Journal of Policy Research in Tourism, Leisure and Events

ISSN: (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rprt20

Sustainable development and tourism growth in

an island economy: a dynamic investigation

Sheereen Fauzel & Verena Tandrayen-Ragoobur

To cite this article: Sheereen Fauzel & Verena Tandrayen-Ragoobur (2023) Sustainable
development and tourism growth in an island economy: a dynamic investigation,
Journal of Policy Research in Tourism, Leisure and Events, 15:4, 502-512, DOI:
10.1080/19407963.2021.1958825

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/19407963.2021.1958825

Published online: 10 Aug 2021.

Submit your article to this journal

Article views: 536

View related articles

View Crossmark data

Citing articles: 4 View citing articles

Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at

https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=rprt20
JOURNAL OF POLICY RESEARCH IN TOURISM, LEISURE AND EVENTS
2023, VOL. 15, NO. 4, 502–512
https://doi.org/10.1080/19407963.2021.1958825

NOTE

Sustainable development and tourism growth in an island

economy: a dynamic investigation
Sheereen Fauzela and Verena Tandrayen-Ragooburb
a
Department of Finance and Accounting, University of Mauritius, Reduit, Mauritius; bDepartment of
Economics and Statistics, University of Mauritius, Reduit, Mauritius

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

This empirical paper aims at investigating the dynamic impact of Received 6 April 2021
sustainable development on tourism growth for the case of the Accepted 19 July 2021
small island developing state of Mauritius. The study is done for
KEYWORDS
the period 1980–2018. The vector error correction model is being Sustainable development;
used and the results point out that sustainable development tourism; vector error
variables, notably economic, social and environmental, have correction model
influenced tourism development. Furthermore, the results also
endorse the presence of bi-directional causality and feedback JEL CLASSIFICATION
effects in the tourism-economic growth model hence supporting C50; Z32
both the tourism-led growth hypothesis and the economic-driven
tourism growth hypothesis. Furthermore, tourism development is
observed to contribute towards environmental degradation.

Introduction
The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) also commonly referred as the Global Goals,
are a universal call to action to end poverty, protect the planet and ensure that all people
enjoy peace and prosperity. There are 17 goals built on the successes of the Millennium
Development Goals, while including new areas such as climate change, economic
inequality, innovation, sustainable consumption, peace and justice, among other priori-
ties.1 The goals are interconnected and the realisation of one goal may often lead to the
successful realisation of another. The SDGs aim at improving life in a sustainable way for
the future generation. These provide clear guidelines and targets for all countries to adopt
in accordance with their own priorities and the environmental challenges of the world at
large.2 There are several models which try to explain the concept of sustainable develop-
ment. For instance, there is the three spheres of sustainability model which comprises the
three very important dimensions of sustainable development (Rodríguez et al., 2002).
These include the economic, social and environmental aspects. These three dimensions
are interrelated and when taken together represent a robust ground from which impor-
tant decisions and actions can be adopted. By doing so, everybody wins. For instance, the
environment is protected, the economy progresses, natural resources are preserved and
the quality of life is improved.3 The three spheres of sustainability is represented in the
diagram below (Figure 1).

CONTACT Sheereen Fauzel s.fauzel@uom.ac.mu University of Mauritius, Reduit 80837, Mauritius

© 2021 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
 JOURNAL OF POLICY RESEARCH IN TOURISM, LEISURE AND EVENTS 503

Figure 1. Three spheres of sustainability. Source: Author’s compilation.

