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LANG-H-2002 / UNIT 2
UNIT 2 – READING FOR RESEARCH
When you read for research, it is important that you set yourself a clear purpose. Having a clear
purpose helps you rapidly to narrow the choice of book from a reading list and to select the best
chapter and section within it. Having a clear purpose also helps you to locate the most useful part of a
text for your needs and to ignore those parts that will not help you.
Remember: in your research, you will generally face too much information and too many sources of
data. Therefore, you need to know how to filter out and select your sources efficiently and to read
over them rapidly.
VARIOUS READING TECHNIQUES

There are different approaches to reading and a range of reading techniques you need for different
situations. You do not read an SMS or email with the same level of concentration, in the same settings,
or with the same purpose as you read a research paper or a legal contract. Several reading techniques
will be presented in this unit to help practise and improve your reading skills, including text skimming
or speed reading (Module 3), and scanning and predicting content in a publication (Module 1).
PRACTISING & ASSESSING YOUR READING SKILLS

The main assessment criterion for your reading skills in English is how well you understand a science-
related text in English. Throughout this course and in the final exam there are two types of exercises
designed to assess your reading comprehension skills.
In the first two modules of Unit 2 you will find both of the following types of exercises coupled with
listening exercises of the LCOQ-type introduced in Unit 1.
NOTE: The exact type and structure of the following exercises in the final exam in the January session
will depend on the exam's format (on campus or online). You will be informed of any major changes
to the overall exam format or significant differences between the exercises presented during the
course and those set in the exam. The following outline is therefore for general guidance only.
EXERCISE TYPE II – READING COMPREHENSION WITH GAPPED SUMMARY (RCGS)

The reading comprehension with gapped summary exercise measures your comprehension by
assessing how well you understand a text and can then use specific vocabulary to fill out the gaps in
a summary text. It also evaluates your knowledge of English grammar and syntax by testing how well
you can adapt target vocabulary in the source text to another context.
There are typically thirty gaps in the target summary text to fill in with words from the source text
provided.
EXERCISE TYPE III – READING COMPREHENSION WITH OPEN QUESTIONS (RCOQ)

The reading comprehension with open questions exercise measures your level of comprehension by
assessing your answers in English to a series of open questions. It also evaluates your writing skills by
testing how well you can take information from a text you read and reformulate it in your own words
into an effective and accurate answer in English.
Typically, there are 40 points in total, with 30 based on content (i.e. how well the content provided in
the answer corresponds to the question), and up to ten points given for the quality of language used
(i.e. how well English is used to answer). See the answer sheet for an indication of how the language
element (10 points) is assessed.
EPB English II 2023-24 1

MODULE 1 – DISCUSSING & PRACTISING READING TECHNIQUES
EXERCISE 1 – SCANNING AN INDEX

Each of the following topics come from a geography textbook; match them with a more generic
keyword (A to J) found in the index.
GENERAL TOPIC SPECIFIC WORD IN INDEX
1. light rail transit a) ores

2. farming limes b) urbanisation
3. the ozone layer c) Sea Lanes of Communication (SLOCs)
4. cotton growing d) hydrocarbon production techniques
5. population pyramids e) public transportation
6. the Panama Canal f) weather systems
7. suburban growth patterns g) atmosphere
8. bauxite mining h) demography
9. hydraulic fracking i) industrial crops
10. precipitation j) citrus cultivation
EXERCISE 2 – PREDICTING CONTENT FROM A TABLE OF CONTENTS

Look at the Table of Contents on the following page taken from John Emsley’s book Molecules at an
Exhibition: The Science of Everyday Life. Which section would you consult for information on the issues
listed below?
1. Lead poisoning
2. Effects of folic acid on foetal development
3. The metal elements essential for healthy living
4. Phosphate-based laundry detergents
5. Turning coal into petrol
6. Caffeine content in Coca-Cola
7. Acid rain
8. Nicotine addiction
9. Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE)
10. The commercial success of Teflon

MOLECULES AT AN EXHIBITION
TABLE OF CONTENTS
GALLERY 1
¨
Nearly as Nature Intended
An exhibition of some curious molecules in the food we eat
GALLERY 2
¨
Testing Your Metal
An exhibition of the metals which our body must have
GALLERY 3
¨
Starting Lives, Saving Lives, Screwing Up Lives
An exhibition of molecules that can help and harm the young
GALLERY 4
¨
Home, Sweet Home
An exhibition of detergents, dangers, delights and delusions
GALLERY 5
¨
Material Progress and Immaterial Observations
An exhibition of molecules that can make life a little easier
GALLERY 6
¨
Landscape Room: Environmental Cons, Concerns and Comments
An exhibition of molecules that stalk the world
GALLERY 7
¨
We’re on the Road to Nowhere
An exhibition of molecules to transport us
GALLERY 8
¨
Elements from Hell
An exhibition of molecules that are mainly malevolent

DESCRIBING MATERIALS – GRAPHENE
EXERCISE 3 – READING COMPREHENSION WITH GAPPED SUMMARY (RCGS): SOURCE TEXT

Read the text below, highlighting interesting constructions and vocabulary to describe the
characteristics of materials and substances. Then, fill in the gaps in the summary that follows.
QUANTUM WEIRDNESS ON THE END OF YOUR PENCIL
EXTRACT 1
Inside every pencil, there is a neutron star waiting to get out. To release it, just draw a line. The soft,
silvery-grey form of pure carbon found in pencils consists of stacked-up sheets of interlinked carbon
atoms. Separate these sheets to obtain gossamer films of carbon just one atom thick and you have a
material called graphene, whose properties mimic those of the exotic substances found in collapsed
stars.
Graphene even shares properties with materials that were around in the first instants of the big bang.
It's not just about cosmology. According to some enthusiasts, graphene's ability to conduct electricity
promises new and powerful electronic devices fashioned from sheets of carbon cut up into circuitry.
And the peculiar way that graphene conducts electricity opens up avenues into some of the weirder
areas of quantum physics. It is no wonder that this innocuous material has become one of the hottest
substances in physics.
"There are at least 10 different sorts of graphite-like carbon, and graphene is the basic building block
of them all," says Andre Geim of the University of Manchester in the UK. Things start to get really
interesting when looking more closely at graphene's electrical properties. Inside most materials that
conduct electricity, the electrons move erratically, rather like balls in a pinball machine bouncing
around. This electron scattering typically happens when the electrons encounter impurities in the
conductor's crystal lattice that block their way. In graphene, the electrons can travel immense
distances without scattering, opening up the possibility of ultrafast electronics. No one knows exactly
why this happens, though Geim suspects that it is something to do with the near-perfect atomic
structure.
EXTRACT 2
Since graphene was first discovered in 2004, it has proved difficult to remove single layers of graphene
from specific locations, which is essential to build circuits on computer chips. Now, there is a simple
but effective way of doing this: a common laboratory technique known as sputtering. uuu

