Module 1

Signals and Systems
Course-1 Course-1
By
T.C.Manjunath, Ph.D. (IIT Bombay), FIETE, Sr. Memb IEEE

Prof. & HOD, DSCE, B’lore
Dr. Manjunath Course Material on S & S-1 1
Overview of the course-1 : Flow of the talk
• Introduction to signals & systems
• Definition of signals
• Examples of signals
• Applications of signals
• Representation of signals
• Classification of signals-types
• Basic operations of signals
• Signal operations
• Precedence rules
• Numericals
• Conclusions

Definition of signal
Any physical quantity which varies with time or any other independent
variable and is a function of one or more than one independent variable
and is a vector or a function which conveys some information on the
physical phenomenon.
Exs. Exs.
CT / Analog signals Periodic & Aperiodic signals

DT signals Deterministic & Stochastic
Digital signals signals
V, I, P, E signals Even & odd signals
ECG, EEG signals Causal & non-causal signals
Step / Ramp / Parabolic signals Time variant & time invariant
Position / Velocity / Acceleration signals
Impulse / Exponential / Sine / Cos Stable & unstable signals
Seismic / Earthquake signals Communication signals – radar,
Disturbance / Noise signals TV, music, audio, video
n
 A (t ) sin2f (t ) +  (t )
Mechanical – F, T, Pr, Disp signals
Biological signals i i i
Image signals i =1
1D / 2D / 3D signals Sound / voice signals
Signal transmission using electronic signal processing.
Transducers convert signals from other physical waveforms to
electrical current or voltage waveforms, which then are
processed, transmitted as electromagnetic waves, received and
converted by another transducer to final form.

Signal is the BLOOD of the System
No BLOOD, No SYSTEM
No electronics & communications
No world
Blood-s/w & System-h/w
Representation of signals
Signals can be represented graphically, mathematically or by a table of data
Graphical representation of a signal is called as a waveform (reln b/w 2 par)

Ex. Sinusoid
Mathematical representation of a signal is a mathematical equation

governing the properties of the signal.
V(t) = A sin (t + )

4 important properties of any signal are
• Amplitude - A
• Phase - 
• Frequency -  , f
• Intermediate variable (time) - t
Classification of Signals
Basically, signals can be classified into 2 domains
2 Domains
Frequency Domain
f, , s
Time Domain (t, n)
CT domain, ind var t
DT domain, ind var n
2 types of times
Continuous time t
Discrete time n
Signal representation in TD – Waveform
Signal representation in DTD - Sequence

Signal representation in FD is called as a spectrum
Once you convert t – f, resulting f/n : Complex (Mag / Phase)
(Magnitude spectrum & Phase spectrum) …. Occurs because f/n is complex
|X()|
MS Mag Spectrum
Plot of mag of Even signal
|X()| v/s 
...... ......
0 
X()
Odd
.... signal
0 
PS Mag Spectrum
Plot of Phase of ....
|X()| v/s 
Analysis of signals & systems
Signals & Systems can be analyzed using powerful
mathematical tools such as LT, FT & ZT’s
Laplace Transforms LT : Powerful mathematical tool which is used to

convert a variable from CT domain t to frequency domain s
ts
Fourier Transforms FT : Powerful mathematical tool which is used to

convert a variable from CT domain t to frequency domain 
t
Z Transforms ZT : Powerful mathematical tool which is used to

convert a variable from DT domain n to Z-domain z
nz
Direct T
T F
Inv T Direct T – Unique
Tranfn - pairs Inverse T – Not Unique
L L−1 F F−1 Z Z−1 Log Anti Log
CT Signal (Analog)
A CT Signal is a signal which is defined for a continuum of the values of
The independent variable (− <t<), i.e., the CT Signal   times
t is the independent variable & is continuous.