On the other hand the tourism sector has received much attention by many developing
countries, as it is considered as a potentially promising source for economic growth and
development as well as human development. The tourism sector can be a major route
through which the country can boost its export revenues, generating large numbers of
employment – both directly and indirectly, thereby creating jobs for the young and
women (Fauzel et al., 2017). More so, the development of the tourism sector in a
country helps economic diversification and promotes a more service-oriented economy.
Tourism is very important for the development of an economy, but particularly invasive
in relation to the environment and society. Tourism has a complex relationship with the
environment. Likewise, sustainable development variables, such as economic growth, edu-
cation, life expectancy as well as environment can influence tourism development. Exam-
ining the literature, it is observed that there are several papers which have been examining
the link between tourism and economic growth, (Antonakakis et al., 2015; Nunkoo et al.,
2020), tourism and environment (Fauzel & Seetanah, 2021; Seetanah et al., 2019a), tourism
and human capital (Seetanah et al., 2019b) among others. Hence, it is important to analyse
the concept of sustainable tourism development as well. The World Tourism Organization
defines sustainable tourism as ‘tourism that takes full account of its current and future
economic, social and environmental impacts, addressing the needs of visitors, the indus-
try, the environment and host communities’. The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Develop-
ment SDG target 8.9, aims to ‘by 2030, devise and implement policies to promote
sustainable tourism that creates jobs and promotes local culture and products’.4
Sustainable tourism development necessitates that all stakeholders participate actively
while building consensus and ensuring strong political leadership. Prerequisites of
success in sustainable tourism involve continual monitoring impacts and implemen-
tation of preventive or corrective measures where applicable. It is vital that sustainable
tourism meets high levels in terms of tourists’ satisfaction, ensuring that they have a
504 S. FAUZEL AND V. TANDRAYEN-RAGOOBUR

memorable time in the host communities as well as promoting their awareness about
environmental degradation, sustainability issues to encourage their contribution in sus-
tainable tourism practices (Niedziółka, 2014).
Sustainable tourism is often associated with ‘eco-tourism’. The International Ecotour-
ism Society defines the same as responsible travel to natural areas and destinations while
preserving the environment and sustaining welfare of local citizens. It also concerns
elements of rural and cultural tourism. Some principles of eco-tourism are that it essen-
tially promotes the conservation of natural, traditional and cultural heritage by including
local people in planning, development and operational activities thereby enhancing their
welfare. Eco-tourism ensures that tourists are informed and made aware of natural and
cultural resources; these explanations usually target individuals or a very small group of
foreigners. Activities such as touring, hiking, mountain climbing, observing the living
beings in their natural habitat as well as incorporating cultural values to these visitors
often form part of these types of eco-tourism.5
While tourism development can boost economic growth and social development, the
reverse is also possible. The study by Fauzel and Seetanah (forthcoming) observed that
economic growth in Mauritius attracts tourists. Similar findings are reported in Seetanah
et al. (2019a), Nene and Taivan (2017) and Wang et al. (2012). Referring to studies on the
impact of tourism development and the environment, it is observed that tourism devel-
opment is a contributing factor to environmental degradation. Environmental impacts of
the tourism sector include depletion of local natural resources, increased CO2 emissions,
noise pollution, solid waste and littering and severe local air pollution. Carbon Brief
(2018) highlighted that 8% of global greenhouse gas emissions from 2009 to 2013
emanated from worldwide tourism, thus making this sector a bigger polluter than the
construction sector. On the other hand, degradation in the environment impacts
different types of tourism. Island economies, predominantly tourism-led economies,
are more likely to be affected by the changing climatic conditions and their consequences.
For instance, adverse occurrences such as beach erosion, deterioration of coral reefs and
damage to cultural heritage through floods as a result of increases in sea levels make small
islands less attractive to tourists which adversely affects tourist flows (Fauzel & Seetanah,
forthcoming). The link between tourism development and the three spheres of sustain-
ability namely, economic, social and environmental is illustrated in the figure below.
Figure 2 shows that while tourism development can lead to economic growth and
social development the reverse as well is possible. Also, tourism development can
result in environmental degradation and the same can therefore deter tourism inflow.
For instance, the literature is fraught with studies measuring the direct interplay
between tourism and economic growth. There is less focus on the linkages between econ-
omic, social and environmental variables on tourism growth. To the best of our knowl-
edge, there is to date no study that has assessed the link between sustainable development
and tourism growth for the case of Mauritius. As such, there is a need to analyse the
implications of the dynamics of such a relationship on this economy.
Hence, the present study attempts to fill the gap and aims at adding to the existing
literature by investigating the relationship between sustainable development and
tourism growth for Mauritius. In this regard, the present study uses a rigorous
dynamic time series analysis namely a dynamic vector error correction model
(VECM), to carry out the proposed investigation. Such a procedure ensures that the
 JOURNAL OF POLICY RESEARCH IN TOURISM, LEISURE AND EVENTS 505

