Emotions

The word emotion is derived from the Latin word “emovere” meaning to stir up or to

excite. Emotions are conscious mental reactions (such as anger or fear) subjectively experienced

as strong feelings usually directed toward a specific object and typically accompanied by

physiological and behavioral changes in the body. Emotions have a strong influence on our daily

lives. We make decisions based on whether we are happy, angry, sad, bored, or frustrated. We

also choose activities and hobbies based on the emotions they incite. Understanding emotions

can help us navigate life with greater ease and stability.

Positive Emotions

Happiness Joy Interest

Excitement Gratitude. Love

Negative Emotions

Sadness Anger Loneliness Jealousy

Self-criticism Fear. Rejection

Components of emotional response

● Behavior (which is shown physically)

● Autonomic (sympathetic nervous system regulates activity)

● Hormonal (reinforces the autonomic response, secreted by adrenal medulla)

Key elements of emotions

 ● Subjective experiences

● Physiological Response

● Behavioral Response

Fear

Fear is an intensely unpleasant emotion in response to perceiving or recognizing a

danger or threat. Fear causes physiological changes that may produce behavioral reactions such

as mounting an aggressive response or fleeing the threat. The fear response arises from the

perception of danger leading to confrontation with or escape from/avoiding the threat (also

known as the fight-or-flight response), which in extreme cases of fear (horror and terror) can be a

freeze response.

In humans and other animals, fear is modulated by the process of cognition and learning.

Thus, fear is judged as rational and appropriate, or irrational and inappropriate. An irrational fear

is called a phobia. Fear is closely related to the emotion anxiety, which occurs as the result of

future threats that are perceived to be uncontrollable or unavoidable.

Fear processing in the brain

● The thalamus collects sensory data from the senses

● The sensory cortex receives data from the thalamus and interprets it

● Sensory cortex organizes information for dissemination to the hypothalamus (fight or

flight), amygdalae (fear), hippocampus (memory)

Anger and Aggression

Anger is a feeling/emotion, aggression is the behavior or action taken that is hostile,

destructive, and/or violent. It can be physical assault, throwing objects, property damage,

self-harming behaviors, or verbal threats or insults. A belief in the innate aggressive tendencies

of human beings—that the ability to be aggressive toward others, at least under some

circumstances, is part of our fundamental human makeup—is consistent with the principles of

evolutionary psychology. Aggression is hostile and antagonistic behavior, often with the intent to

cause harm, although it can be channeled into creative and practical outlets for some. It may

occur either reactively or without provocation. In humans, aggression can be caused by various

triggers. There are two subtypes of human aggression:

(1) controlled-instrumental subtype (purposeful or goal-oriented)

(2) reactive-impulsive subtype (often elicits uncontrollable actions that are inappropriate or

undesirable).

Gender

Gender plays an important role in human aggression. There are multiple theories that

seek to explain findings that males and females of the same species can have differing aggressive

behaviors. One review concluded that male aggression tended to produce pain or physical injury

whereas female aggression tended towards psychological or social harm.

Brain Pathways:
 Aggression is controlled in large part by the area in the older part of the brain known as

the amygdala. One mechanism that helps us control our negative emotions and aggression is a

neural connection between the amygdala and regions of the prefrontal cortex. The prefrontal

cortex is in effect a control center for aggression: when it is more highly activated, we are more

able to control our aggressive impulses.

Psychological disorders associated with Emotional disturbance

Depression Anxiety Disorders Bipolar Disorders

Schizophrenia Eating disorders Psychotic disorder

Post Traumatic Stress Disorder

Hormones related to positive emotions

Serotonin helps balance mood and promote feelings of well-being and reward.

Endorphins: Your body’s natural pain killer, they help you overcome stress or discomfort.

Dopamine also called the “ Feel good “ Hormone plays a role in feeling happiness, pleasure,

and reward. Oxytocin is not technically a “ Happy “ hormone its role in promoting social

interaction may help you feel positive emotions.

Hormones related to negative emotions

Testosterone activates the sub-cortical areas of the brain to produce aggression while cortisol

and serotonin act antagonistically with testosterone to reduce its effects.

Adrenaline also known as epinephrine is responsible for emotional states such as fear, and

anger, and fight-to-flight responses such as

 ● Rise in blood pressure

● and Increased rate of heart rate

Communication of emotions

We communicate with others through emotions by means of Postural changes, facial

expressions, and non-verbal sounds. For example, our facial expressions serve as a useful

social function when we interact with our friends if they have any kind of idea about an outing

and we like that instantly our facial expressions change and we feel happy.