This coats the top layer of a stack of graphene sheets with zinc metal; the zinc atoms collide with the
stack but only have enough energy to damage the first layer. Hydrochloric acid is then used to dissolve
the zinc, removing this weakened first layer but leaving the other layers intact. This gives researchers
the ability to etch graphene with unprecedented precision – and create samples of a very exact
thickness. This technique can be used to scrape off just the right number of layers from multi-layer
graphene stacks, leaving behind pre-determined spots that are exactly one, two or three layers thick.
This level of control is important because the number of layers in a graphene stack determines its
properties. For example, a single layer of graphene behaves like a metal whereas a double layer is like
a semiconductor and can be built into a transistor. Such all-graphene devices would help realize one
of the ultimate goals in graphene-based electronics: all-graphene electronic circuits. Producing
graphene-only electronic components could bring us a step closer to building ultra-efficient, super-fast
computer chips, as well as more sophisticated sensors and touchscreens.
EXTRACT 3
A new method to produce graphene sheets with a diagonal dimension of 76 centimeters – an order of
magnitude larger than previously managed – could result in cheap, transparent electrodes that can be
used in flexible displays or photovoltaic cells. The graphene has already been used to construct a
touchscreen that is twice as flexible as one made using indium titanium oxide, currently the most
widely used transparent conductor in the display and touchscreen industry.
A team of researchers has now discovered a way to grow graphene sheets several centimeters wide.
Using a technique called chemical vapor deposition, they heated methane and hydrogen gas to 1000°C
above a flexible copper substrate, causing a reaction that left a layer of graphene deposited on the
copper. Once the graphene cooled, they transferred it onto a piece of flexible plastic creating a
transparent film.
"From an engineering perspective this is very good work," says Luigi Colombo, a materials scientist at
Texas Instruments. Graphene could be a cheaper and more flexible alternative to indium titanium
oxide, he says, and this work is a step towards producing commercially useful quantities. The
researchers still have to show that their graphene sheets can be made to a consistently high quality,
without introducing tears or discontinuities that could affect performance, Colombo says.
Extracts adapted and abridged from several articles appearing in New Scientist, 2006, 2010 & 2011

EXERCISE 3 – RCGS: SUMMARY TEXT

Now fill in the gaps in the summary below with an appropriate word adapted from the text above.
First discovered at the University of Manchester in 2004, graphene is a material with (1) …………………….
similar to substances found in collapsed stars and in the first instants of the big bang. It is the basic
building (2) …………… in over 10 kinds of graphite-like carbon and is essentially a (3) …………… of carbon
just one atom (4) ………………. .
Of its many promising properties – including transparency, strength, flexibility – the way graphene
(5) ………………. electricity is perhaps the most promising area currently being researched. Unlike other
conductive materials through which (6) ………………. move erratically – a phenomenon known as
(7) …………………… – graphene allows electrons to travel vast distances without scattering, probably due
to its near-perfect (8) ………………. structure. This opens (9) ……… enormous opportunities in a variety
of fields ranging from studying the more intriguing aspects of (10) ………………. physics, developing super
conductors to manufacturing ultra-fast computer (11) ………………. and sophisticated consumer
(12) ……………………… .
One of the main hurdles to using graphene has been the ability to isolate single (13) ………………….. of
the substance in order to build (14) ……………………… . This is vital since different (15) …………………………..
of graphene behave in different ways and perform different functions.
The ultimate ideal is to achieve (16) ………………………………. electronic circuits. However, until recently,
the only effective way of producing super-thin layers of graphene was by using Scotch tape. Now, a
precision technique, commonly known as (17) …………………………. , uses (18) …………… to remove
individual layers from a (19) ………………. of graphene atoms which is then (20) ………………….. in
hydrochloric acid, leaving behind the exact number of layers desired. Another recent breakthrough
has seen improvements in techniques for producing large graphene (21) ………………. that can be used
in flexible displays like (22) ……………………… or in (23) …………………… cells. The (24) …………………… vapor
deposition technique heats methane and hydrogen to 1000°C over a (25) ………………. substrate to grow
thin sheets of graphene.
Researchers are now developing ways to produce this flexible, transparent and (26) ……………….
alternative to indium titanium oxide, currently the most (27) …………………… used transparent conductor
in the touchscreen industry. Compared to indium titanium oxide, graphene is twice as strong in both
compressive and tensile (28) ………………. experiments. The challenge now is to address problems of
(29) ………………. and discontinuity in the material’s structure in order to manufacture
(30) …………………………… viable quantities.

LANGUAGE FOCUS – COMPOUNDS, COMPLEXITY & CONCISION

The text above is loaded with descriptors often including compound adjectives and adverbial
modifiers and frequently containing several nouns strung together into complex structures.
These types of structures give a text more concision, making it easier and quicker to read as well as
reducing word count. They also help to avoid various relative clauses – a syntactical structure
commonly used in French – and enable simpler, more linear sentence structures.
Scientific knowledge is by nature complex and detailed, so such linearity of syntax (not to be confused
with simplicity or simplification!) is generally considered a desirable stylistic feature of scientific
writing in English.
EXERCISE 4 – COMPOUNDS, COMPLEX STRUCTURES & CONCISION

Find the concise phrases in the text that correspond to the ideas expressed below in long form, following
the examples below:
atoms of carbon that are linked together => “interlinked carbon atoms”
sheets of a material that are purposefully placed one on top of the other => “stacked-up sheets”
1. The type of carbon which is pure, soft in texture, shiny and grey in colour, and is commonly to be
found in pencils =>
2. New types of devices that operate electronically, are powerful and have been made from circuits
that have been cut out of carbon in the form of sheets =>
3. Any variety of carbon that is similar to graphite =>
4. Electronics that run very, very quickly =>
5. Arrangement of atoms that is considered almost perfect in structure =>
6. Stacks with many layers of graphene =>
7. Location points determined in advance =>
8. Electronic devices in which graphene is a major component =>
9. Whole electronic devices or components made from graphene alone =>
10. Computer processors that run with very high efficiency =>
11. The screen on a device operated by touch =>
12. Cells that generate an electrical current from sunlight =>

DESCRIBING MATERIALS – CARBON NANOTUBES IN PROCESSORS
EXERCISE 5 – LISTENING COMPREHENSION WITH OPEN QUESTIONS (LCOQ)

Listen to the audio excerpt taken from a Nature Podcast published on 28th August 2019 about carbon
nanotube processors and then answer the open questions below.
1. Specify the correlation between transistors and microprocessor performance. (2)
2. What is a carbon nanotube (CNT)? (1)
3. Describe the two key properties of CNTs that make them “perfect for making transistors”. (2)
4. State in general terms the main goal of researchers working on CNT transistor technology. (2)
5. There are three types of challenges with CNTs: material defects, manufacturing defects and
problems of intrinsic variability. A key material defect is that CNTs don’t all grow perfectly uniform.
Explain how this can impact them as transistors. (2)
6. How did Max Shulaker’s team at MIT overcome this particular problem? (2)

7. The main manufacturing defect relates to processing CNTs once they have been grown. Describe
the process of transferring CNTs on to “the wafer” and the problem that tends to arise. (3)
8. What innovation in processing did the MIT develop to overcome this hurdle? (2)
9. The third category of defect is intrinsic variability. What limitations of CNT variability have the MIT
team been able to overcome? (3)
10. Provide the specifications and potential uses of “the most complex computing system from any
beyond-silicon emerging nanotechnology” that resulted from this research. (3)
11. Now that this technology has been shown to work, what is the next step in R&D? (1)
12. Outline Shulaker’s predictions in terms of timelines and future developments for CNT transistor
technology. (2)

