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UNIT 7 SHORT ESSAY
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7,8,9,10,14,17,19,21,23,28,30,31,32,34,35….cal
culation
13,16,18,20,22,24, repeated
1.DECSCRIBE SCALE OF MEASUREMENTS?
Scales of Measurements In statistics and
Quantitative research Methodology, Levels of
Measurements are developed by
psychologist'Stanley Smith Stevens"
What are measurements and Variables
Variables: Characteristics ihat can take on
different values for different members of a
group. For example: Height
2.Measurement Assignment is numbers to
characteristics (Variables) of objects ,person or
events"
IMPORTANCE OF MEASUREMENTS
◆Research conclusion are accurate on which
they are based
◆The more precise, sensitive the method of
measurement, the better are the result.
LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT
Stevens (1946) classified variables into four
levels. These are referred to as level of
measurement, or levels of data.
1. Nominal
2. Ordinal
3. Interval Scale
4. Ratio Scale
Scales of Measurement
◆Nominal and ordinal }Qualitative measures -
classify into nonnumeric categories
◆Interval and ration } Quantitative measures -
measurement is numerical
THE NOMINAL SCALE
◆The Nominal scale, sometimes called
qualitative type That differentiate between
Items or subjects only on the basis of their names
or categories or qualities ◆Examples include
Gender, nationality, language ,style, Marital
the
status, student ID, state of residence ◆A
nominal scale represents lower level of
measurements
◆Such scales classifies persons or objects into
two or more categories
ORDINAL SCALE
◆An ordinal scale not only classifies subject but
also ranks them in terms of the degree to which
they possess a characteristics of interest. An
ordinal scale indicates relative position
◆Ordinal scale can determine whether an
object has more or less of a characteristic than
some other
object. The exact measurement is not available
like student A is taller than student B but their
actual heights are not available
◆It permits the researcher to rank or order the
respondents or their responses Ordinal Scale
◆Set of categories that are ordered from least
to most
◆Don't know numerical distance from each
category to the next
◆Examples :-Medical condition (satisfactory,
serious, guarded, critical)
Interval Scale
◆Scale with values, and there is the same
numerical distance between each value
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◆This scale has an arbitrary zero point (no true Importance of Central Tendency ◆ find
meaningful zero point) Examples Current representative value ◆To make more
temperature concise data. ◆ make comparisons.
◆Helpful in further statistical analysis
INTERVAL scale
Five common measures of central tendency
◆Interval scales indicate order and distance in
the order
◆Arithmetic mean ◆Median◆Mode

◆Zero point on the interval scale is arbitrary
zero, it does not means the complete absence of
anything
RATIO SCALE
◆Ratio scale allow comparison of the difference
of magnitude (e.g of attitudes) as well as
determinations of the actual strength of the
magnitude.
◆This is the highest level of measurement and
has the properties of other three levels.
◆This scale has a unique or fixed beginning or
true zero point.(complete absence of the
phenomenon being measured)
Characteristics
◆It should be rigidly defined. ◆It should be
easy to understand and compute. ◆It should be
based on all items in the data. ◆Its
definition shall be in the form of a mathematical
formula.
1.Arithmetic mean or mean:- Arithmetic mean
or simply the mean ofa variable is defined as the
sum of the observations divided by the number
of observations.
Formula for the ungrouped or raw data If the
variable x assumes n values X, X2 ,.....Xn then the
mean,
_

Criterion for the selection of Instruments X= X1 + X2 + X3 +....... xn

◆Is our measure reliable? ________________

n
◆Is our measure valid?
Example 1
◆Reliability and validity For a research study to
be accurate ,its findings must be both reliable Calculate the mean for 2, 4, 6, 8, 10
and valid.
Solution:2+4 +6+8 +10 ÷ 5
2. DESCRIBE MEASURES OF CENTRAL
30 ÷5= 6
TENDENCY?
Merits of Arithmetic mean
Definitions
◆It is rigidly defined.◆ It is easy to understand
"A measure of central tendency is a typical value
and easy to calculate. ◆ If the number of items
around which other figures gather" Simpson and
is sufficiently large, it is more accurate and more
Kafka "A measure of central tendency is a single
reliable.◆ It is a calculated value and is not
number of value which can be considered typical
based on its position in the series.◆ It is possible
in a set of data as a whole" - Waugh
to calculate even if some of the details of the
data are lacking.◆Of all averages, it is affected