Emotions (Innate Responses)

Charles Darwin ( 1872/ 1965 ) reported that human expressions of emotions evolved

similarly to those of animals. These are innate and unlearned consisting of complex

mechanisms of movement of facial muscles.

Darwin draws this conclusion that our emotions are innate by observing his own children

and through evidence of cross-cultural studies. Darwin claimed that expressions of emotions are

inherited and the words we use are arbitrary and are not biologically based. Because if a group of

people are isolated no matter what the reasons are but showed similar facial expressions of

emotions in a given situation.

In another study, Ekman and his colleagues conducted research in which they gathered

people from different cultures and showed them four kinds of pictures that contained different

facial expressions. Such as happiness, sadness, anger, and disgust. They respond similarly

Neutral basis of communication of emotions ( recognition)

 Emotional communication is a two-way process. Expressions of emotions are only useful

when other people are able to recognize them.

In a study, it is noted that in happy situations only small signs of happiness are produced

when the people are alone as compared to when they are surrounded by other people.

Recognition is done by means of seeing their facial expressions and hearing their tone. The

right hemisphere plays a more important role than the left hemisphere in the comprehension of

emotions.

Blonder and his colleagues found that patients with right hemisphere lesions had no difficulty

making emotional judgments about particular situations but were severely impaired in judging

emotions conveyed by facial expressions and hand gestures.

Neural basis of the communication of emotions ( expressions)

Facial expressions of emotions are automatic and involuntary.

Feelings of emotions

James Lange's theory of emotions

James-Lange's theory of emotion (the 1880s) proposed that bodily changes come first and

form the basis of an emotional experience. Thus, emotions are caused by bodily sensations (you

become happier when you smile. You are afraid because you run).

For example, if you run into a snake, your heart rate increases. James-Lange theory suggests that

the increase in heart rate is what makes us realize we’re afraid.

 Motivation

The word "motivation" is derived from the Latin word "motivus," which means "to

move" or "to set in motion." Motivation in neuropsychology refers to the psychological and

physiological processes that drive individuals to initiate and sustain actions or behaviors aimed at

achieving specific goals or satisfying certain needs.

Here are some key aspects of motivation in neuropsychology:

Neural Basis Different brain regions and neurotransmitter systems play essential roles in

motivating behaviors. For example, the dopamine system is often associated with reward and

reinforcement, which can drive motivation.

Reward System nucleus accumbens and ventral tegmental are involved in processing and

responding to rewards, which can increase motivation.

Emotion can strongly influence motivation. For example, fear can motivate individuals to escape

a threatening situation, while desire or passion can drive them to pursue their goals with

enthusiasm. Impairments Understanding motivation is crucial in the context of

neuropsychological disorders and conditions. For example, conditions like depression or

substance use disorders can disrupt the normal functioning of the motivation system.

Pathway of the brain in motivation

Here are some of the key brain areas associated with motivation:

Mesolimbic Dopamine System: This is often considered the "reward system" of the brain. It

includes the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and the nucleus accumbens. Dopamine, a

neurotransmitter, plays a central role in this system. When we anticipate or experience rewards,

dopamine is released, reinforcing motivated behaviors.

Prefrontal Cortex: The prefrontal cortex, especially the ventromedial prefrontal cortex, is

involved in decision-making and evaluating potential outcomes. It helps weigh the pros and cons

of different actions, which is essential for goal-directed motivation.

Hypothalamus: The hypothalamus is a key brain region involved in regulating basic

physiological needs, such as hunger, thirst, and body temperature. It is essential for homeostatic

motivation, where the body seeks to maintain internal balance.

Amygdala: The amygdala is involved in processing emotions, including fear and anxiety. It can

influence motivation by making certain actions more appealing (to seek pleasure) or less

appealing (to avoid harm).

Hippocampus: The hippocampus is involved in memory and spatial navigation. It can influence

motivation by recalling past experiences related to rewards or punishments, which can guide

future behavior.

Cingulate Cortex: The cingulate cortex is involved in monitoring errors and detecting

discrepancies between expected and actual outcomes. It can influence motivation by signaling

the need to adjust behavior based on feedback.