DT Signal (Analog)
A DT Signal is a signal which is defined only at discrete instants of time,
n, where n is the independent variable (− <n<) & is obtained by the
sampling of a CT signal, n is the independent variable & is an integer (,
0, can’t be a fraction)

Exs of CT / analog signals
Step Response of an R-C circuit

R
i/p o/p y(t)

1−e−t/
Step C Step
Signal Response 0 t
Exs of CT signals

Exs of Discrete Time (DT) signals
CT signal Sampler DT signal
Exs of DT signals :
(n)
u(n) r(n) p(n)
…. …. ….
n n n n
DT Step DT Ramp DT Parabolic DT Impulse
How DT signals are obtained ?
• DT signals are obtained by the sampling of CT signals.

• Basically, sampler is a switch which is opened & closed at regular
intervals of time.
• The time interval b/w successive samples is called as the sampling
period.
• The reciprocal of the sampling period is called as the sampling
frequency.
• The sampling rate has to be very high so that the information content in
b/w the samples is not lost.
• Sampling has to be done according to the sampling theorem fs  2 fmax
• Discrete is something in between analog & digital.

Analog to Digital Converter (ADC)
If u want to convert A→D
An ADC consists of 3 parts, 3 step process
1. Sampler SQC
2. Quantizer
3. Coder (Diff levels) (2 levels-0 &1) (used for transmission
Quantized communication,
Unquantized
storing in comp)
Signal Signal
(Digital) Coded
CT DT
Signal
signal Sampler signal 0 1 0 1 1 1 ….
Quantizer Coder
Sampled
Analog o/p of
signal signal
o/p to i/p to Coder
o/p to i/p to
Quanr Coder
sampler Quanr
x(t) x(n)
ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTER
x(t) x(n)
Quantization
level
t n

Sampling theorem
Sampling theorem states as ….

A bandwidth limited CT / analog signal x(t) can be completely represented
using its samples and reconstructed back if the sampling frequency fs is 2
times the maximum frequency present in the signal, i.e.,
fs  2 fmax
fs  2 f N
fN is called as the nyquist frequency or the nyquist rate.
In other words, the sampling theorem states that “the sampling frequency
must exceed twice the signal bandwidth in order for the original signal x(t)
to be recoverable from the sampled signal y(t).

Elementary signals
They are called as elementary signals or the basic signals, because

they are the basic building blocks of all types of complicated signals
in terms of which other signals can be expressed.
1. Step signals (position)

2. Ramp signals (velocity)
3. Parabolic signals (acceleration)
4. Impulse signals (sudden shock / delta-dirac)
5. Exponential signals
6. Sinusoidal / Cosine signals

Step signals
A signal which is in the form of a step is called as a step signal and there is a
sudden change in the value of the signal at t = 0 (DC signal).
x(t) u(t)
A
CT USS
GR
t<0 t=0 t>0 t
A ; t  0
MR u (t ) = 
0 ; t  0
A is the magnitude of the step
If A = 1, signal is called as Unit Step Signal
i.e., u(t) = 1
Lu (t ) =
1
s
step i/p CTS step response
(resp. of sys due to SI)
u(t) 0
1 Original t
Signal Inverting
−1
0 t −u(t)
step signals
a
CT Shifted
u(t – a)
1 t
Delaying Inv / Del
−1
a t −u(t − a)
u(t + a) −a
t
Inv / Adv
Advancing
−a t −u(t + a)
u(−t) t
1 Folding −u(−t)
Inv / Fold
−1 Fold / Inv
0 t −a
u(−t−a) t
1 −u(−t − a)
Fold & Delay Inv / Fold / Del
−1 Fold / Inv / Del
−a 0 t a
u(−t + a) t
−u(−t + a)
Inv / Fold / Adv
Fold & Adv Fold / Inv / Adv
0 a t
Ramp signals
A signal which varies linearly with time t or a signal which is 1 deg faster
than a step signal is known as a ramp signal.
x(t)
r(t)
At ; t  0 A
MR r (t ) = 
 0 ;t0 GR CT URS
t<0 t=0 t>0 t
1
A is the slope of the ramp
If A = 1, signal is called as Unit Ramp Signal
i.e., r(t) = t
Lr (t ) = Lt  =
1
s2
ramp i/p CTS ramp response
(resp. of sys due to RI)