LANGUAGE FOCUS – VOCABULARY BUILDING

Study at home the meaning of the following vocabulary in the context of the previous exercise.
chip switch transistor microprocessor
core defect wafer circuit design
hefty variability manufacturing processing
intrinsic immune energy-efficient beyond-silicon
to shrink to yield to turn out to bundle together
to disperse to tune to wash off to slip through
to outperform hobbyist store to overcome hurdles at an incredible pace

MODULE 2 – DESCRIBING PROCESSES – HIGH-ENTROPY ALLOYS
EXERCISE 1 – READING COMPREHENSION WITH OPEN QUESTIONS (RCOQ): SOURCE TEXT

Read the text below and then do the exercises that follow.
MIXED-UP METALS MAKE FOR STRONGER, TOUGHER, STRETCHIER ALLOYS

Materials scientists are creating next-generation mixtures with remarkable properties.
At first glance, the machine seems to be building a miniature cityscape. A ring of nozzles fires four jets
of powdered metal into a downward-pointed laser beam, which fuses the colliding grains in a bright
orange glow. The mixed grains then solidify on the growing tip of a small pillar of metal alloy. Once the
pillar is 1–2 centimetres high, the platform that holds it shifts to the side, and the machine starts to
build another one right next door. The result looks like a forest of toy skyscrapers.
In reality, these towers, generated at the Ames Laboratory in Iowa, reflect a major shift in how
researchers think about alloys. The standard recipe—used for technologies ranging from ancient
swords and arrowheads to modern jet-engine turbines—is to take a useful metal and mix in a pinch of
this or a touch of that to improve its properties. One classic example is the addition of carbon to iron
to make steel.
But the machine at Ames is making experimental samples of 'high-entropy' alloys, which consist of
four, five or more elements mixed together in roughly equal ratios. This deceptively simple recipe can
yield alloys that are lighter and stronger than their conventional counterparts, while being much more
resistant to corrosion, radiation or severe wear. Eventually, researchers hope, this approach could
even produce alloys that have magnetic or electrical properties never seen before, leading to whole
new generations of technology.
“We're not talking about a narrow class of materials, but an extremely broad philosophy on how to
combine elements,” says Daniel Miracle, a materials scientist at the Air Force Research Laboratory in
Ohio. “The opportunity to find something new and exciting is very high.” Last year, he and his
colleagues estimated that almost 313,560 different alloys can be made by combining exactly equal
proportions of 3, 4, 5 or 6 metallic elements from a set of just 26. More possibilities can come from
varying the proportions or expanding the choice of elements, and developments in this field have
moved rapidly since research first began in 2004.
At the atomic level, pure metals have a regular crystal structure that stacks layer upon layer of identical
atoms. Often, these layers slip past each other easily, which makes the metal too soft to be useful.
That is why pure gold is rarely used in jewellery: it cannot survive much wear and tear. uuu

But if a metalsmith mixes in an element with a different atomic size, the interloper will randomly
disrupt the layers and reduce their tendency to slip, which creates a much harder alloy. Adding too
much of the alloying element, however, can produce a compound that is weak and brittle. The correct
choice of compounds can enable metallurgists to tailor other properties as well, such as corrosion
resistance or melting point.
The basic idea behind the new approach is this: instead of starting with one primary material and
mixing in small quantities of one or two elements, why not stir together similar quantities of four or
five elements—or even more? The number of possible ways for the different atoms to arrange
themselves would expand dramatically, leading to a tendency towards disorder, or 'high entropy', that
would overwhelm any bias favouring a regular crystal-lattice structure. Because each of the randomly
mixed elements would be a different size, the atoms would become lodged into place and less able to
slide past each other, creating a very hard material.
Spoilt for choice

Often, however, the best thing about high-entropy alloys—the massive number of possibilities—can
also be researchers' biggest challenge. With more than 80 metallic elements in the periodic table, says
Miracle, “there are way too many alloys to test, and not enough time”. For his own work on high-
entropy alloys for aircraft engines and aeroplane frames, he is searching for materials that are lighter,
more resistant to corrosion and better able to maintain their strength at high temperatures than
anything currently available. To cope with the abundance of choices, Miracle is focusing on elements
such as niobium, tantalum and chromium, which have high melting points to begin with. Another
strategy is to try to replicate the characteristics of alloys that are known to work well.
The mini-skyscrapers at Ames represent another, more systematic approach. The machine can build
up to 30 pillars in less than an hour with a slightly different mix of raw materials in each, so that
researchers can test the properties of many alloys quickly. Matthew Kramer, a materials scientist at
Ames, leads a project to find high-entropy alloys that can withstand high temperatures and resist
corrosion, which could help power plants to operate at higher temperatures and become more
efficient.
There are a number of obstacles to overcome to move the high-entropy-alloy field forward. So far, the
emphasis has been on improving structural properties, such as strength. But there has been much less
work on developing alloys with specific 'functional' properties, including conductivity or response to a
magnetic field—a development that would enable applications in areas such as refrigeration and
electronics. And there remain many possibilities still to be explored, especially as researchers start to
extend the concept well beyond its original definition, by mixing metals with elements such as carbon,
nitrogen and silicon, for example, in an effort to develop new high-temperature ceramics for use in
solar-power applications.
Edited and abridged version of an article by XiaoZhi Lim in Nature, 18 May 2016.

EXERCISE 1 – READING COMPREHENSION WITH OPEN QUESTIONS

Read the text “Mixed-up metals make for stronger, tougher, stretchier alloys” and then answer the
following open questions, in English, using full sentences and in your own words as far as possible in
the spaces provided below.
1. Briefly summarise what this text is about. (3)
2. According to this article, what is the conventional process for making alloys? (2)
3. Describe the new approach to making alloys presented here and compare the alloys it can
potentially produce with alloys produced using the conventional approach. (4)
4. How does the machine tool at Ames Laboratory in Iowa operate? (4)
5. Explain the atomic structure of pure metals and how making alloys is such a key process in
metallurgy. (3)

6. Why are these new types of alloys described as “high-entropy alloys” and what property should
result from this approach to mixing elements? (2)
7. Present the main challenges now facing researchers in this field and the solutions they are
adopting to meet them. (3)
8. In what ways can the technology developed at Ames help advance this research? (2)
9. Explain how research and development in this field is predicted to move forward. (3)
10. Present and discuss your recommendations for new types of alloys needed in engineering today.
What specific applications encounter material constraints limiting their current performance?
What properties would need to be improved on? Explain why you think R&D on these particular
alloys should be given priority. In addition to citing any examples of alloys research presented here,
list at least one application not mentioned in this text. (4)

LANGUAGE FOCUS – ADJECTIVES, PREPOSITIONS, VERBS
The above text is loaded with adjectives and adverbs to describe materials and processes. Many are
in comparative or superlative forms and frequently coupled with explicit or implicit opposites
(antonyms), indicating that the author is not only describing qualities, but also comparing and
contrasting them in order to draw attention to difference, range and degree, and change – all common
features in scientific and engineering texts.
EXERCISE 2 – VOCABULARY BUILDING: ADJECTIVES & ADVERBS