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least by fluctuations of sampling.◆ It provides a
good basis for comparison.
Demerits of Arithmetic mean. ◆ It cannot
be obtained by inspection nor located through a
frequency graph.◆It cannot be in the study of
qualitative phenomena not capable of numerical
measurement i.e. Intelligence, beauty, honesty
etc., ◆ It can ignore any single item only at the
risk of losing its accuracy. ◆it cannot be
calculated for open-end classes.◆ It may lead to
fallacious conclusions, if the details of the data
from which it is computed are not given.
2.Median
It is a Measure of Central Tendency. Denoted
Md, is the middle value of the sample when the
data are ranked in order according to size. The
median is determined by sorting the data set
from lowest to highest values and taking the data
point in the middle of the sequence. Middle
Value In Ordered Sequence
Example Q: When odd number of values are
given. Find median for the following data
25, 18, 27, 10, 8, 30, 42, 20, 53
Solution:
Arranging the data in the increasing order
8,10, 18, 20, 25, 27, 30, 42, 53
The middle value is the 5th item i.e., 25 is the
median
Merits of Median
◆Median is not influenced by extreme values
because it is a positional average.
◆Median can be calculated in case of
distribution with open- end intervals.
◆Median can be located even if the data are
incomplete.
◆Median can be located even for qualitative
factors such as ability, honesty etc.
Demerits of Median
◆A slight change in the series may bring drastic
change in median value.
◆In case of even number of items or continuous
series, median is an estimated value other than
any value in the series.
◆It is not suitable for further mathematical
treatment except its use in mean deviation.
◆It is not taken into account all the
observations.
Mode
According to Croxton and Cowden "The mode of
a distribution is the value at the point around
which the items tend to be most heavily
concentrated. It may be regarded at the most
typical of a series of values".
Example
For ungrouped data or a series of individual
observations, mode is often found by mere
inspection.
Example 25:
2,7,10, 15, 10, 17, 8, 10, 2
Mode M, =10
merits
◆Mode is not at all affected by extreme values.
◆It can be calculated for open-end classes.
◆It is usually an actual value of an important
part of the series.
◆In some circumstances it is the best
representative of data.
Demerits of mode
◆It is not based on all observations.
◆It is not capable of further mathematical
treatment.
◆Mode is il-defined generally, it is not possible
to find mode in some cases.
◆As compared with mean, mode is affected to a
great extent, by sampling fluctuations.
◆It is unsuitable in cases where relative
importance of items has to be considered.
3.EXPALIN ABOUT CO EFFICIENT
CORRELATION?
Definitions
Correlation is usually defined as a measure of the
linear relationship between two quantitative
variables (e.g., height and weight).
correlation coefficient is a statistical measure of
the strength of the relationship between the
relative movements of two variable
Common Methods of computing the correlation
◆Scatter diagram method
◆Karl Pearson's Correlation Coefficient
◆Spearman's Rank Correlation Coefficient
1.SCATTERR DIAGRAM
Type of correlation coefficient
◆Perfect Positive correlation
◆Perfect negative correlation
◆Low Positive correlation
◆Low negative correlation
◆No correlation
◆Perfect Positive correlation
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An r value of exactly +1 indicates a perfect
positive fit. Positive values indicate a relationship
between x and y variables such that as values for
x increases, values for y also increase.
a) Perfect negative correlation An r value of
exactly -1 indicates a perfect negative fit.
Negative values indicate a relationship between
x and y such that as values for x increase, values
for y decrease.
b) Low positive correlation Low positive
correlation is something that seems to kind of
correlate in a positive direction might have a
value 0 < r<1, example 0.4
OF
c)Low negative correlation :-Low negative
correlation is something that seems to kind of
correlate in a negative direction might have a
value -1 <r<1 example 0.4
d) No correlation :-If there is no linear correlation
The or a weak linear correlation, r is close to 0.A
value near zero means that there is a no
relationship between the two variables
2. Karl Pearson's Correlation Coefficient :-Karl
Pearson's method, popularly known as a Pearson
Ian Coefficient of Correlation, is the most
extensively used quantitative methods in
practice. The coefficient of correlation is
denoted by "r.
FORMULA
Assumptions of Karl Pearson's Coefficient of
Correlation
◆The relationship between the variables is
"Linear
◆The variables under study so as to form a
Normal Distribution.
◆The variables are independent of each other.
3. SPEARMAN'S RANK
CORRELATION COEFFICIENT centre is a mirror image of the left side. The
height of the curve declines symmetrically.
Definition:
5. EXPLAIN TEST OF SIGNIFICANT?
The Spearman's Rank Correlation Coefficient is
the non-parametric statistical measure used to A test of significance is a formal procedure for
study the strength of association between the comparing observed data with a claim
two ranked variables. This method is applied to (alsobcalled a hypothesis), the truth of which is
the ordinal set of numbers. being assessed.