Parabolic signals
A signal which varies parabolically with time t or a signal which is 1 deg
faster than a ramp signal or 2 deg faster than a step signal is known as a
ramp signal.
x(t)
p(t)
CT UPS
 At 2
 ;t0 GR
A
MR p (t ) =  2
 0 ;t0
t<0 t>0 t
t=0
A is the slope of the parabolic signal
If A = 1, signal is called as Unit Parabolic Signal 1
i.e., p(t) = t2/2
t 2 
L p (t ) = L   = 3
1
2 s
parabolic i/p CTS parabolic response

(resp. of sys due to PI)

Impulse signals
A pulse of zero width & infinite height (very large mag) k is called as an
impulse signal.
Since it is derived from a pulse, it is called as in impulse signal.
An impulse signal is obtained by the differentiation of a step signal.
M.R. x(t) = K (t) ; t = 0

= 0 ; t0
where k = Area / Strength of the Imp. Signal
If k = 1, the signal is called as an unit Imp. Signal
i.e., x(t) = (t)

From 1st principles (Defn of LT) d 
L (t ) = L  u (t )

 dt 
Lx(t ) = X ( s ) = − st L f (t ) = sF (s ) − f (0 − )
 x(t ).dt
e
− d 
L  u (t ) = s.Lu (t ) = s.
1

L (t ) = − st  dt  s
  (t ).dt
e
L (t ) = 1
−
0− 0+ 
− st − st − st
=  e  (t ).dt +  e  (t ).dt +   (t ).dt
e
− 0− 0+ CT System
0+ Imp i/p IR
(t) h(t)
=  e − s (0) (0).dt x(t) y(t)
0−
0+
The response of the CT system
=   (0).dt due to an Imp i/p - IR
0−
=1
L (t ) = 1
Dr. Manjunath Course Material on
24
S & S-1
Sampling property of an impulse
10 ( t – 3 )
CT Signal 10
x(t)
10 - strength
of impulse 0 3 t
0 t0 t
10 ( t + 3 )
imp signal (t – t0) 10
delayed by
t0
0 t0 t −3 0 t
x(t0) Any CT signal x(t) multiplied by an
Sample Impulse Signal (t) is the value of the CT
at that time instant t

0 t0 t
 x(t ). (t − t ). dt = x(t )
−
0 0

Exponential signals
A signal which varies exponentially with time is called as an exp signal
(growing exponential / decaying exponential signal)
CT exp signal
x(t) = A eat 1. When imag part = 0
x(t) = e( + j)t

a = ( + j) …. complex
= e t ….. Pure exp sig
x(t) = e( + j)t
= e t .ejt
2. When reap part = 0
A = 1 (unit mag)
x(t) = e( + j)t
 = angular freq = e j  t ….. Comp exp sig (sin/cos)

When the imaginary part is zero, then x(t) = et …… Pure exponential signal

When the real part  is zero, then x(t) = e−jt
…… Complex exponential signal (sine / cosine signal)
Algebraic sum of 2 complex exponential signals give rise to a real valued
signal (sine / cosine signal)