Figure 2. Tourism impact on economic, social and environmental aspects and reverse causation.
Source: Author’s compilation.

dynamic behaviour of the time series under consideration is properly captured, while
simultaneously catering for endogeneity and causality issues. Any feedback and indirect
effects which might be present will also be detected within the VECM. The model also
simultaneously allows the identification of any bi-directional and/or unidirectional caus-
ality between the variables of interest.
The rest of this paper is organised as follows: Section 2 defines the methodology and
Section 3 discusses the findings. Finally, conclusions are presented in Section 4.

Methodology
The basic specification of the model is based on the principles of earlier studies carried
out such as Popescu et al. (2014). The econometric model is augmented by including
proxies of sustainable development mainly economic, social and environmental variables
such as GDP and inflation rate as economic indicators. For social indicators, institutional
development is considered and the secondary enrolment rate and the life expectancy rate
are included. The environment variable which is included is the CO2 emission. In this
regard, the econometric model takes the following functional form
TOU = f (GDP, CPI, SEC, LIFE, CO2 ) (1)
where
506 S. FAUZEL AND V. TANDRAYEN-RAGOOBUR

Variable Variable definition Related literature Data source

Dependent variable Number of tourist arrivals in the Fauzel and Seetanah Statistics
Tourist Arrivals (TOU) country (2021) and Seetanah Mauritius
and Fauzel (2019b)
Independent variables
Economic factors
Real GDP (GDP) The level of economic Louca (2006) and Fauzel World Bank
development in the country (2020) Database
Inflation (CPI) Rate of inflation proxied as the Içöz (1991) and Popescu Statistics
percentage increase in et al. (2014) Mauritius
consumer price index
Social factors using institutional development indicators
Secondary enrolment ratio (SEC) proxy Secondary school enrolment (% Popescu et al. (2014) World Bank
for educational institution gross) Database
Life expectancy (LIFE) as a proxy for life expectancy at birth (total Popescu et al. (2014) World Bank
service development in general and years) Database
healthcare in particular
Environment factor
CO2 emission (CO2) CO2 emissions (metric tons per Fauzel (2017) World bank
capita) Database
Source: Author’s compilation.

The natural logarithm of the variables have been employed for ease of interpretation
(that is, in percentage terms)
lnTOUt = a0 + b1 lnGDPt + b2 lnCPIt + b3 lnSECt + b4 lnLIFEt
+ b5 lnCO2 t + mt (2)
where, t denotes the time dimension and m is the error term.

Estimation issues
Applying regression on time series data may generate spurious results (Granger &
Newbold, 1974; Phillips, 1986) due to the possibility of non-stationarity data. Hence,
checking the stationarity of data is a prerequisite for applying co-integration test. As a
result, the Augmented Dickey-Fuller (ADF) test (Dickey & Fuller, 1979, 1981) and the
Phillips-Perron test (Phillips & Perron, 1988) were applied. Once the variables are
stationary of the same order, the second step is to check for co-integration test or
long-run co-integration relationship amongst the variables. The Johansen Co-integrating
Test, which uses the maximum likelihood testing process, is applied, to investigate the
number of Co-integration vectors in the Vector Auto Regressive (VAR) setting.
Actually, the static single equation often fails to take into account the presence of
dynamic feedback among relevant variables. Accordingly, we chose to use a VAR
approach to study the relationship between sustainable development and tourism
growth. Such an approach does not impose a priori restriction on the dynamic relations
among the different variables. It resembles simultaneous equation modelling, whereby
several endogenous variables are considered together.
The common form of VAR is as given;
Zt = l + gt Zt−1 + . . . . . . . . . . . .. + gk Zt−k + 1t (3)
where Z is an (n × 1) vector of k variables having integrated of order 1 that is I(1), λ is a
 JOURNAL OF POLICY RESEARCH IN TOURISM, LEISURE AND EVENTS 507