Steps 7 Steps In Test of significance

1.The difference between the ranks (R1-R2) Step 1: State the Null Hypothesis. Step 2: State
must be calculated, denoted by D the Alternative Hypothesis

2. Square these differences to remove the Step 3: Set a

negative sign and obtain its sum D2
Step 4: Collect Data
3.Apply the formula
Step 5: Calculate a test statistic. Step 6:
4.DESCRIBE NORMAL PROBABILITY CURVE Construct Acceptance / Rejection regions
Normal probability curve
Step 7: Based on steps 5 and 6, draw a conclusion
J.P. Guilford has defined normal probability
Step 1: State the Null Hypothesis
curve comprehensively. "Normal probability
curve is well defined well structure, The null hypothesis can be thought of as the
mathematical curve, having a distribution of the opposite of the "guess" the research made. So
scores with mean, median, and modes are equal. we set up a Null hypothesis which is effectively
the opposite of the working hypothesis. The
Characteristics
hope is that based on the strength of the data we
1.Bell shaped will be able to negate or Reject the Null
hypothesis and accept an alternative hypothesis.
2.Mean=Median=Mode
We state the Null hypothesis as: Ho
3.Asymptotic under the
Step 2: State the Alternative Hypothesis :-To
4.Emprical Rule cover all alternative outcomes, we resort to a
verbal statement of 'not all equal' and then
Greater percentage of cases at the middle of follow up with mean comparisons to find out
the distribution: where differences among means exist. We state
There is a greater percentage of cases at the the alternative hypothesis as: Ha
middle of the distribution.
Step 3: Set a Researcher should be familiar with
Other Characteristics type I and type Il errors. It is important to note
that we want to set a before the experiment (a-
5.The normal curve is a smooth curve. prior) because the Type l error is the more
6. Normal distributions are symmetric, unimodal 'grievous' error to make. The typical value of a is
0.05, establishing a 95% confidence level. For
7. A normal distribution is perfectly symmetrical this course we will assume a =0.05.
around its center. That is, the right side of the
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Step 4: Collect Data
Data is collected through experimental design or
observation.
Step 5: Calculate a test statistic
Hypothesis testing generally uses a test statistic
that compares groups or examines associations
between variables. When describing a single
sample without establishing relationships
between variables, a confidence interval is
commonly used. The p-value describes the
probability of obtaining a sample statistic as or
more extreme by chance alone if your null
hypothesis is true. This p-value is determined
based on the result of your test statistic.
Step 6: Construct Acceptance/ Rejection regions
Well, there is a cut-off line. Since we aree
conducting a two-sided or a two-tailed test,
there are two cut-off lines, one on each side.The
area that is cut-off actually depends on the
significance level. Say the level of significance, a,
is 0.05. Then we have a divided by 2, or 0.025 on
the left side and 0.025 on the right side. The
acceptance region with p value < 0.05 The
rejection region with p value 0.05
Step 7: Based on steps 5 and 6, draw a conclusion
about Ho
P-value = significance level (a) => Reject your null
hypothesis in favor of your alternative
hypothesis. Your result is statistically significant.
P-value significance level (a) => Fail to reject your
null hypothesis. Your result is not statistically
significant.
6.EXPLAIN STATISTICAL PACKAGE AND ITS
APPLICATION?
Statistical software are specialized computer
programmes for analysis in statistics. There are
number of software available to manage
statistical data. Nurse researchers almost
invariably use computer to calculate statistics.
There are many statistical software packages
available for nursing research, many
proprietaryand many free. Some have been
around for many years and some are new on the
scene.
1>Statistical software package for analyzing
Quantitative data
There are some software packages that are
readily available and often used at UniSA,
including Microsoft Excel, SPSS, SAS, Stata and R,
which will briefly overviewed here.
◆Microsoft Excel
Pros and Cons
Extremely easy to use and interchanges nicely
with other Microsoft products Excel
spreadsheets can be read by many other
statistical packages
Add on module which is part of Excel for
undertaking basic statistical analyses Can
produce very nice graphs Excel is designed for
financial calculations, Excel is designed for
financial calculations, although it is possible to
use it for many other things Cannot undertake
more sophisticated statistical analyses without
purchase of expensive Commercial add ons.
◆SPSS
Statistical Package for Social Sciences
Pros and Cons
Very easy to learn and use ,Can use either with
menus or syntax files Quite good graphics .Excels
at descriptive statistics, basic regression analysis,