Basic operation on signals
Basic operations on signals can be divided into 3 categories, viz.,
1. Transformations / modifications of the independent variable ‘t’ or ‘n’
a. Time shifting operations
Delaying, Advancing, Reversing / Folding, Reversing & delaying,
Reversing & advancing, Inverting, Inverting & delaying, Inverting
& advancing, Inverting & folding, Inverting folding & delaying,
Inverting folding & advancing (1st/2nd/3rd/4th quadrant)
b. Time scaling operations
Down scaling (compression) → 
Up scaling (Expansion)  →
2. Transformations / modifications of the dependent variable
Amplitude scaling operations
a. Up scaling (Amplification)
b. Down scaling (Attenuation)
3. Other operations on signals like adding, subtracting & multiplying 2 signals
Operations on DT signal
Given the original CT signal as x(n), sketch the o/p signal y(n) for
various types of signal operations
x(n)
2
1 GR
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 n
SR DTS
x(n) y(n)=x(n−1)
n −1 0 1 2 3 4
i/p o/p delayed by o/p
x(n) 0 1 2 2 1 0
1 sample
(syst performs
MR x(n) = { 0, 1, 2, 2, 1, 0 } a delaying opn)
BDR
DTS x(n)
x(n) y(n)=x(n−1) 2
1 sample 1
(syst performs
a delaying opn
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 n
n y(n)=x(n−1) y(n) = x(n−1)

2
0 y(0) = x(0−1) = x(−1)=0
1 y(1) = x(1−1) = x(0)=1
1
2 y(2) = x(2−1) = x(1)=2
3 y(3) = x(3−1) = x(2)=2
4 y(4) = x(4−1) = x(3)=1 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 n
5 y(1) = x(5−1) = x(4)=0
Time shifting opn
(delaying)
x(n) Original
DTS 2 Signal
x(n) y(n)=x(n+1)
i/p (syst performs o/p
1
an advancing
opn)
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 n
y(n) = x(n+1)
2
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 n
Time shifting opn

(advancing)
DTS
x(n) x(n) y(n)=x(−n)
2 i/p System o/p
performs
1 a folding or
reversing opn
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 n
y(n) = x(− n)
2
−n −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 n
Time shifting opn

(Time reversing / folding)
x(n)
2
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 n
y(n) = x(−n−1)
2 DTS
x(n) y(n)=x(−n −1)
i/p syst performs o/p
1 folding &
delaying opn
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 n
Time shifting opn

(Time reversing & delaying)
x(n)
2
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 n
y(n)=(−n+1)
2 DTS
x(n) y(n)=x(−n+1)
1 folding &
advancing opn
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 n
Time shifting opn

(Time reversing & advancing)
n y(n)=x(2n)
−1 y(−1) = x(2 × −1) = x(−2) = 0

x(n)
0 y(0) = x(2 × 0) = x(0) = 1 2
½ y(½) = x(2 × ½) = x(1) = 2
1 y(1) = x(2 × 1) = x(2) = 2 1

3/2 y(3/2) = x(2 × 3/2) = x(3) = 1
2 y(2) = x(2 × 2) = x(4) = 0

−1 0 1 2 3 4 5 n
y(n)=x(2n)
3/2
DTS 2
x(n) y(n)=x(2n) 0/2
compression 1
along n axis
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 n
Time Scaling Operation
Down scaling
Compression
x(n) DTS
2 x(n) y(n)=x(n/2)
expansion
1 along n axis
n
n y(n)=x(n/2)
−1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
0 y(0) = x(0/2) = x(0) = 1
0x2 1 y(1) = x(1/2) = 0
y(n)= x(n/2) 3x2 2 y(2) = x(2/2) = x(1) = 2
2 3 y(1) = x(3/2) = x(1.5) = 0
4 y(4) = x(4/2) = x(2) = 2
5 y(1) = x(5/2) = 0
1
6 y(6) = x(6/2) = x(3) = 1
−1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 n
Time Scaling Operation
Up scaling
Expansion
x(n)
2
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 n
y(n)= 2x(n)
4 Amplitude Scaling
DTS Operation
x(n) y(n)=2x(n) Up scaling
i/p syst performs o/p 3 Amplification
amplification
of the i/p 2
signal by 2
units
1
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 n
x(n)
2
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 n
DTS y(n)= ½ x(n)

x(n) y(n)= ½ x(n)
i/p syst performs o/p 2
an attenuation
of the i/p
signal by 2 1
units ½
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 n
Amplitude Scaling Operation

