Note

z-Transform
Dr. Sujit Kumar Sahoo

Assistant Professor,SES
IIT Goa
School of Electrical Sciences

IIT Goa
August 11, 2023
Dr. Sujit Kumar Sahoo (IIT GOA) z-Transform August 11, 2023 1 / 22
z-Transform Definition
The Fourier transform of a sequence of x[n] is defined as
∞
X
X (e jω ) = x[n]e −jωn
n=−∞
The z-Transform of a sequence x[n] is defined as

∞
X
X (z) = x[n]z −n
n=−∞
where z is a continuous complex variable

Z
x[n] ←
→ X (z)
Figure: The unit circle in the
jω complex z -plane
z = re
X∞ ∞
X
X (re jω ) = x[n](re jω )−n = (x[n]r −n )e −jωn
n=−∞ n=−∞
Region of convergence
Region of convergence:
∞
X
|X (re jω )| ≤ |x[n]r −n | < ∞
n=−∞
Convergence of this series depends only on |z|

Figure: The ROC as a ring in the z
-plane. For specific cases, the inner
∞
X boundary can extend inward to the
|x[n]||z|−n < ∞ origin, and the ROC becomes a
n=−∞ disc. For other cases, the outer
boundary can extend outward to
infinity.
Examples
Sinc & Sin

sinωc n
x1 [n] = , −∞ < n < ∞
πn
x2 [n] = cosω0 n, −∞ < n < ∞
Right sided exponential sequence: x[n] = an u[n]

∞
X ∞
X
X (z) = an u[n]z −n = (az −1 )n
n=−∞ n=0
Examples
∞
X 1 z
X (z) = (az −1 )n = = , |z| > |a|
n=0
1 − az −1 z −a
Figure: However, if |a| > 1, the Fourier transform of the right-sided exponential sequence
does not converge.
Examples
left sided exponential sequence:

(
an , n ≤ −1
x[n] = −an u[−n − 1] =
0, n > −1
∞
X −1
X
X (z) = −an u[−n − 1]z −n = − an z −n
n=−∞ n=−∞
∞
X ∞
X
= − a−n z n = 1 − (a−1 z)n
n=1 n=0
1
= 1− ; |z| < |a|
1 − a−1 z
z 1
= =
z −a 1 − az −1
Examples
Sum of two exponential sequence:

n n
1 1
x[n] = u[n] + − u[n]
2 3
∞ n
X 1 1
X (z) = u[n] + − u[n] z −n
n=−∞
2 3
∞ n
X 1 −n 1 −n
= u[n]z + − u[n]z
n=−∞
2 3
∞ n X ∞ n
X 1 −1 1
= z + − z −1
n=0
2 n=0
3
1 1 1 1
= 1 −1 + 1 −1 ; |z| > &|z| >
1− 2z 1+ 3z
2 3
Examples
Two-sided Exponential Sequence:

n n
1 1
x[n] = − u[n] + − u[−n − 1]
3 2
n
1 Z 1 1
− u[n] ←
→ 1 −1 , |z| > 3
3 1 + 3z
n
1 Z −1 1
− u[−n − 1] ←
→ 1 −1
, |z| <
2 1 + 2z 2
Examples
Finite-length Truncated Exponential Sequence:
(
an , 0 ≤ n ≤ N − 1
x[n] =
0, otherwise
N−1 N−1
X X 1 − (az −1 )N
X (z) = an z −n = (az −1 )n =
n=0 n=0
1 − az −1
1 z N − aN
= ; |a| < ∞ and z ̸= 0
z N−1 z − a
Non-overlapping Regions of convergence:
n n
1 1
x[n] = u[n] − − u[−n − 1]
2 3
1 1
X (z) = +
1 − 12 z −1 1 + 31 z −1
| {z } | {z }
|z|> 12 |z|< 13
z-Transforms
Sequence Transform ROC
1. δ[n] 1 All z
1
2. u[n] 1−z −1 |z| > 1
1
3. −u[−n − 1] 1−z −1 |z| < 1
−m
4. δ[n − m] z All z except 0 (if m > 0)
or ∞ (if m < 0)
1
5. an u[n] 1−az −1 |z| > |a|
1
6. −an u[−n − 1] 1−az −1 |z| < |a|
az −1
7. nan u[n] (1−az −1 )2
|z| > |a|
az −1
n
8. −na u[−n − 1] (1−az −1 )2
|z| < |a|
1−cos(ω0 )z −1
9. cos(ω0 n)u[n] 1−2cos(ω0 )z −1 +z −2 |z| > |1|
sin(ω0 )z −1
10. sin(ω0 n)u[n] 1−2cos(ω0 )z −1 +z −2 |z| > |1|
1−rcos(ω0 )z −1
11. r n cos(ω0 n)u[n] 1−2rcos(ω0 )z −1 +r 2 z −2 |z| > |r |
rsin(ω0 )z −1
12. r n sin(ω0 n)u[n] 1−2rcos(ω0 )z −1 +r 2 z −2 |z| > |r |
1−aN z −N
13. an ; 0 ≤ n ≤ N − 1 1−az −1 |z| > 0
Properties of ROC for z-Transform
Property 1: The ROC will either be of the form 0 ≤ rR < |z|, or
|z| < rL ≤ ∞, or in general the annuals, i.e., 0 ≤ rR < |z| < rL ≤ ∞.
Property 2: The Fourier transform of x[n] converges absolutely if and only if
the ROC of the z-transform of x[n] includes the unit circle.
Property 3: The ROC cannot contain any poles.
Property 4: If x[n] is a finite-duration sequence i.e., a sequence that is zero
except in a finite interval −∞ < N1 ≤ n ≤ N2 < ∞, then the ROC is the
entire z-plane, except possibly z = 0 or z = ∞.
Property 5: If x[n] is a right-sided sequence i.e., a sequence that is zero for
n < N1 < ∞, the ROC extends outward from the outermost (i.e., largest
magnitude) finite pole in X (z) to (possibly including) z = ∞.
Property 6: If x[n] is a left-sided sequence i.e., a sequence that is zero for
n > N2 > −∞, the ROC extends inward from the innermost (i.e., smallest
magnitude) nonzero pole in X (z) to (and possibly including) z = 0.
Property 7: A two-sided sequence is an infinite-duration sequence that is
neither right sided nor left sided. If x[n] is a two-sided sequence, the ROC
will consist of a ring in the z-plane, bounded on the interior and exterior by a
pole and, consistent with Property 3, not containing any poles.
Property 8: The ROC must be a connected region.
Inverse z-Transform
Definition:
I
1
x[n] = X (z)z n−1 dz
2πj C
where C is a counterclockwise closed contour in the ROC of X (z) encircling

the origin.
Proof:
∞ ∞
I ! I
1 X
−k
X 1
x[k]z z n−1 dz = x[k] z −k z n−1 dz
2πj C 2πj C
k=−∞ k=−∞
∞ I
X 1
= x[k] z n−k−1 dz
2πj C
k=−∞
Using Cauchy’s integral theorem we can show that

(
0 if n − k ̸= 0
I
1 n−k−1
z dz = = δ[n − k]
2πj C 1 if n − k = 0
The inverse z-transform is based on this special case of the Cauchy integral
theorem.
Inverse z-Transform
Therefore,
I ∞
1 X
X (z)z n−1 dz = x[k]δ[n − k] = x[n] ∗ δ[n] = x[n]
2πj C k=−∞
Inspection Method: This method is to basically become familiar with the

z-Transform pair tables and then reverse engineer.
Z 1
an u[n] ←
→ , |z| > |a|
1 − az −1

1
let, X (z) = 1− 12 z −1
then
n
1 1
x[n] = u[n]; for |z| >
2 2
n
1 1
x[n] = − u[−n − 1]; for |z| <
2 2
Inverse ZT: Inspection Method
Example:
1 1
X (z) = 1 −1
1 −1
, |z| >
1− 4z 1− 2z
2
A1 A2
X (z) = +
1 − 14 z −1 1 − 12 z −1
1 − 14 z −1

1
A1 = 1 − z −1 X (z) = 1 −1 = −1
1 − 21 z −1

4 z= 14 1− 4z z= 14
1 − 12 z −1

1
A2 = 1 − z −1 X (z) = 1 −1 =2
1 − 21 z −1

2 z= 12 1− 4z z= 12
−1 2 1
X (z) = 1 −1 + 1 −1 ; |z| > 2
1 − 4z 1 − 2z
n n
1 1
x[n] = 2 u[n] − u[n]
2 4
Inverse ZT: Partial Fraction & Power Series Expansion
1. Partial Fraction Method:
1 + 2z −1 + z −2
X (z) =
1 − 32 z −1 + 12 z −2
A1 A2
X (z) = B0 + 1 −1 + 1 − z −1
1 − 2z
−1 + 5z −1
X (z) = 2+
1 − 12 z −1 (1 − z −1 )