Explain the meaning of the following word in the context of the text above.
tough =
Now find antonyms provided in this excerpt for the following words, converting adverbs and
comparative or superlative adjectives into basic adjectives when necessary.
small ≠ _________________ strong ≠ _________________ soft ≠ ___________________
mixed ≠ ________________ modern ≠ ________________ broad ≠ _________________
different ≠ ______________ random ≠ ________________ stretchy ≠ ________________
exactly ≠ _______________ often ≠ __________________ slightly ≠ ________________
Now think of antonyms and/or synonyms for the following words found in the text.
high new light
basic useful efficient
regular standard bright
exciting conventional possible
equal resistant to raw
enough massive rapidly
high-entropy next-generation downward-pointed

EXERCISE 3 – VOCABULARY BUILDING: VERBS

Now find synonyms or approximate equivalents provided in this excerpt for the following verbs and/or
brainstorm alternative words with similar meanings in this context.
to mix in = to find =
to withstand = to develop =
to slip past = to stir together =
to start with = to cope with =
to yield = to shift =
EXERCISE 4 – PREPOSITIONS WITH NOUNS

Find in the text above the prepositions used in the following nominal structures.
a shift ____________ ____________ a ratio a philosophy ______________
developments _________ layer ___________ layer the idea __________________
a tendency __________ the best thing _____________ the work _______________
to place emphasis __________ a response _________ __________ use ___________
EXERCISE 5 – PREPOSITIONS WITH VERBS: PHRASAL VERBS

Explain the differences in meaning among the various forms of a major key word in this text: to mix.
to mix in / to mix into / to mix with / to mix together / to mix up / to mix up with
Find in the two texts above the prepositions used after the following verbs describing changes of state
or position, a recurring theme in scientific and engineering texts.
to collide ____________ to cut up ____________ to scrape off ______________
to slide _____________ to transfer _____________ to take a step __________________
to fire ______________ to coat _____________ to remove something _____________
to deposit ____________ to lodge __________ place to extend ____________________
to move _____________ to result ___________ to open up ____________
Now find in the two texts in this unit the prepositions used after the following verbs relating to discourse
and logic, a common feature of all academic texts.
to focus ____________ to think ____________ to range _________ X _________ Y
to talk ___________ to lead ____________ to consist _________ something

DESCRIBING TECHNIQUES – IMPROVING 3D PRINTING
EXERCISE 6 – LISTENING COMPREHENSION WITH OPEN QUESTIONS

Listen to the audio excerpt taken from a Nature Podcast published on 13 November 2019 entitled “A
new dimension for 3D printers” and then answer the open questions below.
1. What is the main constraint of 3D printed objects today? (1)
2. What key innovation does the new type of 3D printer developed by Jennifer Lewis and her team
at Harvard University offer? (1)
3. What part of a 3D printer does the term “nozzle” refer to? (1)
4. Describe the problem with current inkjet-based 3D printers printing with multiple inks. (2)
5. Explain how extrusion-based 3D printers work and print with multiple inks. (2)
6. What are the key features of Jennifer’s printer? (3)
7. How precise is this printer in terms of volume element resolution? (1)

8. Describe the device given as an example of what this 3D printer can make. (2)
9. Explain the term “viscoelastic response” as it is used here to describe how this printer exploits the
material properties of the ink it uses. (2)
10. How is this principle applied in practice to this printer’s design? (2)
11. What does Johannes Overvelde think is this printer’s key benefit for soft robotics research?
(1)
12. Despite its future potential, what are this printer’s current limits? (2)
13. List three new applications Jennifer Lewis predicts for this new technique in 3D printing. (3)
14. Explain why these types of applications specifically require printing at very fast timescales. (2)

LANGUAGE FOCUS – VOCABULARY BUILDING

Study at home the meaning of the following vocabulary in the context of the previous exercise.
nozzle ink printhead design space
material (human) tissue component volume elements
pressure response extrusion backflow
viscous elastic simultaneously seamlessly
bendy stiffer clever use exquisite detail
precise tricky unlimited high-resolution
to design to unlock to save time to switch between
to prevent to rig up to harden to squeeze through
to output to flow to end up with to work in unison
to repair to be down to a range of an array of
all kinds of at high speeds on the order of on the fly
LANGUAGE REVIEW – KEY VOCABULARY & FALSE COGNATES

The following words relate to content in this unit. Study their meaning and clarify their use.
matter versus material versus tissue Fr: matière / materiel / tissu
technique versus technical versus Technics Fr: téchnique
to realise versus to achieve / reach / carry out… Fr: réaliser
conception versus design Fr: conception
electronic versus electronics Fr: (l’)électronique
isolate versus insulate Fr: isoler
crude oil versus petrol / gas(oline) Fr: pétrôle
efficient versus effective Fr: efficace

DESCRIBING DATA – TRENDS, CHANGE & CAUSALITY

Scientific articles and research papers almost invariably include quantitative data in their content and
describing and discussing qualitative data is considered a key academic and professional skill in the
field of engineering. It is for this reason that describing trends and change will be a key skill assessed
in both your oral presentation and your final written exam for this course.
Quantitative data are frequently represented graphically in the form of graphs, tables, charts,
diagrams, etc. – either within the main text or as appendices – and then key information is extracted,
analysed and explained in the text itself. More information will be provided in Module 3 on varying
types of graphic representation and how to approach describing them.
In terms of key language-related issues to keep in mind, always consider the following points:
• Describing and analysing data requires that you compare and contrast data sets. You therefore
need to master the full range of comparative and superlative structures. Some more
developed aspects of comparative structures will be highlighted in this course, but the basics
were covered in the English I course. See Unit 6 in the LANG-H-1001 syllabus for more details.
• To make your text both easy and interesting to read, you need to move beyond simple discrete
phrases and build more complex sentences. For instance, you should use subordinating
conjunctions (whereas, while, although) to compare and contrast various statement and use
discourse markers (however, in contrast) to link ideas within your sentences or between them.
• If there is a time variable involved, pay attention to how information about the past, present
and/or what is predicted for the future will impact use of tense and modality. For example,
when describing past trends, you face the issue of not only whether the action is finished or
not (past simple or present perfect), but also whether it was an ongoing process or a general
or discrete action (continuous versus simple form).
• Note that prepositions commonly used to describe trends do not depend on meaning but on
word class: by is used with the verb rise, but its noun is followed by in or of (see below).
• There is a very wide range of vocabulary to choose from to describe trends, change and
causality, ranging from general and neutral terms to very specific and loaded metaphors (see
below). Be as detailed and as interesting as possible in your descriptions, but pay attention to
register, tone and style too: choose vocabulary appropriate to your discourse (e.g. informal
speaking or formal writing situations).
• One common difference between describing data in oral rather than written discourse is
precision: we tend to approximate and simplify in oral settings, for example. Study expressions
used to approximate data (see Module 3) so that you can adapt your content as you need.
LANGUAGE FOCUS – EXPRESSING TRENDS, CHANGE & CAUSALITY

The various texts in this unit are loaded with terms and expressions to describe trends and change
and cause-and-effect relationships in quantitative data sets and physical phenomena. On the
following pages you will find lists if the most common vocabulary; longer versions of these lists,
including more less frequent but interesting synonyms, can be found in the Appendices.
Study and practice the vocabulary, expressions and grammar points relating to trends and change
presented below. In particular, whenever you encounter these language features in the texts that
follow, observe and highlight them; the simple gap-filling exercises in Unit 3 have been designed with
this in mind.