analysis of variance and some newer techniques
such as Classification and Regression Trees
(CART) Focus is on statistical methods mainly
used in the social sciences, market research and
Psychology Has advanced regression modelling
procedures such as LMM and GEE. Has advanced
regression modelling such as LMM and GEE, but Computer-assisted qualitative data analysis
they are awful to use with very obscure syntax software (CAQDAS)offers tools that assist with
Has few of the more powerful techniques qualitative research such as transcription
required in epidemiological analysis, such as analysis, coding and text interpretation,
competing risk analysis or standardized rates recursive abstraction, content analysis,
discourse analysis, grounded theory
◆SAS (Statistical Analysis System) methodology, etc. CAQDAS is used in
A researcher often gets a large data set in the psychology, marketing research, ethnography,
field of medicine and nursing, so in those fields, public health and other social sciences. The
the researcher generally uses SAs (Statistical CAQDAS networking project lists the following
Analysis System) instead of SPSS (Statistical tools a CAQDAS program should have Content
Package for Social Sciences) to analyze the searching tools ,Coding tools, Linking tools,
clinical data. SAS provides a graphical point-and- Mapping or networking tools, Query tools, and
click user interface for non-technical users and annotation tools, Pros and Cons Such software
more through the SAS language. SAS programs helps to organize, manage and analyse
have DATA steps, which retrieve and manipulate information
data, and PROC steps, which analyse the data.
◆The advantages of using this software include
Each step consists of a series of statements. SAS
saving time, managing huge amounts of
data can be published in HTML, PDF, Excel, RTF
qualitative data, having increased
and other formats using the Output Delivery
flexibility,•having improved validity and
System. The SAS software suite has more than
auditability of qualitative research, and being
200 components.
freed from manual and clerical tasks •Concerns
Pros and Cons include increasingly deterministic and rigid
processes, privileging of coding and retrieval
Can use either with menus or syntax files Much
methods; reification of data, increased pressure
more powerful than SPSS Commonly used for
on researchers to focus on volume and breadth
data management in clinical trials Harder to
rather than on depth and meaning.•Time and
learn and use than SPSS
energy spent learning to use computer packages,
◆ STATA increased commercialism and distraction from
the real work of analysis
Pros and Cons
11.EXPLAIN TYPE 1 AND TYPE II ERROR?
Can use either with menus or syntax files Much
more powerful than SPSS probably equivalent to types 1 error
SAS Excels at advanced regression modelling. A type 1 error is also known as a false positive
Has its own in-built structural equation and occurs when a researcher incorrectly rejects
modelling.Has a good suite of epidemiological a true null hypothesis. This means that your
procedures. Researchers around the world write report that your findings are significant when in
their own procedures in Stata, which are then fact they have occurred by chance.
available to all users
The probability of making a type I error is
Statistical software package for analyzing represented by your alpha level (a), which is the
Qualitative data p-value below which you reject the null
hypothesis. A p-value of 0.05 indicates that you
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are willing to accept a 5% chance that you are
wrong when you reject the null hypothesis. You
can reduce your risk of committing a •type I
error by using a lower value for p. • example,
ap-value of 0.01 would mean there is a 1%
chance of committing a Type I error. However,
using a lower value for alpha means that you will
be less likely to detect a true difference if one
really exists (thus risking a type II error).
causes
◆Type 1 error is caused when something other
than the variable affects the other variable,
which results in an outcome that supports the
rejection of the null hypothesis.
◆Under such conditions, the outcome appears
to have happened due to some causes than
chance, when in fact it is caused by chance.
◆Before a hypothesis is tested, a probability is
set as a level of significance which means that
the hypothesis is being tested while taking a
chance where the null hypothesis is rejected
even when it is true.
◆Thus, type 1 error might be due to chance/
level of significance set before the test without
considering the test duration and sample size.
The consequences making a type I error
mean that changes or interventions are made
which are unnecessary, and thus waste time,
resources, etc.
types I error example
◆For this, let us take a hypothesis where a
player is trying to find the relationship between
him wearing new shoes and the number of wins