Hormones involved in motivation

Dopamine: When we anticipate or experience rewards, dopamine is released, reinforcing

motivated behaviors.

Serotonin: It plays a role in regulating mood, and imbalances in serotonin levels are associated

with conditions like depression and anxiety, which can affect motivation.

Norepinephrine: it is involved in the body's "fight or flight" response. It can increase alertness,

focus, and arousal, which can influence motivation, especially in situations requiring immediate

action.
Cortisol: Cortisol is often referred to as the "stress hormone." While it is primarily associated

with the body's response to stress, it can also influence motivation. Elevated cortisol levels over

extended periods can lead to decreased motivation and even symptoms of burnout.

Adrenaline (Epinephrine): Adrenaline is a hormone and neurotransmitter that is released in

response to stress or excitement. It can increase alertness, energy, and motivation, preparing the

body for action.

Testosterone and Estrogen: These sex hormones can influence motivation, especially in terms

of sexual motivation and behavior. They can affect sexual desire and drive.

Thyroid Hormones: Thyroid hormones, such as thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3), are

involved in regulating metabolism and energy levels. Imbalances in thyroid hormones can lead to

changes in motivation and energy

Glutamate: Glutamate is the primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain and is involved in

various cognitive functions, including motivation. It plays a role in learning and memory

processes related to motivation, such as forming associations between actions and rewards.

Endorphins: Endorphins are a group of neurotransmitters that act as natural pain relievers and

mood enhancers. They are released during exercise and other pleasurable activities and can

contribute to the motivation to engage in such activities.

Negative psychological effects of low motivation

● Depression: Persistent low motivation can contribute to feelings of hopelessness and

sadness, which are hallmark symptoms of depression.

● Anxiety: When people lack the motivation to complete tasks or achieve goals, they may

worry about the consequences, leading to anxiety and stress.

 ● Decreased Self-Esteem: Repeatedly failing to meet personal or professional goals due to

low motivation can erode one's self-esteem and self-worth.

● Social Isolation: Low motivation can lead to withdrawal from social activities and

relationships, as individuals may not have the energy or interest to engage with others.

● Decreased Productivity: When motivation is low, productivity tends to suffer. This can

lead to a cycle of frustration and decreased self-worth.

● Negative Thought Patterns: Low motivation can be accompanied by negative self-talk

and pessimistic thinking, which further contribute to psychological distress.

● Impaired Decision-Making: A lack of motivation can make it difficult to make

decisions, leading to a sense of being stuck or indecisive.

● Physical Health Issues: Chronic low motivation can lead to neglect of physical health,

as individuals may lack the motivation to exercise, eat well, or seek medical care when

needed.

● Substance Abuse: Some people turn to substances like drugs or alcohol to cope with

feelings of low motivation, which can lead to addiction and further psychological issues.

Neurophysiology of Addiction

What is neurophysiology?

The branch of neuroscience that is concerned with the physiology of the nervous

system i.e. neurons and ganglia.

Identification of addict:

Initially, we conceptualize addiction as psychological weakness, selfishness,

narcissism, and stupidity but now we have neuroimaging like CT scans, MRI, etc.

Introduction:
 Neuroscience research has revealed that addiction is a chronic, relapsing disease

of the brain triggered by repeated exposure to drugs in those who are vulnerable because of

genetics and developmental or adverse social exposures. As a result, the reward circuit’s

capacity to respond to rewards and motivate actions that are not drug-related is decreased, the

sensitivity of the emotional circuits to stress is enhanced, and the capacity to self-regulate is

Impaired.

The result is compulsive drug seeking and drug taking despite severe harm and an

inability to control the strong urges to consume the drug, even when there is a strong desire to

quit. The changes in the brain responsible for these maladaptive behaviors can persist for months

or even years after drug discontinuation but are amenable to treatment. Treatment should be

aimed at improving self-regulation; helping to control cravings and the emergence of distressing

emotions, including depression and anxiety; and improving the sensitivity to alternative

reinforcers.

Crucially, addiction can be prevented, and both universal as well as tailored strategies can

significantly reduce substance use disorder in the individual and in a population.

