Lecture Note: Tensor 2

Kalyanmoy Chatterjee
April 29, 2023

1 Coordinate Transformation
2 Contraction
The process of placing a contravariant index equal to a covariant index in
a tensor and summing is called contraction. By such a process a tensor is
formed whose rank is two less than the rank of the original tensor.
ik
Example let Cjlm is a tensor. Then,

0pr ∂x0p ∂xj ∂x0r ∂xl ∂xm ik

Cqst = C
∂xi ∂x0q ∂xk ∂x0s ∂x0t jlm
Contracting this tensor in the first and fourth indices by setting s equals
to p gives

0pr ∂x0p ∂xj ∂x0r ∂xl ∂xm ik

Cqpt = C
∂xi ∂x0q ∂xk ∂x0p ∂x0t jlm
∂x0l ∂xj ∂x0r ∂xm ik
= i 0q k C
∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x0t jlm
∂xj ∂x0r ∂xm ik
=δil 0q k C
∂x ∂x ∂x0t jlm
∂xj ∂x0r ∂xm ik
= 0q k C
∂x ∂x ∂x0t jim
which transform like a tensor of rank 3. Thus, a rank 5 tensor con-
tracted to a rank 3 tensor by setting two appropriate indices equal.

Exercise prove that the contraction of a tensor Apq is a scaler.

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3 Tensor Addition and Substruction
The result of tensor addition is also a tensor, and the resultant tensor has
the same structure as each of the tensors that are added:
Cij = Aij + Bij
C ij = Aij + B ij
Cji = Aij + Bji

Example Consider Aij and Bji are two tensors. then

∂x0k ∂xj i
A0k
l = A
∂xi ∂x0l j
∂x0k ∂xj i
Bl0k = i B
∂x ∂x0l j

Then
Cl0k =A0k 0k
l + Bl
∂x0k ∂xj i
= i 0l
(Aj + Bji )
∂x ∂x
∂x0k ∂xj i
= i C
∂x ∂x0l j
Addition of Aij and Bji does produce an object Cji that meets the trans-
formation requirements for a tensor.

Similarly it can be shown that the result of tensor subtraction is also a

tensor.

4 Tensor Multiplication
There are two types of tensor multiplication: outer product and inner product

4.1 Outer Product

Let Ai and Bj are two vectors of rank one. Then their outer product is
defined as
 1  1 1 
A
AB A1 B 2 A1 B 3
A2  B 1 B 2 B 3 = A2 B 1 A2 B 2 A2 B 3 
A3 A3 B 1 A3 B 2 A3 B 3

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The right hand side of the above equation is a rank 2 tensor. We find that the
outer product of two rank one tensor is a rank 2 tensor. In tensor notation,
this can be written as Ai B j = C ij . The outer-product operation may also
be performed on higher-order tensors such as:
k
Aij Blm ik
= Cjlm

Example Let Aij and Blm

k
are two tensors. then

∂x0p ∂xj i
A0p
q = i A
∂x ∂x0q j
0r ∂x0r ∂xl ∂xm k
Bst = k 0s 0t Blm
∂x ∂x ∂x
Then
∂x0p ∂xj ∂x0r ∂xl ∂xm i k
A0p 0r
q Bst = AB
∂xi ∂x0q ∂xk ∂x0s ∂x0t j lm
0pr
So if A0p 0r i k ik
q Bst = Cqst and Aj Blm = Cjlm then,

0pr ∂x0p ∂xj ∂x0r ∂xl ∂xm ik

Cqst = C (1)
∂xi ∂x0q ∂xk ∂x0s ∂x0t jlm
The result of the outer-product operation does indeed meet the trans-
formation requirements for a tensor. This example also illustrates the
fact that the covariant rank of the outer-product tensor is the sum of
the covariant ranks of the input tensors, and the contravariant rank of
the outer-product tensor is the sum of the contravariant ranks of the
input tensors.

4.2 Inner product

The process of multiplying tensors (outer multiplication) and then contract-
ing is called inner multiplication and the result is called an inner product.