(n × 1) vector of intercepts, γt, … .. γt−k are parameters and εt is a normally distributed

residual term. The common VAR based model in Equation (3) may also take the form
of the VECM as follows:
DZt = l + GDZt−1 + PZt−1 + 1t
(4)
Zt = [lnTOUt, lnGDPt , lnCPIt , lnSECt , lnLIFEt , lnCO2 t]
where Z is an (n × 1) vector of k variables having integration of order 1 that is I(1), λ is a
(n × 1) vector of intercepts and εt is an (n × 1) vector of residuals. Further, Δ is the differ-
ence operator and Γ and ∏ are coefficient matrices. ∏ is also known as the impact matrix
as it explains the long-run equilibrium relationship of the variables; while Γ explains the
short-run effect. The VECM linking short-term and long-term causality between
Tourism and sustainable development is set as follows:


n

n

n
DlnTOUt = a0 + a1 DlnGDPt−j + a2 DlnCPIt−j + a3 DlnSECt−j
j=1 j=1 j=1


n

n
+ a4 DlnLIFEt−j + a5 DlnCO2 t − j + hECTT−1 + 1t (5)
j=1 j=1

The coefficient of the error correction term (ECTt−1) indicates whether there exists a
short-run relationship among the time series variables. The sign and value of the coeffi-
cient provide information about the speed of convergence or divergence of the variables
from their long-run co-integrating equilibrium. A negative and significant coefficient of
ECTt−1 is favourable for the stability of long-run equilibrium.

Findings
Indispensable to the analysis of time series data is the test for stationarity so as to avoid
spurious results. Both the ADF and Phillips-Perron unit root tests (lag length selection
based on the Schwarz Information Criterion) concluded that the variables follow an I
(1) process. The results are shown in the table below (Table 1).
Furthermore, the Johansen Cointegration test shows that the series are co-inte-
grated. Hence a long-run equilibrium relationship among the variables has been estab-
lished. The next step is to specify and estimate a VECM including the error correction
term to investigate the dynamic nature of the model. In this study, the VECM is esti-
mated using an optimum lag length of 1. Table 2 reports the long-run results of the
model.6

Table 1. Unit root test.

Variables ADF unit root Prob (first difference) Phillips-Perron unit root Prob (first difference)
LTOU 0.0017 0.0016
LGDP 0.0007 0.0008
LCPI 0.0771 0.0920
LSEC 0.0711 0.0190
LLIFE 0.0003 0.0003
LCO2 0.0599 0.0000
Source: Author’s compilation.
508 S. FAUZEL AND V. TANDRAYEN-RAGOOBUR

Table 2. Long-run results.

Variable Dependent variable: LTOU Dependent variable: LGDP Dependent variable: LCO2
LTOU NA 3.858132 1.446279***
[5.68601]*** [8.75191]
LGDP 1.154521*** NA −0.374865***
[5.15314] [−3.39299]
LCPI 0.112946 −0.034570 −0.012959
[0.25168] [−0.05675] [−0.05138]
LSEC 3.421686*** 3.606567*** −1.351976***
[6.69616] [5.52926] [−5.38232]
LLIFE 2.948248 2.429591*** 1.432931***
[0.48432] [2.92797] [3.03301]
LCO2 −0.801440*** −2.667626*** NA
[−2.88373] [−5.16759]
Constant −95.94502 122.3266 45.85596
*** Shows significance at 1% and the values in parentheses [] are the t-value.
Source: Author’s compilation.