VERBS TO EXPRESS TRENDS & CHANGE

Below is a range of verbs to describe trends and change: up, down or constant. The verbs in the central
column are largely ‘neutral’, meaning they act as simple synonyms of ‘to rise’ and ‘to fall’. In the
columns on the right and left are the verbs with more emphatic meanings, sometimes based on explicit
metaphors (e.g. ‘to explode’, ‘to crash’) to add more colour to your description of change.
<<< SLOW CHANGE UP FAST CHANGE >>>
TO CREEP UP TO RISE TO JUMP

TO EDGE UP TO INCREASE TO BOOM
TO PICK UP TO GO UP TO SOAR
TO GROW (N.B. NOT: GROW UP) TO SURGE
TO CLIMB TO SPEED UP
TO EXPAND (VOLUME) TO ACCELERATE
TO MULTIPLY TO EXPLODE
TO DOUBLE / TRIPLE / QUADRUPLE
<<< SLOW CHANGE DOWN FAST CHANGE >>>
TO SLOW DOWN TO FALL (N.B. NOT: FALL DOWN) TO PLUMMET

TO EASE TO DROP TO DIVE
TO FALL OFF TO GO DOWN TO SLUMP
TO SLIP TO DECLINE TO PLUNGE
TO DECREASE TO CRASH
TO DIP TO COLLAPSE
TO SHRINK (VOLUME)
<<< LESS CHANGE CONSTANT MORE CHANGE >>>
TO PEAK / REACH A PEAK TO BE STABLE TO VARY

TO LEVEL OFF TO STAY STEADY TO MOVE
TO STABILISE TO REMAIN CONSTANT TO FLUCTUATE
MODIFIERS WITH VERBS OR NOUNS OF CHANGE

Adjectives and adverbs of amount can be used to modify neutral verbs and their corresponding nouns:
There was a slight rise in the absorption rate.
The absorption rate rose significantly.
The absorption rate remained constant.
<<< LITTLE CHANGE CONSTANT MUCH CHANGE >>>
MINOR CONSTANT(LY) SUBSTANTIAL(LY)

SLIGHT(LY) STEADY(-ILY) SIGNIFICANT(LY)
INSIGNIFICANT(LY) GRADUAL(LY) CONSIDERABLE(-BLY)
INSUBSTANTIAL(LY) CONSISTENT(LY) SHARP(LY)
NEGLIGIBLE(-BLY) REGULAR(LY) DRAMATIC(ALLY)

PREPOSITIONS IN, OF & BY

Prepositions in English relating to change can be problematic for French-speakers as they depend on
word class and not just meaning: i.e. they differ depending on whether they relate to a verb or noun.
• Prepositions after nouns of change:
The preposition in precedes what changes
The preposition of precedes the amount of change
There was a rise in sea-level of 0.1 metres.
There was a rise of 0.1 metres in sea-level.
• Prepositions after verbs of change:
The preposition by precedes the amount of change
The sea-level rose by 0.1 metres.
VERBS TO EXPRESS CAUSALITY

Below is a range of verbs to describe causality split between those that mainly focus on cause and
those primarily on effect. Again, the central column contains the most ‘neutral’ verbs, with varying
degrees of explicit metaphor or implicit causal relationship in the right and left columns.
<<< IMPLICIT CAUSALITY CAUSE EXPLICIT METAPHORS >>>
TO PRODUCE TO CAUSE TO SPARK

TO GENERATE TO AFFECT TO TRIGGER
TO ENGENDER TO IMPACT TO PRECIPITATE
TO ENTAIL TO RESULT IN TO DRIVE
TO LEAD TO
TO BRING ABOUT
TO GIVE RISE TO
<<< IMPLICIT CAUSALITY EFFECT EXPLICIT METAPHORS >>>
TO FOLLOW FROM TO RESULT FROM TO STEM FROM

TO COME OUT OF TO COME FROM TO SPRING FROM
TO EMERGE FROM TO DERIVE FROM
TO ARISE FROM
COMMON EXPRESSIONS OF CAUSALITY & CONDITIONALITY

Below are common expressions used to signify causality and conditionality that can be used to
articulate ideas within more complex sentence structures.
<<< IMPLICIT CONDITIONALITY CAUSE OR CONDITION EXPLICIT CAUSALITY >>>
GIVEN THAT BECAUSE OF AS A RESULT (OF)

IN LIGHT OF (THE FACT THAT) DUE TO AS A CONSEQUENCE (OF)
DEPENDING ON OWING TO CONSEQUENTLY
ON CONDITION THAT ON ACCOUNT OF

PRESENTING GRAPHS, CHARTS & TABLES

Quantitative data are frequently represented graphically in the form of graphs, tables, charts,
diagrams, etc. – either within the main text or as appendices – and then key information is extracted,
analysed and explained in the text itself.
Before we study in greater depth varying types of graphic representation and how to approach
describing them, here are some guiding principles to follow when describing any data presented in
graph, chart or table form:
• Always describe what the data represents, not the line(s) or bars of the graph itself.
• Do not attempt to describe all the data presented: identify and explain the main points of
each key feature – but do make sure to mention all the key features at some point.
• Highlight significant data – e.g. extreme points (highest, lowest), unusual trends, apparent
anomalies and statistical outliers, etc.
• Wherever possible, group the data into meaningful clusters – similar features, comparable
trends, shared variables, contrasting pairs or sets, etc.
KEY LANGUAGE & STRUCTURE

On the following pages you will find key information and advice on how best to approach describing
and summarising data presented in one of three common formats:
• A line graph or bar chart;
• A pie chart;
• A table.
A given data set can be represented in any one of the above formats – as a bar chart, in pie chart form
or in the rows and columns of a table. However, different forms of graphic representation best
highlight different features in a data set; for example, line graphs are good at showing change over
time, whereas a pie chart tends to focus on representing portions of a whole at one moment in time.
Whether you are given a graph, chart or table to describe, it is always important to check whether
there is a time frame or not. If there is, you will need to use the language of change over time.
Often you will need to describe more than one graph or chart. In that case, in addition to describing
each data set on its own you must compare and contrast the data sets and explain how they relate or
interact with each other. By identifying key similarities and differences in the data you can then group
data together and structure your paragraphs into a well-organized and coherent description.
In the sample exercises that follow study how to structure your 150-word description effectively.
Depending on the data presented, think about writing 3-4 paragraphs as follows:
• Paragraph 1: provide a general introduction to the data set(s) and summarise the broad
trends you see (without repeating the wording in the exercise title or instructions);
• Paragraph 2-3: describe the data set(s) in more detail, highlighting key features and notable
trends within each or comparing one common feature across several data sets;
• Paragraph 3-4: compare and contrast the data sets in terms of specific common features
and/or shift focus onto another key feature not covered in previous paragraph(s).

LINE GRAPHS & BAR CHARTS: DESCRIBING CHANGE OVER TIME
Look at the bar chart below and study the model answer that follows.
The bar chart below shows the number of times per week (in 1000s), over five weeks, that three
computer packages were downloaded from the Internet. Summarize the information by selecting and
reporting the main features and make comparisons where relevant (approximately 150 words).
MODEL ANSWER
The bar chart illustrates the download rate per week of ActiveX, Java and Net computer packages over
a period of five weeks. It can clearly be seen that ActiveX was the most popular computer package to
download, whilst Net was the least popular of the three.
To begin, downloads of ActiveX and Java showed similar patterns, with both gradually increasing from
week 1 to week 5. However, the purchases of Active X remained significantly higher than that of the
other product over this time frame. In week 1, purchases of ActiveX stood at around 75,000, while
those of Java were about 30,000 lower. With the exception of a slight fall in week 4, downloading of
ActiveX kept rising until it reached a peak in the final week of just over 120,000. Java downloads also
increased at a steady rate, finishing the period at 80,000.
The product that was downloaded the least was Net. This began at slightly under 40,000, and, in
contrast to the other two products, fell over the next two weeks to reach a low of approximately
25,000. It then rose sharply over the following two weeks to finish at about 50,000, which was well
below that of ActiveX.

GROUPING DATA & STRUCTURING YOUR TEXT

It is a good idea to divide your answer into paragraphs so it is well organized (see page 1). To do this,
you should group similar things together into paragraphs or sections.
If you look at the chart, you will see that ActiveX and Java have a similar pattern, both steadily
increasing over the period (apart from the slight fall of ActiveX in week 4), so these could be logically
grouped together in paragraph 2. On the other hand, Net has the lowest number of downloads and
shows a different pattern – falling and then rising again – making it the logical focus of another, thrid
paragraph.
There is usually more than one way to group data and structure your text, so you need to decide what
you think is most logical in the given context and makes your answer easy to follow and read.
Once you have planned the overall structure of your text, pay attention to how you build your
sentences and your paragraphs and use linking words and discourse markers effectively to strengthen
the flow of ideas between sentences and paragraphs.
Note how the main point and case(s) discussed in each paragraph are clearly stated in the introductory
sentence: this is what is known as a topic sentence – here highlighted in bold type.
MODEL ANSWER: GROUPING DATA & STRUCTURING TEXT
PARAGRAPH 1: INTRODUCTION
[TOPIC SENTENCE] The bar chart illustrates the download rate per week of ActiveX, Java and Net
computer packages over a period of five weeks. [MAIN POINT DETERMINING TEXT STRUCTURE] It
can clearly be seen that ActiveX was the most popular computer package to download, whilst Net was
the least popular of the three.
PARAGRAPH 2: BODY [SIMILARITIES BETWEEN ACTIVEX & JAVA]

[TOPIC SENTENCE] To begin, downloads of ActiveX and Java showed similar patterns, with both
gradually increasing from week 1 to week 5. However, the purchases of Active X remained significantly
higher than that of the other product over this time frame. In week 1, purchases of ActiveX stood at
around 75,000, while those of Java were about 30,000 lower. With the exception of a slight fall in week
4, downloading of ActiveX kept rising until it reached a peak in the final week of just over 120,000. Java
downloads also increased at a steady rate, finishing the period at 80,000.
PARAGRAPH 3: BODY [THE DISTINCTLY DIFFERENT PERFORMANCE OF NET]

[TOPIC SENTENCE] The product that was downloaded the least was Net. This began at slightly under
40,000, and, in contrast to the other two products, fell over the next two weeks to reach a low of
approximately 25,000. It then rose sharply over the following two weeks to finish at about 50,000,
which was well below that of ActiveX.

DESCRIBING TRENDS & CHANGE OVER TIME

Please refer back to the range of vocabulary and grammar features of language to describe trends and
change provided in the Introduction to Module 2 of this unit. As a general rule, avoid repeating the
same kinds of phrases by using not just a variety of terms but also a diversity of structures and forms
to demonstrate the full range of both your lexis and grammar.
Several examples of the effective and diverse use of language to describe trends and change are
highlighted in the model answer below:
MODEL ANSWER: LANGUAGE OF CHANGE

HIGHLIGHTING COMPARISONS & CONTRASTS

Several examples of the effective and diverse use of language to describe trends and change are
MODEL ANSWER: LANGUAGE OF COMPARISON & CONTRAST


PIE CHARTS: COMPARING PROPORTIONS
Whether presenting one case, comparing different cases or contrasting change between different
moments in time, a pie chart displays proportions of a whole.
In addition to key issues of language and structure already highlighted for graphs above, describing pie
charts requires considerable focus on the language of proportions and percentages, dimensions which
can be expressed in a wide variety of ways.
Now look at the bar chart below and study the model answer that follows.
The pie charts show the main reasons for migration to and from the UK in 2007. Summarize the
information by selecting and reporting the main features and make comparisons where relevant
(approximately 150 words).
MODEL ANSWER – LANGUAGE OF COMPARISON & CONTRAST

The pie charts illustrate the primary reasons that people came to and left the UK in 2007. At first glance
it is clear that the main factor influencing this decision was employment.
Having a definite job accounted for 30 per cent of immigration to the UK, and this figure was very
similar for emigration, at 29%. A large number of people, 22%, also emigrated because they were
looking for a job, though the proportion of people entering the UK for this purpose was noticeably
lower at less than a fifth.
Another major factor influencing a move to the UK was for formal study, with over a quarter of people
immigrating for this reason. However, interestingly, only a small minority, 4%, left for this.
The proportions of those moving to join a family member were quite similar for immigration and
emigration, at 15% and 13% respectively. Although a significant number of people (32%) gave ‘other’
reasons or did not give a reason why they emigrated, this accounted for only 17% with regards to
immigration.

PRIORITISING SALIENT POINTS

When you describe a pie chart, you need to focus on the most important points first. These are by
definition the largest portions of the pie chart.
As you can see in the model answer, definite job, looking for work, and formal study were all written
about first, in order of importance, as these are the main reasons that were chosen for moving. Items
such as ‘other’ are usually less important and account for small amounts, so can be left till the end.
MAKING YOUR TEXT EASY TO READ

As with describing all graphs and tables, how you choose to group information impacts how easy it is
to follow and read your summary.
When you are dealing with more than one pie chart at a time, the most logical thing to do is usually to
compare categories together across the charts, focusing on similarities and differences, rather than
writing about each chart separately. If you write about each one separately, the reader will have to
keep looking between the paragraphs in order to see how each category differs.
VARYING YOUR LANGUAGE

As mentioned above, you should avoid repeating the same words and expressions and seek to
demonstrate in your summary a full range of terms and structures to describe trends and change
When you describe pie charts, the key language relates to proportions and percentages. The most
obvious – and therefore common – phrases are “the proportion of” and “the percentage of”. However,
there are many other phrases that can be used to express fractions and several examples are
MODEL ANSWER – LANGUAGE OF PROPORTION & APPROXIMATION

The pie charts illustrate the primary reasons that people came to and left the UK in 2007. At first glance
it is clear that the main factor influencing this decision was employment.
Having a definite job accounted for 30 per cent of immigration to the UK, and this figure was very
similar for emigration, at 29%. A large number of people, 22%, also emigrated because they were
looking for a job, though the percentage of people entering the UK for this purpose was noticeably
lower at less than a fifth.
Another major factor influencing a move to the UK was for formal study, with over a quarter of people
immigrating for this reason. However, interestingly, only a small minority, 4%, left for this.
The proportions of those moving to join a family member were quite similar for immigration and
emigration, at 15% and 13% respectively. Although a significant number of people (32%) gave ‘other’
reasons or did not give a reason why they emigrated, this accounted for only 17% with regards to
immigration.
Note how often the precise figure from the pie chart, whether explicitly stated or not, is approximated
or transformed into a fraction or ratio in the summary text.
Unnecessary detail and pedantic precision (e.g. decimals) can sometimes hinder the clarity of your
statements, so when you are dealing with many figures and statistics, converting numbers into
expressions of proportions (e.g. fractions and ratios, see below) can make it easier for your audience
to follow the general meaning of the proportions being discussed.