for his team.
◆Here, if the number of wins for his team is
more when he was wearing his new shoes is
more than the number of wins for his team
otherwise, he might accept the alternative
hypothesis and determine that there is a
relationship.
◆However, the winning of his team might be
influenced by just chance rather than his shoes
which results in type 1 error.
◆.In this case, he should've accepted the null
hypothesis because the winning of a team might
happen due to chance or luck.
types II error
A type II error is also known as a false negative
and occurs when a researcher fails to reject a null
hypothesis which is really false.Here a researcher
concludes there is not a significant effect, when
actually there really is. The probability of making
a type II error is called Beta (B), and this is related
to the power of the statistical test (power 1- B).
You can decrease your risk of committing a type
II error by ensuring your test has enough power.
You can do this by ensuring your sample size is
large enough to detect a practical difference
when one truly exists.
consequences
◆Type II errors typically lead to the
preservation of the status quo (i.e. interventions
remain the same) when change is needed.
◆Type Il error is the error that occurs when the
null hypothesis is accepted when it is not true.
◆The type Il error results in a false negative
result.
◆The Type ll error is denoted by B (beta) and is
also termed as the beta error.
◆The null hypothesis is set to state that there is
no relationship between two variables and the
cause-effect relationship between two variables,
if present, is caused by chance.
◆Type II error occurs when the null hypothesis
is acceptable considering that the relationship
between the variables is because of chance or
luck, and even when there is a relationship
between the variables.
◆As a result of this error, the researcher might
end up believing that the hypothesis doesn't
work even when it should.
.The primary cause of type ll error,
◆like a Type Il error, is the low power of
thebstatistical test.
◆.This occurs when the statistical is not
powerful and thus results in a Type Ilberror.
.◆Other factors, like the sample size, also affect
the results of the test.
◆When small sample size is selected, the
relationship between two variables being tested
might not be significant even when it does exist.
◆.The researcher might assume the relationship
is due to chance and thus reject the alternative
hypothesis even when it is true.
◆There it is important to select an appropriate
size of the sample before
Probability of type ll error
◆The probability of committing a Type Il error is
calculated by subtracting the power of the test
from 1.
◆If Type ll error is fixed at 2 percent, it means
that there are about two chances in 100 that the
nullbhypothesis, Ho, will be accepted when it is
not true.
◆The rate or probability of type ll error is
symbolized by B and is also termed as the error
of the second type.
◆It is possible to reduce the probability of Type
Il error by increasing the level of significance.
◆In this case, the probability of rejecting the
null hypothesis even when it is true also
increases, in turn decreasing the chances of
acceptina Close X
◆.However, because type I and Type Ill error
are interconnected, reducing one tends to
increase the probability of the other
.◆Therefore, depending on the nature of the
test, it is important to determine which one of
the errors is less detrimental to the test.
◆For this, if type I error involves with the time
and effort for retesting the chemicals used in
medicine that should have been accepted
whereasbthe type Il error involves the chances of
a number of users of this medicine being
poisoned, it is wise to accept the type l error over
type I.
15.PREPARE A DATA TABLE AND EXPLAIN ITS
PARTS?
1.name the table
2figure out the colums and rows
3.draw a table
4.label
5.record
6.check the table
1. Name the table. Write a title at the top of your
paper. Make sure the title relates to the data you
will put in your table. Scholastic]
2. Figure out how many columns and rows you
need.
3. Draw the table. Using a ruler, draw a large box.
Make the necessary number of columns and
rows. Don't forget to leave the top row blank.
This is where you will label your columns.
4. Label all your columns. The leftmost column
should be reserved for your independent
variable. For example, if you're researching how
much rain fell in the past year, your independent
variable would be the months of the year. Thus,
your leftmost column would be labelled "Month'
and the next column would be labelled
"Rainfall."
5. Record the data from your experiment or
research in the appropriate columns. You want
the information in your table to be clear and
obvious to anyone who sees it. When you're
finished there should be a number in every
space. If there is an average or derived result
from your data, that number should be recorded
in the rightmost column.