Example The contraction of the outer-product shown in the example in

section 4.1 is a tensor of rank 3 as shown in section 2.

Exercise Show that the inner-product of Ap Bq is invariant.

Exercise Find the inner-product pµ pµ .

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5 Symmetric and Skew-symmetric Tensor
Exercise 1. Show that every tensor can be expressed as the sum of two
tensors, one of which is symmetric and the other skew-symmetric
in a pair of covariant or contravariant indices.
2. Show that S ij Aij = 0, where S ij and Aij are symmetric and skew-
symmetric tensor of rank 2 respectively.

6 Metric Tensor
There is a tensor which describes the geometry of the space, more sprecifi-
cally, it allows to define fundamental quantities such as lengths and angles
in a consistent manner at different location of the space. This tensor, the
one that “provides the metric” for a given coordinate system in the space
of interest, is called the fundamental or metric tensor. The lower-case letter
“g” has become the standard symbol for metric tensor. The metric tensor
has contravariant components g ij and covariant components gij .
To understand the role of the metric tensor, consider two points separated
by an infinitesimal distance ds. If the vector d~r = e~i dxi = ~ei dxi extends from
one point to the other, then the square of the differential length element may
be written as

ds2 =d~r.d~r
ei dxi .~ej dxj
=~
ei .~ej )dxi dxj
=(~
=gij dxi dxj

where gij represents the covariant components of the metric tensor. Alter-
natively, using the covariant component dxi of d~r

ds2 =d~r.d~r
=~ei dxi .~ej dxj
=(~ei .~ej )dxi dxj
=g ij dxi dxj

where g ij represents the contravariant components of the metric tensor. A

third option is to use contravariant components on one side of the dot and

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covariant components on the other:

ds2 =d~r.d~r
ei dxi .~ej dxj
=~
ei .~ej )dxi dxj
=(~
=dxi dxj

In this case no metric tensor is needed, since the definition of dual basis
vectors ensures that e~i .~ej is 1 when i=j and is zero, when i 6= j.

Exercise Show that the square of the infinitesimal length can be expressed
as ds2 = gij dxi dxj . Show that gij is a tensor of rank 2.
Exercise In cylindrical coordinate system ds2 = dρ2 +ρdφ2 +dz 2 . Determine
the metric tensor in the cylindrical coordinate system.
Exercise In spherical coordinate system ds2 = dr2 + r2 dθ2 + r2 sin2 θdφ2 .
Determine the metric tensor in the spherical coordinate system.
Exercise Show that gjk g pk = δjp
Exercise Ap and B q are two tensors of rank one. Show that gpq Ap B q is
p q
invariant. Further show that √ gppq A B q is the cosine of the angle
(A Ap )(B Bq )
between vectors Ap and Bq .

7 Covariant Derivative and Christoffel sym-

bol
Taking Derivative of a vector or a vector filed is pretty much straight forward
in cartesian co-ordinate, where a set of basis vectors is constant through
out the space (e, g, î, ĵ, k̂ is same in magnitude and direction). However,
in case of curved coordinate system, such as spherical-polar or cylindracal
coordinate system, it is not so simple, because the basis vectors point to
different directions in different points in that space.
Consider a vector expressed in terms of general co-ordinate x1 , x2 , x3 and
basis e~1 , e~2 , e~3 :
~ = A1 e~1 + A2 e~2 + A3 e~3
A
= Ai ei

~ with respect to any coordinate xj is:

Derivative of A

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 ~
∂A ∂Ai e~i
=
∂xj ∂xj
∂Ai ∂ e~i
= j
e~i + Ai j (2)
∂x ∂x
The second term in this equation goes to zero in cartesian coordinate system,
but makes the life complecated in curvilinear coordinate system. Similar
problem occure for higher rank tensor aswell. Covariant derivative, takes
care for such change in the basis vectors and ensures that the derivative of a
tensor is always another tensor.

7.1 Christoffel symbol

To understand the covariant derivative, first we have to understand the
Christoffel symbol. Keeping the fact in mind that the derivative of a ba-
sis vectror will also be a vector, and could be written in terms of weighted
sum of the basis vecrotrs, we can write:
∂ e~i
= Γkij .e~k (3)
∂xj
where the weight factor Γkij is the Christoffel symbol. Index i specifies the
basis vector for which the derivative is being taken, the index j denotes the
coordinate being varied to induce this change in the ith basis vector, and
the index k identifies the direction in which this component of the derivative
points.

Example: if e~r and e~θ are two basises in 2D, then:

∂ e~r
= Γkrθ .e~k
∂ e~θ
= Γrrθ .~
er + Γθrθ .e~θ

7.1.1 Relation Between Metric Tensor and Christoffel symbol

It takes a bit algebra to find the realtion between metric tensor and the
Christoffel symbol, which is given by :
 
l 1 kl ∂gik ∂gjk ∂gij
Γij = g + − k (4)
2 ∂xj ∂xi ∂x

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We can aslo write:
 
1 ∂gik ∂gjk ∂gij
Γijk = + − k (5)
2 ∂xj ∂xi ∂x
l kl
Γij = g Γijk (6)

Γlij is called the Christoffel symbol of second kind where as Γijk is known as
the Christoffel symbol of first kind.

Exercise In cylindrical coordinate system, differential lenth is given by

ds2 = dr2 + r2 dφ2 + dz 2 . Find out the the covariant metric tensor
and the contravariant metric tensor. From there, find out Γ111 and Γ122 .

7.1.2 Physical Significance of Christoffel Symbol

The Christoffel symbols represents the components of a connection that re-
lates tangent vectors at different points along a curve or surface.

7.2 Covariant Derivative

In Euclidean space, two vectors at different locations may be compared and
combined by dragging one of the vectors to the location of the other without
changing its magnitude or its direction. If the vector is expanded using
Cartesian coordinates, such “parallel transport” is accomplished simply by
keeping each of its components the same (because the Cartesian basis vectors
have the same magnitude and direction everywhere). But if the vector is
expressed in non-Cartesian coordinates, the length and direction of the basis
vectors may be different at the two locations. In such cases, the covariant
derivative provides a means of parallel-transporting one of the vectors to the
location of the other. [?]
You can understand the role of the covariant derivative by considering
a two-dimensional spherical surface embedded in a three- dimensional Eu-
clidean space. Imagine a series of tangent planes just touching the sphere at
each location, and picture a vector lying in one of those tangent planes. If
that vector is moved to a different location on the sphere while holding its
direction constant (as viewed in the larger three-dimensional space), it will
not lie in the tangent plane at the new location (you can think of the vector
as “sticking out” of the two-dimensional space of the sphere). In such cases,
the covariant derivative serves to project the derivative of the vector into the
tangent space of the sphere. [?].

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 Equation 2 and 3 could be writen as:
~
∂A ∂Ai ~i
= e + Ai Γkij e~k
∂xj ∂xj
Interchanging the dummy variable i and k:
~
∂A ∂Ai ~i
j
= j
e + Ak Γikj e~i
∂x ∂x
∂Ai
 
k i
= + A Γkj e~i (7)
∂xj

The covariant derivative is defined as the combination of the terms inside the
parentheses and denoted by a semicolon (;) in front of the index with respect
to which the covariant derivative is being taken.

∂Ai
Ai;j = j
+ Ak Γikj (8)
∂x
From a similar analysis, co-variant derivative of covariant components
will be:
∂Ai
Ai;j = − Ak Γkij (9)
∂xj
~ is expressed by
Exercise In a cylindracal corodinate system a vecrotrs A
the coordinates x = r, x = φ, x = z. find (a) A;φ and (b) Aφ;φ .
1 2 3 r

Exercise Show that the covariant derivative of the metric tensor and the
kroneker delta vanishes.

7.3 Geodesics
The curve in the space, which makes the distance between two points a min-
imum, is called a geodesic of the space. By use of the calculus of variations,
the geodesics are found from the differential

d2 x r p
r dx dx
q
+ Γ pq =0 (10)
ds2 ds ds