CHANGING PERCENTAGES INTO FRACTIONS & RATIOS

The following tables presents various ways to approximate, qualify and convert percentages from
numbers into expressions of fractions, ratios and proportions:
Percentage Fraction
80% four-fifths
75% three-quarters
70% seven in / out of ten
65% two-thirds
60% three-fifths
55% more than half
50% half
45% more than two fifths
40% two-fifths
35% more than a third
30% less than a third
25% a quarter
20% a fifth
15% less than a fifth
10% one in/ out of ten
5% one in/ out of twenty
If the percentages are not exact as above, then you can use qualifiers to make sure your description
remains accurate. Here are some examples:
Percentage Qualifier
77% just over three quarters
77% approximately three quarters
49% just under a half
49% nearly a half
32% almost a third
This table presents some examples of how you can change percentages to other phrases:
proportion / number / amount /

Percentage
majority / minority
75% - 85% a very large majority
65% - 75% a significant proportion
10% - 15% a minority
5% a very small number
The words above are interchangeable, though ‘number’ is for countable nouns and ‘amount’ is for
uncountable nouns.

TABLES: TURNING LISTS INTO NARRATIVES
A table is just another way to present information; it does not require that you learn a new type of
language or a new way to organize things. Describing data presented in a table is therefore similar to
describing charts or graphs, using the same structures of comparison and contrast or language of
change, if the table’s data changes over time.
For example, study this table showing the quality of life in four countries presented in a table:
Country GNP per head Daily calorie Life expectancy at Infant mortality
(1982: US dollars) supply per head birth (years) (per 1000 live
births)
Bangladesh 140 1877 40 132

Bolivia 570 2086 50 124
Egypt 690 2950 56 97
Indonesia 580 2296 49 87
USA 13160 3653 74 12
Table 1: The Quality of Life in Five Countries
If we wanted, we could present this same information as a bar chart:
However, these data are clearly better presented in the form of a table because of the huge difference
between the USA and the others – a disparity that appears disproportionate on the bar chart and that
makes other bars (life expectancy and infant mortality for all countries) barely visible and unreadable.
Clearly, a table looks better in this case, but the data presented in both the graph and the table would
both be described in exactly the same way. As with all graphs and charts, when describing tables:
• Always describe what the data represents, not the line(s) or bars of the graph itself.
• Highlight significant data – e.g. extreme points (highest, lowest), unusual trends, apparent
anomalies and statistical outliers, etc.
• Wherever possible, group the data into meaningful clusters – similar features, comparable
trends, shared variables, contrasting pairs or sets, etc.

PLANNING YOUR ANSWER

Now look at the table on the previous page and then answer the questions that follows.
• What is the table measuring?
• What type of language do you need to use (Change? Comparing and contrasting?)
• What tense would you use?
• Which country has the best quality of life and which has the worst?
• What information could you use for an overview / conclusion?
• How could you group the information?
• How many paragraphs would you have and what you would write about in each one?
You should always ask yourself these kinds of questions before you write your summary description.
You can then use the answers to these questions to make yourself a quick plan as follows:
SUMMARY PLAN – MAIN GROUPINGS & FEATURES

Topic: standard of living, 5 countries
Language: comparison
Time / tense: 1982 = past simple
Key conclusion: USA far higher than rest
Grouping: USA = highest / Egypt, Indonesia, Bolivia = similar / Bangladesh = very low
Now, take a look at the model answer below and notice how the organization matches the plan.
• The similar countries are grouped together and dealt with in distinct paragraphs.
• The focus is on the language of comparison and contrast (highlighted) because the table does
not deal with a timespan, but compares different countries at one moment in time.
MODEL ANSWER – LANGUAGE OF COMPARISON & CONTRAST

The table uses four economic indicators to show the standard of living in five selected countries in
1982. Overall, it can be seen that the quality of life in the USA was far higher than the other four
countries.
To begin, the USA, which is a developed country, had the highest GNP at 13,160 dollars per head. It
also had a much higher daily calorie intake and life expectancy, and the lowest rate of infant mortality.
The other developing countries had quality of life ratings that were significantly lower. The range of
indicators for Egypt, Indonesia and Bolivia were similar, with Egypt having the highest quality of life
amongst the three. However, the infant mortality rate in Egypt’s was slightly higher than Indonesia’s
at 97 deaths per 1000 compared to 87 in Indonesia.
Bangladesh had by far the lowest quality of life in all the indicators. Its GNP was one hundred times
smaller than the USA’s. Its calorie intake and life expectancy were about half those of the USA, and its
infant mortality rate was 10 times greater.

MODULE 3 – READING TECHNIQUES – SPEED READING

EXERCISE 1 – SKIMMING TEXTS (SPEED READING)
Working with a partner, skim-read the paragraphs below and match them up with the correct time-
span in three minutes.
1. ONE NANOSECOND 6. ONE HOUR
2. ONE MICROSECOND 7. ONE DAY
3. ONE TENTH OF A SECOND 8. ONE YEAR
4. ONE SECOND 9. ONE CENTURY
5. ONE MINUTE 10. ONE BILLION YEARS
a) A healthy person’s heartbeat lasts about this long. On average Americans eat 350 slices of pizza
during this time. Earth travels 30 kilometres around the sun, while the sun zips 274 kilometres on
its trek through the galaxy. It is not quite enough time for moonlight to reach Earth. Traditionally,
it was the 60th part of the 60th part of the 24th part of a day, but science has given it a more precise
definition: it is the duration of 9,192,631,770 cycles of one type of radiation produced by a
caesium-133 atom.
b) It took approximately this long for the newly formed Earth to cool, develop oceans, give birth to
single-celled life and exchange its carbon dioxide-rich early atmosphere for an oxygen-rich one.
Meanwhile the sun orbited four times around the centre of the galaxy.
c) Famously, the duration of a “blink of an eye”. The human ear needs this much time to discriminate
an echo from the original sound. A hummingbird can beat its wings seven times.
d) Earth makes one circuit around the sun and spins on its axis 365.26 times. The mean level of the
oceans rises between 1 and 2.5 millimetres, and North America moves about 3 centimetres away
from Europe.
e) The brain of a new-born baby grows one to two milligrams in this time. A shrew’s fluttering heart
beats 1,000 times. The average person can speak about 150 words or read about 250 words.
f) A sound wave at sea level will have propagated one third of a millimetre. The flash of a high-speed
commercial stroboscope will last about this long. It will take 24 of these for a stick of dynamite to
explode after its fuse has burned out.
g) For humans, this is perhaps the most natural unit of time, the duration of Earth’s rotation. Our
planet’s rotation is constantly slowing because of gravitational drag from the moon and other
influences. The human heart beats about 100,000 times in this time span, while the lungs inhale
about 11,000 litres of air. In the same amount of time, an infant blue whale adds another 91
kilograms to its bulk.
h) The moon recedes from Earth by another 3.8 metres. Standard compact discs and CD-ROMs are
expected to degrade in this time. Baby boomers have only one-in-26 chance of living to this age,
but giant tortoises can live nearly double this time.
i) Reproducing cells usually take about this long to divide into two. It is also the average time
between eruptions of the Old Faithful geyser in Yellowstone National Park.
j) A beam of light shining through a vacuum will only travel 30 centimetres in this time. The
microprocessor inside a personal computer will typically take two or four of these to execute a
single instruction, such as adding two numbers.