The long-run equation yields very interesting results. It is observed that economic
growth has contributed to tourism growth of the country in the long run as and this is
supported by the positive and significant coefficient of the variable. In fact, as per the
results, a 1% increase in real GDP raises tourism growth by 1.15%. This result is there-
fore confirming the economic-driven tourism growth (EDTG)7 hypothesis. Also, it
confirms that tourism development contributes to the first sphere of sustainability
which is economic growth. Such a finding is in line with the results of Payne and
Mervar (2010) in Croatia, Tang (2011) in Malaysia and Fauzel et al. (2021) and See-
tanah et al. (2019a) for Mauritius supporting that the economic growth stimulates
tourism development. Furthermore, the study by Athari et al. (2021) also revealed
that economic growth is a significant determinant of the performance of the
tourism industries for the set of panel countries investigated. The second economic
variable used in the regression is inflation rate. High prices are a significant factor
affecting tourism demand and the tourism sector in developing countries. As per
the present study, inflation is not influencing tourist arrivals and this can be explained
by the fact that Mauritius has been experiencing a relatively low inflation rate and is
not among the factors influencing tourism demand.
In order to investigate the second sphere of sustainability, social indicators are used in
this study which relates to the secondary enrolment ratio and the life expectancy rate.
Education is an essential resource required to increase the quality of work, and conse-
quently it is the key component of tourism development (Bartoluci et al., 2013). The
results obtained for the education variable in this study is positive and significant imply-
ing the importance of education on tourism development in the long run for Mauritius.
Also, an environmental variable was as well included in the study to capture the link
between environment and tourism development in Mauritius, representing the third
sphere of sustainability. Also, an environmental variable was included in the study to
capture the link between environment and tourism development in Mauritius, represent-
ing the third sphere of sustainability. The results show that a 1% increase in CO2 emission
on the island leads to a 0.80% decrease in tourism growth. Global tourism is indeed
affected by climate change.
 JOURNAL OF POLICY RESEARCH IN TOURISM, LEISURE AND EVENTS 509

Reverse causation
Reverse causality was as well investigated as one can also hypothesise that the higher the
number of international tourist arrivals in a particular destination, the more developed
the economy will be. While the result shows that GDP influences tourism growth, the
results reported in the above table show that tourism growth in the country also deter-
mines the level of economic growth thus confirming the tourism-led growth hypothesis.
Referring to the economic growth equation that is the third column of Table 2, it is
observed that a reverse causation exists between tourism growth and output growth.
Hence, there is a reverse and bidirectional causality between tourism and economic
growth. This result supports the tourism growth-led hypothesis. Similar results were
obtained by Katircioglu (2009) as well as Alola and Alola (2018) investigating the
dynamic response of renewable energy consumption to long-run disequilibrium and
short-run impact of tourism development and agricultural land usage for the period of
1995 to 2014 in 16 Coastline Mediterranean Countries.
More so, economic growth which is a sustainability variable is as well-being affected
by the environment. For instance, analysing the results from the above table and referring
to the third and fourth columns, it can be seen that environmental degradation has a
negative impact on economic growth. However, it is observed that an increase in econ-
omic growth contributes towards reducing CO2 emissions. Similar results were obtained
by Eluwole et al. (2020), who found a negative link between carbon emissions and econ-
omic growth in the long run for the case of 37 developed countries. His study supports
that economic growth is beneficial for the environment.
The results show that the quality of the environment is essential to tourism for the
country as discussed above. However, analysing column 4 of Table 2, it is noted that
tourism development can deteriorate the environment as well. The results show that
an increase in tourism contributes towards increasing pollution levels in the country.
Hence, tourism development has had adverse environmental effects as per the present
study. Similar results were found by Ahmad et al. (2018). Lots of the negative environ-
mental impacts that result from tourism are connected with the construction of infra-
structure such as roads and airports or resorts, hotels, restaurants, among others.
Hence, it can be observed that most of the sustainable development variables have a
significant impact on tourism development in the case of Mauritius in the long run.
Finally, it is noteworthy to point out that the short-run variables are insignificant
which can be explained by the fact that sustainable development variables and tourism
development take time to influence each other.

Conclusion
Based on the VECM framework adopted in this study, the main objective is to investigate
the relationship that might exist between sustainable development variables and tourism
growth in Mauritius over the period 1980–2018. Referring to the results, it is observed
that most of the sustainable development variables are important contributors to
tourism growth in Mauritius, mainly in the long run. In fact, the government has
played an important role in promoting the economic and social prosperity in Mauritius.
With various policies adopted by the Mauritian government, the level of GDP has
510 S. FAUZEL AND V. TANDRAYEN-RAGOOBUR