2. Power Series Expansion Method:

1
= 1 + az −1 + a2 z −2 + . . .
1 − az −1
∞
X
X (z) = x[n]z −n = . . . + x[−1]z + x[0] + x[1]z −1 + . . .
n=−∞
Some z-Transform Properties
Property Section Sequence Transform ROC
Number Reference
x[n] X (z) Rx
x1 [n] X1 (z) Rx1
x2 [n] X2 (z) Rx2
1 4.1 ax1 [n] + bx2 [n] aX1 (z) + bX2 (z) Rx1 ∩ Rx2
2 4.2 x[n − n0 ] z −n0 X (z) Rx with addi-
tion or deletion
of 0 or ∞
3 4.3 z0n x[n] X (z/z0 ) |z0 |Rx
4 4.4 nx[n] −z dXdz(z) Rx
5 4.5 x ∗ [n] X ∗ (z ∗ ) Rx
1 ∗ ∗
6 Re{x[n]} 2 [X (z) + X (z )] Contains Rx
1 ∗ ∗
7 Im{x[n]} 2j [X (z)−X (z )] Contains Rx
8 4.6 x ∗ [−n] ∗
X (1/z ) ∗
1/Rx
9 4.7 x1 [n] ∗ x2 [n] X1 (z)X2 (z) Rx1 ∩ Rx2
1
10 x[ mn ] X (z m ) (Rx ) m , m is a
natural number
Transform analysis of LTI system
y [n] = h[n] ∗ x[n]
Y (z) = H(z)X (z)
∞
Y (z) X
H(z) = = h[n]z −n
X (z) n=−∞
P∞
For Stability, n=−∞ |h[n]| < ∞ ⇒ |H(Z )|at |Z |=1 < ∞
Note 1: For a system to be stable, the ROC of H(z) must include the unit circle,
i.e., |z| = 1
Note 2: For a causal system to be stable, the poles of H(z) should be inside the
unit circle
Note 3: For a non-causal system to be stable, the poles of H(z) should be

outside the unit circle
Unilateral z-Transform
∞
X
X̂ (z) = x[n]z −n ; |z| > R
n=0
For Bilateral z-Transform

Z
δ[n] ←−
−→ 1
Z
δ[n + 1] ←−
−→ z
For Unilateral z-Transform

Ẑ
δ[n] ←−
−→ 1
Ẑ
δ[n + 1] ←−
−→ 0
Question:
Ẑ
If x[n] ←−
−→ X̂ (z) then
Ẑ
x[n + 1] ←−
−→ ??
Unilateral z-Transform
Answer:
∞
X ∞
X
−n
x[n + 1]z = x[k]z −k+1
n=0 k=1
X∞
= z x[k]z −k
k=1
= −x[0]z + z X̂ (z)
Ẑ
x[n + 1] ←−
−→ −x[0]z + z X̂ (z)
Similarly
Ẑ
−→ x[−1] + z −1 X̂ (z)
x[n − 1] ←−
Constant Coefficient Difference Equations
y [n] − ay [n − 1] = x[n]
Apply z-Transforms on both sides(unilateral)
⇒ Ŷ (z) − a(z −1 Ŷ (z) − y [−1]) = X̂ (z)
⇒ Ŷ (z)[1 − az −1 ] = ay [−1] + X̂ (z)
ay [−1] X̂ (z)
Ŷ (z) = −1
+
1 − az 1 − az −1
1
(i) Consider x[n] = u[n], then X̂ (z) = 1−z −1 ; |z| > |1|
Therefore,

ay [−1] 1 1
Ŷ (z) = +
1 − az −1 1 − az −1 1 − z −1
a 1
ay [−1] 1−a
Ŷ (z) = + + 1−a−1
1 − az −1 1 − az −1 1−z

a 1
y [n] = ay [−1]an u[n] + an u[n] + u[n]
1−a 1−a
Constant Coefficient Difference Equations
(ii) Consider x[n] = δ[n], then X̂ (z) = 1
Therefore,
ay [−1] 1
Ŷ (z) = + (1)
1 − az −1 1 − az −1
y [n] = ay [−1]an u[n] + an u[n]
(y [n] = yh [n] + yp [n])
If the initial conditions are zero i.e., y [−1] = 0, then
y [n] = h[n] = 0 + an u[n]
1
H(z) =
1 − az −1
Note: A linear system must have zero output for zero input.
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z-Transform

Dr. Sujit Kumar Sahoo

School of Electrical Sciences

August 11, 2023

The z-Transform of a sequence x[n] is defined as

where z is a continuous complex variable

Convergence of this series depends only on |z|

Sinc & Sin

x2 [n] = cosω0 n, −∞ < n < ∞

Right sided exponential sequence: x[n] = an u[n]

left sided exponential sequence:

Sum of two exponential sequence:

Two-sided Exponential Sequence:

where C is a counterclockwise closed contour in the ROC of X (z) encircling

Using Cauchy’s integral theorem we can show that

Inspection Method: This method is to basically become familiar with the

2. Power Series Expansion Method:

y [n] = h[n] ∗ x[n]

Y (z) = H(z)X (z)

Note 3: For a non-causal system to be stable, the poles of H(z) should be

For Bilateral z-Transform

For Unilateral z-Transform

(ii) Consider x[n] = δ[n], then X̂ (z) = 1

y [n] = h[n] = 0 + an u[n]

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