6. Check your table. Look over your work to make
sure everything is correct and clear. [SEDL]
PARTS OF THE TABLE
◆.Table number ◆Title of the table
◆Subheads if any ◆Head note - it is placed
below the title of the table ◆Captions (Column
heading) and stubs (row designations) ◆Body
of the table ◆Units of measurements Dividers
◆Foot notes if needed ◆Source notes.
1Table number: A number must be allotted to
the table for identification, particularly when
there are many tables in a study.
2Title:
The title should explain what is contained in the
table. It should be clear, brief and set in bold type
on top of the table. It should also indicate the
time and place to which the data refer.
3.Date: The date of preparation of the table
should be given.
4.Stubs or Row designations: Each row of the
table should be given a brief heading. Such
designations of rows are called "stubs", or, "stub
items" and the entire column is called "stub
column".
5 Column headings or Captions: Column
designation is given on top of each column to
explain to what the figures in the column refer. It
should be clear and precise. This is called a
"caption", or, "heading". Columns should be
numbered if there are four, or, more columns
6.Body of the table: The data should be arranged
in such a way that any figure can be located
easily. Various types of numerical variables
should be arranged in an ascending order, i.e.,
from left to right in rows and from top to bottom
in columns. Column and row totals should be
given.
7.Source: At the bottom of the table a note
should be added indicating the primary and
secondary sources from which data have been
collected.
8.Footnotes and references: If any item has not
been explained properly, a separate explanatory
note s explain hould be added at the bottom of
the table.
25 CHARACTERISTICS OF NORMAL PROBABILITY
CURVE?
1. The curve is bilaterally symmetrical :- The
curve is symmetrical to its ordinate of the central
point of the curve. It means the size, shape and
slope of the curve on one side of the curve is
identical to the other side of the curve. If the
curve is bisected then its right hand side
completely matches to the left hand side.
2. The curve is asymptotic: The Normal
Probability Curve approaches the horizontal
axisvand extends from-oo to +0o, Means the
extreme ends of the curve tends to touch the
basebline but never touch it. It is depicted in
figure (11.3) given below:
3. The Mean, Median and Mode: The mean,
Median and mode fall at the middle point and
they are numerically equal.
4. The Points of inflection occur at + 1 Standard
deviation unit: The points of influx in a NPC occur
at + 1o to unit above and below the mean. Thus
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at this point the curve changes from convex to the modal ordinate varies in- caressingly to the
concave in relation to the horizontal axis. standard deviation. The standard deviation of
the Normal Probability Curve increases the
5. The total area of NPC is divided in to t standard
modal ordinate decreases and vice-versa.
deviations: The total of NPC is divided into six
standard deviation units. From the center it is 26,2 7 PIE CHART AND PREPATION?
divided in to three +ve° standard deviation units
pie chart that shows the relationships of the
and three -ve' standard deviation units. Thus+3o
parts of the whole. The circle is considered with
of NPC include different number of cases
100% and the categories occupied is represented
separately.
with that specific percentage like 15%, 56%, etC.
6. The Y ordinate represents the height of the
Steps to Construct a Pie- Chart
Normal Probability Curve The Y ordinate of the
NPC represents the height of the curve. At the Step 1:-Calculate the central angle for each
center the maximum ordinate occurs. The height component, using the above formula.
of the curve at the mean or mid point is denoted
Step 2:-Draw a circle of convenient radius.
as Yo.
Step 3:-Within this circle, draw a horizontal
7.It is unimodal: The curve is having only one
radius.
peak point. Because the maximum frequency
occurs only at one point. Step 4:- Draw radius making central angle of first
component with horizontal radius; this sector
8. The height of the curve symmetrically
represents the first component. From this radius,
declines: The height of the curve decline to both
draw next radius with central angle of second
the direction symmetrically from the central
component; this sector represents second
point. Means the M+O and M o are equal if the
component and so on, until we exhaust all
distance from the mean is equal.
components.
9. The Mean of NPC is u and the standard
Step 5:-Shade each sector differently and mark
deviation is o: As the mean of the NPC represent
the component it represents.
the population mean so it is represented by the u
(Meu). The standard deviation of the curve is step 6:-These radi divide the whole circle into
represented by the Greek Letter, o. various sectors.