Down scaling
Attenuation
x(n)
Adding of 2 signals 2
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 n
z(n)
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 n
y(n) = x(n)+z(n)
3
2
1
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 n
x(n)
Subtracting of 2 signals 2
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 n
z(n)
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 n
y(n) = x(n)−z(n)
3
2
1
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 n
x(n)
Multiplication 2
of 2 signals
1
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 n
z(n)
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 n
y(n) = x(n) . z(n)
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 n
x(n)
Inverting 2
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 n
−x(n)
0 1 2 3 4 5
−4 −3 −2 −1 n
−1
−2
x(n)
Inverting & delaying 2
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 n
−x(n −1)
0 1 2 3 4 5
−4 −3 −2 −1 n
−1
−2
x(n)
Inverting & advancing 2
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 n
−x(n+1)
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5
n
−1
−2
x(n)
Inverting & folding 2
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 n
−x(−n)
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5
n
−1
−2
x(n)
2
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 n
−x(−n+1)
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5
n
−1
−2
Inverting, folding & advancing

x(n)
2
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 n
−x(−n−1)
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5
n
−1
−2
Inverting, folding & delaying

Operations on CT signal
Given the original CT signal as x(t), sketch the o/p signal y(t) for
various types of signal operations
x(t)
2
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 t
x(t)
CTS Original
x(t) y(t)=x(t−1) 2 Signal
1s 1
(syst performs
a delaying opn)
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 t
x(t−1)
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 t
Time shifting opn

(delaying)
x(t)
2
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 t
x(t+1)
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 t
Time shifting opn

(advancing)
x(t)
2
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 t
x(−t)
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 t
Time shifting opn

(reversing / folding)
x(t)
2
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 t
x(−t−1)
−t −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 t
Time shifting opn

(folding & delaying)
x(t)
2
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 t
x(−t+1)
−t −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 t
Time shifting opn

(folding & advancing)
x(t)
2
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 t
x(2t)
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 t
Time scaling opn

(Down scaling - Compression)
x(t)
2
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 t
x(t/2)
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 t
Time scaling opn

(Up scaling - Expansion)
x(t)
2
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 t
2x(t)
4
Amplitude
Scaling Operation 3
Up scaling
Amplification
2
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 t
x(t)
2
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 t
½ x(t)
Amplitude 2
Scaling Operation
Down scaling
1
Attenuation
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 t
x(t)
Adding of 2 signals
2
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 t
z(t)
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 t
x(t)+z(t)
3
2
1
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 t
x(t)
Subtraction of 2 signals
2
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 t
z(t)
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 t
x(t) − z(t)
3
2
1
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 t
x(t)
Multiplication of 2 signals
2
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 t
z(t)
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 t
x(t) . z(t)
3
2
1
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 t
x(t)
2 Original
Signal
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 t
− x(t)
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 t
−1
−2
Inverting a CT signal
x(t)
2 Original
Signal
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 t
− x(t−1)
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 t
−1
−2
Inverting & delaying

x(t)
2 Original
Signal
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 t
− x(t+1)
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 t
−1
−2
Inverting & advancing

x(t)
2 Original
Signal
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 t
− x(t)
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 t
−1
−2
Inverting & folding - reversing

x(t)
2 Original
Signal
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 t
− x(t)
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 t
−1
−2
Inverting, folding & delaying

x(t)
2 Original
Signal
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 t
− x(t)
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 t
−1
−2
Inverting, folding & advancing

x(t) : original signal
x(t–t0) : original signal moves to right by t0
x(t+t0) : original signal moves to left by t0
x(–t) : mirror image of the original signal
x(2t) : compressed signal
by a factor of 2
2 scale factor (any)
x(t/2) : expanded signal
by a factor of 2
2 scale factor (any)
Even / