud computing:
 Developing new applications and services
 Storage, back up, and recovery of data
 Hosting blogs and websites
 Delivery of software on demand
 Analysis of data
 Streaming videos and audios
Why Cloud Computing?
Small as well as large IT companies, follow the traditional methods to provide the IT infrastructure. That
means for any IT company, we need a Server Room that is the basic need of IT companies.
In that server room, there should be a database server, mail server, networking, firewalls, routers, modem,
switches, QPS (Query Per Second means how much queries or load will be handled by the server),
configurable system, high net speed, and the maintenance engineers.
To establish such IT infrastructure, we need to spend lots of money. To overcome all these problems and
to reduce the IT infrastructure cost, Cloud Computing comes into existence.
Characteristics of Cloud Computing
The characteristics of cloud computing are given below:
1) Agility
The cloud works in a distributed computing environment. It shares resources among users and works very
fast.
2) High availability and reliability
The availability of servers is high and more reliable because the chances of infrastructure failure are
minimum.
3) High Scalability
Cloud offers "on-demand" provisioning of resources on a large scale, without having engineers for peak
loads.
4) Multi-Sharing
With the help of cloud computing, multiple users and applications can work more efficiently with cost
reductions by sharing common infrastructure.
5) Device and Location Independence
Cloud computing enables the users to access systems using a web browser regardless of their location or
what device they use e.g. PC, mobile phone, etc. As infrastructure is off-site (typically provided by a third-
party) and accessed via the Internet, users can connect from anywhere.
6) Maintenance
Maintenance of cloud computing applications is easier, since they do not need to be installed on each
user's computer and can be accessed from different places. So, it reduces the cost also.
7) Low Cost
By using cloud computing, the cost will be reduced because to take the services of cloud computing, IT
company need not to set its own infrastructure and pay-as-per usage of resources.
8) Services in the pay-per-use mode
Application Programming Interfaces (APIs) are provided to the users so that they can access services on
the cloud by using these APIs and pay the charges as per the usage of services.
Architecture of Cloud Computing
Cloud Computing , which is one of the demanding technology of the current time and which is giving a
new shape to every organization by providing on demand virtualized services/resources. Starting from
small to medium and medium to large, every organization use cloud computing services for storing
information and accessing it from anywhere and any time only with the help of internet. In this article, we
will know more about the internal architecture of cloud computing.
The cloud architecture is divided into 2 parts i.e.
 Frontend
 Backend
The below figure represents an internal architectural view of cloud computing
 Architecture of Cloud Computing
Architecture of cloud computing is the combination of both SOA (Service Oriented Architecture) and EDA
(Event Driven Architecture). Client infrastructure, application, service, runtime cloud, storage,
infrastructure, management and security all these are the components of cloud computing architecture.
1. Frontend :
Frontend of the cloud architecture refers to the client side of cloud computing system. Means it contains
all the user interfaces and applications which are used by the client to access the cloud computing
services/resources. For example, use of a web browser to access the cloud platform.
Client Infrastructure – Client Infrastructure is a part of the frontend component. It contains the
applications and user interfaces which are required to access the cloud platform.
In other words, it provides a GUI( Graphical User Interface ) to interact with the cloud.
2. Backend :
Backend refers to the cloud itself which is used by the service provider. It contains the resources as well as
manages the resources and provides security mechanisms. Along with this, it includes huge storage,
virtual applications, virtual machines, traffic control mechanisms, deployment models, etc.
Application –
Application in backend refers to a software or platform to which client accesses. Means it provides the
service in backend as per the client requirement.
Service –
Service in backend refers to the major three types of cloud based services like SaaS, PaaS and IaaS. Also
manages which type of service the user accesses.
Runtime Cloud-
Runtime cloud in backend provides the execution and Runtime platform/environment to the Virtual
machine.
Storage –
Storage in backend provides flexible and scalable storage service and management of stored data.
Infrastructure –
Cloud Infrastructure in backend refers to the hardware and software components of cloud like it includes
servers, storage, network devices, virtualization software etc.
Management –
Management in backend refers to management of backend components like application, service, runtime
cloud, storage, infrastructure, and other security mechanisms etc.
Security –
Security in backend refers to implementation of different security mechanisms in the backend for secure
cloud resources, systems, files, and infrastructure to end-users.
Internet –
Internet connection acts as the medium or a bridge between frontend and backend and establishes the
interaction and communication between frontend and backend.
Database– Database in backend refers to provide database for storing structured data, such as SQL and
NOSQL databases. Example of Databases services include Amazon RDS, Microsoft Azure SQL database and
Google CLoud SQL.
Networking– Networking in backend services that provide networking infrastructure for application in the
cloud, such as load balancing, DNS and virtual private networks.
Analytics– Analytics in backend service that provides analytics capabillities for data in the cloud, such as
warehousing, bussness intellegence and machine learning.

Types of Cloud Computing:

 Public Cloud Computing
 Private Cloud Computing
 Hybrid Cloud Computing
 Community Cloud Computing
Public cloud
Public clouds deliver resources, such as compute, storage, network, develop-and-deploy environments,
and applications over the internet. In public cloud, computing resources are managed and operated by the
Cloud Service Provider (CSP). The CSP looks after the supporting infrastructure and ensures that the
resources are accessible to and scalable for the users. They are owned and run by third-party cloud service
providers like Google Cloud.
Example: Amazon elastic compute cloud (EC2), IBM SmartCloud Enterprise, Microsoft, Google App Engine,
Windows Azure Services Platform.
Private cloud
Private clouds are built, run, and used by a single organization, typically located on-premises. They provide
greater control, customization, and data security but come with similar costs and resource limitations
associated with traditional IT environments.
Example - VMware vSphere, OpenStack, Microsoft Azure Stack, Oracle Cloud at Customer, and IBM Cloud
Private.
Hybrid cloud
Hybrid cloud is partially secure because the services which are running on the public cloud can be
accessed by anyone, while the services which are running on a private cloud can be accessed only by the
organization's users. In a hybrid cloud setup, organizations can leverage the benefits of both public and
private clouds to create a flexible and scalable computing environment. The public cloud portion allows
using cloud services provided by third-party providers, accessible over the Internet.
Example: Google Application Suite (Gmail, Google Apps, and Google Drive), Office 365 (MS Office on the
Web and One Drive), Amazon Web Services.
Community Cloud
Community cloud allows systems and services to be accessible by a group of several organizations to share
the information between the organization and a specific community. It is owned, managed, and operated
by one or more organizations in the community, a third party, or a combination of them.
In a community cloud setup, the participating organizations, which can be from the same industry,
government sector, or any other community, collaborate to establish a shared cloud infrastructure. This
infrastructure allows them to access shared services, applications, and data relevant to their community.

Cloud Service Models

There are the following three types of cloud service models -

1. Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS)

2. Platform as a Service (PaaS)
3. Software as a Service (SaaS)

Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS)

Infrastructure as a service (IaaS) is a service model that delivers computer infrastructure on an outsourced
basis to support various operations. Typically IaaS is a service where infrastructure is provided as
outsourcing to enterprises such as networking equipment, devices, database, and web servers.
It is also known as Hardware as a Service (HaaS). IaaS customers pay on a per-user basis, typically by the
hour, week, or month. Some providers also charge customers based on the amount of virtual machine
space they use.
It simply provides the underlying operating systems, security, networking, and servers for developing such
applications, and services, and deploying development tools, databases, etc.
IaaS delivers on-demand infrastructure resources, such as compute, storage, networking, and
virtualization. With IaaS, the service provider owns and operates the infrastructure, but customers will
need to purchase and manage software, such as operating systems, middleware, data, and applications.
Platform as a Service (PaaS)
PaaS delivers and manages hardware and software resources for developing, testing, delivering, and
managing cloud applications. Providers typically offer middleware, development tools, and cloud
databases within their PaaS offerings.
PaaS is a category of cloud computing that provides a platform and environment to allow developers to
build applications and services over the internet. PaaS services are hosted in the cloud and accessed by
users simply via their web browser.
A PaaS provider hosts the hardware and software on its own infrastructure. As a result, PaaS frees users
from having to install in-house hardware and software to develop or run a new application. Thus, the
development and deployment of the application take place independent of the hardware.
The consumer does not manage or control the underlying cloud infrastructure including network, servers,
operating systems, or storage, but has control over the deployed applications and possibly configuration
settings for the application-hosting environment. To make it simple, take the example of an annual day
function, you will have two options either to create a venue or to rent a venue but the function is the
same.
Software as a Service (SaaS)
Software-as-a-Service (SaaS) is a way of delivering services and applications over the Internet. Instead of
installing and maintaining software, we simply access it via the Internet, freeing ourselves from the
complex software and hardware management. It removes the need to install and run applications on our
own computers or in the data centers eliminating the expenses of hardware as well as software
maintenance.
SaaS provides a complete software solution that you purchase on a pay-as-you-go basis from a cloud
service provider. Most SaaS applications can be run directly from a web browser without any downloads
or installations required. The SaaS applications are sometimes called Web-based software, on-demand
software, or hosted software.
SaaS provides a full application stack as a service that customers can access and use. SaaS solutions often
come as ready-to-use applications, which are managed and maintained by the cloud service provider.