Drug reward system:

Dopamine (DA) lies at the center of drug reward. Every drug with addiction potential

increases DA, either through direct or indirect effects on DA neurons in the ventral tegmental

area (VTA) with the consequent release of DA in the nucleus accumbens (NAc). Drugs of abuse

increase DA through their initial action on different molecular targets and, depending on their

pharmacological effects, also engage additional neurotransmitters. Some of these, like

endogenous opioids or endogenous cannabinoids, also contribute to the reinforcing effects of

drugs through modulation of hedonic responses or inhibition of negative affective states. The
significance of non-dopaminergic influences on reward processing has not been as extensively

investigated as DA’s but should not be underestimated.

VTA projection:

VTA DA neurons also project to the amygdala and hippocampus, which mediate

emotional and memory associations, and to PFC regions, which mediate salience attribution

and self-regulation, all of which participate in the reinforcing and conditioning that follows

chronic drug consumption. DA neurons in VTA and SN are influenced by projections from

multiple brain areas that control their tonic and phasic firing. Recent evidence points to

significant diversity in the population of VTA DA neurons with respect to their afferent and

efferent connectivity (235), their co-release of GABA or glutamate (or both), and the presynaptic

receptors expressed in their terminals, which differentially modulate DA release in the presence

of other neurotransmitters like GABA or acetylcholine.

Dopamine and neuroplasticity:

Drugs, via excessive and repeated dopaminergic stimulation, induce

persistent neuroplastic adaptations in midbrain DA neurons and in their projections into NAc and

also into the dorsal striatum that is believed to underlie conditioning along with the enhanced

incentive saliency to drug cues and behavioral inflexibility. When conditioning is established,

DA neurons fire when exposed to the drug-predictive cues that precede the drug’s arrival, in

effect predicting an imminent reward. Conditioning can be instantiated for many types of cues,

including places and people associated with the drug experience, or mental states that

predominated at the time when the drug was being consumed (depressed, bored, excited,

stressed, etc.), all of which can subsequently awaken, by themselves, the motivation to seek the

drug. Some of the key drug-induced adaptations are similar to synaptic changes associated with
learning including changes in dendritic morphology, and ionotropic glutamate receptors

(predominantly AMPA and NMDA receptors) that result in long-term potentiation (LTP) and

long-term depression (LTD). Synaptic strength is modulated presynaptically through the

regulation of glutamate release and postsynaptically by the insertion or removal of

transmembrane glutamate ionotropic receptors (NMDA and AMPA) and by changes in their

subunit composition, which modifies their efficacy.

Reward and motivation:

In parallel to the enhanced sensitivity to the expectation of the drug’s rewarding effects

(due to conditioning), there is a reduced sensitivity of the DA reward circuit to the actual

consumption of the reward, which has been observed in drug-addicted individuals and

interestingly also among some obese individuals who display some phenotypic traits consistent

with “food addiction” (326). This reduced sensitivity in drug-addicted individuals extends to

non-drug rewards with the concomitant decrease in their motivational value, which contributes to

the lack of interest in non-drug-associated activities characteristic of addiction. Brain imaging

studies of drug-addicted individuals have helped characterize these adaptations by revealing

decreased D2R expression and DA release in the striatum (both dorsal and ventral regions) (339;

though see negative studies in Refs. 95, 175). Very few studies have evaluated D1R in addiction

or in animal models of addiction, and the results are inconsistent.

Drug

The word drug is taken from the French word Drogue which means Dry Herb. A drug

is any chemical substance that causes a change in an organism's physiology or psychology when

consumed. Drugs are typically distinguished from food and substances that provide nutritional

support. Consumption of drugs can be via inhalation, injection, smoking, or ingestion

Types of drugs

Stimulant drugs

Stimulants are a class of drugs that increase activity and speed up messages travelling

between the brain and body. They can make a person feel more awake, alert, confident, or

energetic. Stimulant drugs include caffeine, nicotine, and cocaine.

Depressant drugs

Depressant drugs affect the central nervous system and slow down the messages between

the brain and body. They can affect concentration and coordination and slow down a person’s

ability to respond to unexpected situations. For example; alcohol

Narcotic drugs

Narcotic drugs are a group of substances that diminish the perception of pain. Narcotic

drugs produce analgesia ( pain relief), narcosis (state of stupor or sleep), and addiction (physical

dependence on the drug ). For example; Morphine and Cannabis etc

Heroin

Heroin is an opioid drug made from morphine, a natural substance taken from the seed

pod of various opium poppy plants.

Heroin comes in different forms, including:

● · fine white powder

● · tiny pieces of light brown ‘rock’.

How is it used? Heroin is usually injected into a vein, but it’s also smoked (‘chasing the

dragon’), and added to cigarettes and cannabis.

Heroin Effects On The Brain;

Among the most significant effects of heroin on your brain is the hindrance of the brain’s

ability to produce natural dopamine. The receptors receive intense stimulation from ingested

heroin, hindering the ability to provide the chemicals naturally. As a result, individuals can

become entirely dependent on heroin to get dopamine and regulate pain.Heroin addiction

resulting from chronic use of the drug:

● · Creates neurological imbalances

● · Deteriorates the brain’s white matter

● · Reduces reasoning and decision-making skills

● · Causes impulsive behaviors

● · Creates hormonal imbalances

● · Alters the brain’s physical structure

Brain changes resembling the Alzheimer’s condition. As such, heroin affects the brain by

causing severe cognitive impairment.

How Does Heroin Affect Cellular Communication in the Brain?

● Heroin binds to specific receptors in the body that release neurotransmitters, dopamine,

in the brain. Once released, these neurotransmitters regulate pain and cause feelings of

happiness and even euphoria.

 ● Heroin is an extremely addictive substance. It is so addictive that when you take it, it

triggers an increase in dopamine production which can impact the brain’s reward system.

In other words, when someone abuses heroin it creates a pleasant rush that is almost

impossible to ignore that can have a major negative impact on brain function.

Psychological Effects of Heroin Addiction

Heroin binds to and activates specific receptors in the brain called mu-opioid receptors

(MORs). Our bodies contain naturally occurring chemicals called neurotransmitters that bind to

these receptors throughout the brain and body to regulate pain, hormone release, and feelings of

well-being. When MORs are activated in the reward center of the brain, they stimulate the

release of the neurotransmitter dopamine, causing a reinforcement of drug-taking behavior.

Long-term effect of effects of heroin use

● · Creating long-term imbalances in neuronal and hormonal systems

● · affect decision-making abilities,

● · the ability to regulate behavior

● · Responses to stressful situations.

Short term effects of heroin use

● · dry mouth

● · Nausea, vomiting

● · heart function slows

● · Breathing is also severely slowed (Slowed breathing can also lead to coma and

permanent brain damage).

 Cannabis

Cannabis also called Marijuana and it is a greenish-gray mixture of the dried

flowers of Cannabis sativa. Some people smoke marijuana in hand-rolled cigarettes

called joints; in pipes, water pipes (sometimes called bongs), or in blunts (marijuana

rolled in cigar wraps.

Effects on brain

The human body naturally produces compounds called endocannabinoids that are

similar to those in marijuana. Endocannabinoids are involved in the regulation of many body

processes throughout life (including learning, memory, pain control and sleep), and the action of

endocannabinoids is essential to prenatal brain development and to brain maturation during

adolescence.

Endocannabinoids, as well as THC, can attach to neurons in the brain through molecules

called cannabinoid receptors. When THC activates cannabinoid receptors in the brain, it can

disrupt the normal actions of endocannabinoids. “These receptors are highly concentrated in

brain areas related to cognition

● functional changes in the hippocampus

● Cognitive impairments

● Problems in learning and memory tasks

Effects on the body

● Risk of heart attack

 ● raising blood pressure and heart rate

● reducing the blood’s capacity to carry oxygen

● Marijuana may also cause orthostatic hypotension (head rush or dizziness on

standing up), possibly raising danger from fainting and falls

Alcohol

Alcohol is a depressant drug and it is an intoxicating ingredient found in

beer, wine, and liquor.

Effect on brain

Alcohol affects both "excitatory" neurotransmitters and "inhibitory" neurotransmitters.

● An example of an excitatory neurotransmitter is glutamate, which would normally

increase brain activity and energy levels. Alcohol suppresses the release of

glutamate, resulting in a slowdown along your brain's highways

● An example of an inhibitory neurotransmitter is GABA, which reduces energy

levels and calms everything down. Alcohol increases GABA production in the

brain. The effects will be amplified, and that can slow your heart rate and

respiratory system down to dangerous levels.

● Alcohol also increases the release of dopamine in your brain's "reward center."

The reward center is the same combination of brain areas that are affected by

virtually all pleasurable activity.

Effects on body
 High blood pressure, Liver disease, Digestive problems, Cancer of the breast, Weakening

of the immune system, Learning and memory problems.