increased significantly. Moreover, with free schooling and free transport for students,
there is greater access to education. The results have confirmed that the better sustainable
development variables, the higher is tourism development in the country. Furthermore,
the results confirm the presence of bi-causality and feedback effects in the tourism-econ-
omic growth model and support both the tourism-led hypothesis as well as the EDTG
hypothesis. Furthermore, environmental degradation is seen as a deterrent for tourism
development. Overall this study provides new evidence in the field of tourism and sus-
tainable development for the case of Mauritius using a recent co-integration approach
in a dynamic framework.
Policy-makers should strive to stimulate growth and maximise the environmental,
economic and social returns generated by tourism. There is a need to develop a better
understanding of tourism’s contribution to well-being and inclusive growth. The Mauri-
tian government should support the development of innovative tourism policies that will
contribute to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development which will ultimately result
in enhanced economic, social and environmental outcomes.
The result of the negative long-run equilibrium relationship between real GDP and
carbon emissions is a matter of concern. Considering the long-run result, policy-
makers should pass emissions reduction legislation. The aim should be the achievement
of high levels of productivity and economic growth through strong environmental and
energy policies. By doing so, sustainable development will be promoted. The implemen-
tation of carbon tax will as well be beneficial. It is imperative to reduce carbon pollution.
Thus, economic and environmental sustainability measures that would help to better
promote a cleaner and healthy environment will benefit both the present and future gen-
erations. Failure to act will result in further environmental degradation affecting the
economy and the population at large. The present methodical review recommends
that the future research should focus on multiple country studies.

Notes
1. https://sdgs.un.org/goals
2. https://www.undp.org/sustainable-development-goals
3. https://www.un.org/development/desa/dspd/2030agenda-sdgs.html
4. https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/topics/sustainabletourism
5. https://ecotourism.org/what-is-ecotourism/
6. To capture reverse causation and to investigate other relationships, the results relating to the
GDP equation and CO2 equation have been shown.
7. EDTG growth hypothesis supports the fact that economic growth of a country contributes
to tourism development in that particular country.

Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

References
Ahmad, F., Draz, M. U., Su, L., Ozturk, I., & Rauf, A. (2018). Tourism and environmental pol-
lution: Evidence from the one belt one road provinces of western China. Sustainability, 10
(10), 3520. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10103520
 JOURNAL OF POLICY RESEARCH IN TOURISM, LEISURE AND EVENTS 511

Alola, A. A., & Alola, U. V. (2018). Agricultural land usage and tourism impact on renewable
energy consumption among coastline Mediterranean countries. Energy & Environment, 29
(8), 1438–1454. https://doi.org/10.1177/0958305X18779577
Antonakakis, N., Dragouni, M., & Filis, G. (2015). How strong is the linkage between tourism and
economic growth in Europe? Economic Modelling, 44, 142–155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
econmod.2014.10.018
Athari, S. A., Alola, U. V., Ghasemi, M., & Alola, A. A. (2021). The (un) sticky role of exchange and
inflation rate in tourism development: Insight from the low and high political risk destinations.
Current Issues in Tourism, , 24(12), 1670–1685.
Bartoluci, M., Hendija, Z., & Budimski, V. (2013). Evaluation of the possibilities of rural tourism
development in eastern Croatia. Economy of Eastern Croatia Yesterday, Today, Tommorow, 2,
190–200.
Carbon Brief. (2018, January 20). ‘State of the climate: How the world warmed in 2019’. Retrieved
March 27, 2021, from https://www.carbonbrief.org/state-of-the-climate-how-the-
worldwarmed-in-2019
Dickey, D. A., & Fuller, W. A. (1979). Distribution of the estimators for autoregressive time series
with a unit root. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 74(366a), 427–431.
Dickey, D. A., & Fuller, W. A. 1981. Likelihood ratio statistics for autoregressive time series with a
unit root. Econometrica: Journal of the Econometric Society, 1057–1072.
Eluwole, K. K., Saint Akadiri, S., Alola, A. A., & Etokakpan, M. U. (2020). Does the interaction
between growth determinants a drive for global environmental sustainability? Evidence from
world top 10 pollutant emissions countries. Science of The Total Environment, 705, 135972.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.135972
Granger, C. W., & Newbold, P. (1974). Spurious regressions in econometrics. Journal of econo-
metrics, 2(2), 111–120.
Fauzel, S. (2017). The impact of FDI on CO2 emission in a small island developing state: A coin-
tegration approach. Economics and Business Letters, 6(1), 6–13.
Fauzel, S., & Seetanah, B. (2021). Does financial development spur tourism growth? A dynamic
time series analysis for the case of an SIDS. Journal of Policy Research in Tourism, Leisure
and Events, 13(3), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1080/19407963.2021.1919128
Fauzel, S. (2020). The impact of changes in temperature and precipitation on tourists’ arrival: An
ARDL analysis for the case of a SIDS. Current Issues in Tourism, 23(19), 2353–2359. https://doi.
org/10.1080/13683500.2019.1639639
Fauzel, S., & Seetanah, B. (forthcoming). Climate change and tourism. In D. Buhalis (Ed.),
Encyclopedia of tourism management and marketing (pp. 1–3). Edward Elgar Publishing.
Fauzel, S., Seetanah, B., & Sannassee, R. V. (2017). Analysing the impact of tourism foreign direct
investment on economic growth: Evidence from a small island developing state. Tourism
Economics, 23(5), 1042–1055. https://doi.org/10.1177/1354816616664249
Içöz, O. (1991). The impacts of inflation on the tourism sector. Anatolia, 2(13/14), 19–21.
Katircioglu, S. T. (2009). Revisiting the tourism-led-growth hypothesis for Turkey using the
bounds test and Johansen approach for cointegration. Tourism Management, 30(1), 17–20.
Louca, C. (2006). Income and expenditure in the tourism industry: Time series evidence from
Cyprus. Tourism Economics, 12(4), 603–617. https://doi.org/10.5367/000000006779319963
Nene, G., & Taivan, A. (2017). Causality between tourism and economic growth: Evidence from
Sub Saharan Africa (SSA). The Journal of Developing Areas, 51(2), 155–169. https://doi.org/10.
1353/jda.2017.0037
Niedziółka, I. (2014). Sustainable tourism development. Regional Formation and Development
Studies, 8(3), 157–166.
Nunkoo, R., Seetanah, B., Jaffur, Z. R. K., Moraghen, P. G. W., & Sannassee, R. V. (2020). Tourism
and economic growth: A meta-regression analysis. Journal of Travel Research, 59(3), 404–423.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0047287519844833
Payne, J. E., & Mervar, A. (2010). Research note: The tourism–growth nexus in Croatia. Tourism
Economics, 16(4), 1089–1094. https://doi.org/10.5367/te.2010.0014
512 S. FAUZEL AND V. TANDRAYEN-RAGOOBUR

Phillips, P. C. (1986). Understanding spurious regressions in econometrics. Journal of

Econometrics, 33(3), 311–340.
Phillips, P. C., & Perron, P. (1988). Testing for a unit root in time series regression. Biometrika, 75
(2), 335-346.
Popescu, D., Saseanu, A., Bulin, D., & Calabro, G. (2014). Econometric models in Romanian
tourism under the impact of sustainable development. Amfiteatru Economic, 16(8), 1063.
Rodríguez, S. I., Roman, M. S., Sturhahn, S. C., & Terry, E. H. (2002). Sustainability assessment and
reporting for the University of Michigan’s Ann Arbor campus.
Seetanah, B., & Fauzel, S. (2019a). Investigating the impact of climate change on the tourism
sector: Evidence from a sample of island economies. Tourism Review, 74(2), 194–203. https://
doi.org/10.1108/TR-12-2017-0204
Seetanah, B., & Fauzel, S. (2019b). The positive interaction between tourism development and
human development: Evidence from Mauritius. In M. Mkono (Ed.), Positive tourism in
Africa (pp. 161–172). Routledge.
Tang, C. F. (2011). Is the tourism-led growth hypothesis valid for Malaysia? A view from disag-
gregated tourism markets. International Journal of Tourism Research, 13(1), 97–101. https://
doi.org/10.1002/jtr.807
Wang, L., Zhang, H., & Li, W. (2012). Analysis of causality between tourism and economic growth
based on computational econometrics. JCP, 7(9), 2152–2159. https://doi.org/10.4304/jcp.7.9.
2152-2159