10. In Normal Probability Curve the Standard step 7:-Now, shade the sectors with different
deviation is the 50% larger than the Q: In NPC the colours to denote various components.
Q is generally called the probable error or PE.
Step 8:- Give the heading for each component.
11. Q can be used as a unit of measurement in
determining tha within given part: 29 STEPS OF CONSTRUCTION OF BAR
DIAGRAM?
12. The Average Deviation about the mean of
NPC There is a constant relationship between Step 1:-On a graph paper, draw vertical line and
standard deviation and average deviation in a horizontal line which are perpendicular to each
NPC. other.

13. The model ordinate varies increasingly to the ◆On a graph, draw two lines perpendicular to
standard deviation: In a Normal Probability curve each other, intersecting at 0.
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◆The horizontal line is x-axis and vertical line is y
- axis.
Step 2:-In the given data, you will have two
variables. One of the variables to be taken on the
horizontal line and other variable to be taken on
the vertical line.
Step 3:-The bars we take either on the horizontal
line or vertical line should have uniform width.
◆Along the horizontal axis, choose the uniform
width of bars and uniform gap between the bars
and write the names of the data items whose
values are to be marked.
◆Along the vertical axis, choose a suitable scale
in order to determine the heights of the bars for
the given values. (Frequency is taken along y-
axis).
Step 4:-If we take the first variable on horizontal
line, the bars should be drawn on horizontal line.
If we take the first variable on vertical line, the
bars should be drawn on vertical line.
Step 5:-The height of each bar will depend upon
the data given.
◆Calculate the heights of the bars according to
the scale chosen and draw the bars.
◆Bar graph gives the information of the number
of children involved in different activities.
step 6.:-◆give the graph tittle and label it.
SHORT ANSWER
1.4 uses of statistics in medical feild?
◆Health Care Uitilization:- Researchers use
scientific methods to gather data on samples of
human population.
◆Resource Allocation:-Statistical information is
necessary in determining which resources are
used to produce goods and service ,what
combination of goods and services to produce,
and to which populations to serve them.
◆Needs Assessment:- Public and private health
care administrators, charged with providing
continues care to diverse populations, compare
existing services to community needs.
◆Quality Improvement:-Health care suppliers
struggle to make effective goods and services
efficiently. Statistics are important to health care
organisations in measuringperformance success
or failure.
◆Product Development:-Innovative medicine
begins and ends with statistical analysis.
5 DEFINE STANDARD DEVIATION?
It is defined as the positive square-root of the
arithmetic mean of the Square of the deviations
of the given observation from their arithmetic
mean.Standard Deviation shows the variation in
data. If the data is close together, the standard
deviation will be small. If the data is spread out,
the standard deviation will be large. Standard
Deviation is often denoted by the lowercase
Greek letter sigma,
6 DEFINE VARIANCE?
In probability theory and statistics, variance is
the expectation of the squared deviation of a
random variable from its mean. Informally, it
measures how far a set of numbers is spread out
from their average value. Variance (0) in
statistics is a measurement of the spread
between numbers in a data set.
10 .TO DRAW
17.LIST ANY 2 MEASURES OF DISPRESION?
A)range b) variance c) standard deviation
20.DEFINE DISPERSION?
The measures that help us to know about the
spread of a data set are called measures of
dispersion. The measures of central tendency
and dispersion taken together give a better
picture of a data set. We consider 3 measures of
dispersion:

1. Range 2. Variance

3. Standard Deviation

27.DEFINE STATISTICS?

Statistics is defined as collection, presentation,

analysis and interpretation of numerical data.
Statistics is the science and art of dealing with
figure and facts. Statistics is the body of
techniques used to facilitate the collection,
organization, presentation, analysis, and
interpretation of data for the purpose of making
better 2,3,4,7,8,9,11, 12
,13,14,15,16,18,19,21,22,23, 24,25,26,28
repeated

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