DESCRIBING GRAPHS, CHARTS & TABLES
Carefully study the language you need to describe trends and change presented at the beginning of
Module 2 of Unit 2. Then, read through the advice provided in the introduction to this module.
Using these principles and this language, you will summarise the data presented in the form of line
graphs on the following page, firstly in oral form in class (Exercise 2) and then in written form, as
homework (Exercise 3).
EXERCISE 2 – DESCRIBING THE DATA ORALLY

Look at the graphs on the following page and note down the salient features and any key terms you
need to describe the data they present. Then, briefly describe this data to the class orally.
EXERCISE 3 – PRESENTING THE GRAPH IN WRITING

Write a 150-word summary of the two graphs and their data in the space provided below.
To do so, study and apply the principles contained in the Presenting Graphs documents, making sure
that: your description is factually accurate and clear; your language is interesting and varied; and your
text is concise and well-structured.

Figure 1. Share of global CO2 emissions from cement, 1919-2019
Figure 2. Per capita CO2 emissions from cement, 1919-2019

PRESENTING INNOVATIVE MATERIALS
EXERCISE 4 – LISTENING TO PREPARE FOR CLASS PRESENTATION

In small groups, you will be given one of four Study Files to study and present to the class.
Each study file contains an audio excerpt presenting a new, innovative material or technique. You will
listen to the audio file, noting down the main ideas and key vocabulary so that you can present a brief
summary 2-3 minutes long of the topic.
The four Study Files are on the following topics:
• Study File #1: Tackling concrete’s carbon emissions;
• Study File #2: Building an effective organic battery;
• Study File #3: Making safe cadmium telluride solar cells;
• Study File #4: Creating metallic hydrogen.
Each Study File presents a case study of a current problem and a new material or process which may
solve this problem. This is precisely the problem-solution approach you need to adopt when preparing
the content of your oral presentations later this term, so practise by using this logic to structure your
ideas in this exercise.
In the simplest terms, structure your ideas in the following way:
• What is the problem identified here?
o Exactly how is it a problem?
o Why is it necessary / interesting / useful… to solve?
• What is the solution being proposed?
o Specifically, how does the solution tackle the problem?
o What conditions / decisions / actions… are required to make this solution happen?
• How might the solution cause other problems?
EXERCISE 5 – PRESENTING TO THE CLASS

As a group, briefly present (2-3 minutes) your case study to the class. You have no visuals and do not
write out your speech: to prepare, make brief notes or a list of key words and ideas.
Be prepared to:
• Clarify any points or add more details about what you have presented;
• Answer any questions your audience may have;
• Provide your own opinion or viewpoint on this issue;
o Do you think this problem is an important problem / is correctly identified?
o Do you think this solution will be effective / is a good idea?
o What would you recommend as the next step in R&D?
o Can you think / do you know of any alternative solutions?

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LANG-H-2002 / UNIT 2

UNIT 2 – READING FOR RESEARCH

VARIOUS READING TECHNIQUES

PRACTISING & ASSESSING YOUR READING SKILLS

EXERCISE TYPE II – READING COMPREHENSION WITH GAPPED SUMMARY (RCGS)

EXERCISE TYPE III – READING COMPREHENSION WITH OPEN QUESTIONS (RCOQ)

EPB English II 2023-24 1

MODULE 1 – DISCUSSING & PRACTISING READING TECHNIQUES

EXERCISE 1 – SCANNING AN INDEX

GENERAL TOPIC SPECIFIC WORD IN INDEX

1. light rail transit a) ores

EXERCISE 2 – PREDICTING CONTENT FROM A TABLE OF CONTENTS

2. Effects of folic acid on foetal development

3. The metal elements essential for healthy living

4. Phosphate-based laundry detergents

5. Turning coal into petrol

6. Caffeine content in Coca-Cola

9. Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE)

10. The commercial success of Teflon

EPB English II 2023-24 2

EPB English II 2023-24 3

DESCRIBING MATERIALS – GRAPHENE

EXERCISE 3 – READING COMPREHENSION WITH GAPPED SUMMARY (RCGS): SOURCE TEXT

QUANTUM WEIRDNESS ON THE END OF YOUR PENCIL

EPB English II 2023-24 4

EPB English II 2023-24 5

EXERCISE 3 – RCGS: SUMMARY TEXT

EPB English II 2023-24 6

LANGUAGE FOCUS – COMPOUNDS, COMPLEXITY & CONCISION

EXERCISE 4 – COMPOUNDS, COMPLEX STRUCTURES & CONCISION

3. Any variety of carbon that is similar to graphite =>

4. Electronics that run very, very quickly =>

5. Arrangement of atoms that is considered almost perfect in structure =>

6. Stacks with many layers of graphene =>

7. Location points determined in advance =>

8. Electronic devices in which graphene is a major component =>

9. Whole electronic devices or components made from graphene alone =>

11. The screen on a device operated by touch =>

12. Cells that generate an electrical current from sunlight =>

EPB English II 2023-24 7

DESCRIBING MATERIALS – CARBON NANOTUBES IN PROCESSORS

EXERCISE 5 – LISTENING COMPREHENSION WITH OPEN QUESTIONS (LCOQ)

1. Specify the correlation between transistors and microprocessor performance. (2)

2. What is a carbon nanotube (CNT)? (1)

EPB English II 2023-24 8

EPB English II 2023-24 9

LANGUAGE FOCUS – VOCABULARY BUILDING

chip switch transistor microprocessor

core defect wafer circuit design

hefty variability manufacturing processing

intrinsic immune energy-efficient beyond-silicon

to shrink to yield to turn out to bundle together

to disperse to tune to wash off to slip through

to outperform hobbyist store to overcome hurdles at an incredible pace

EPB English II 2023-24 10

MODULE 2 – DESCRIBING PROCESSES – HIGH-ENTROPY ALLOYS

EXERCISE 1 – READING COMPREHENSION WITH OPEN QUESTIONS (RCOQ): SOURCE TEXT

MIXED-UP METALS MAKE FOR STRONGER, TOUGHER, STRETCHIER ALLOYS

EPB English II 2023-24 11

Spoilt for choice

EPB English II 2023-24 12

EXERCISE 1 – READING COMPREHENSION WITH OPEN QUESTIONS

small ≠ _________ strong ≠ _ soft ≠ ___________

mixed ≠ modern ≠ broad ≠ _

different ≠ random ≠ stretchy ≠ __

exactly ≠ _ often ≠ slightly ≠ ____

developments ___ layer _ layer the idea ______________

a tendency ____ the best thing _ the work _________

to place emphasis ______ a response _ use _____

to slide _______ to transfer _ to take a step ____________

to fire ________ to coat _ to remove something _______

to deposit to lodge place to extend __________

to move _______ to result _ to open up ________

to talk ___ to lead to consist _ something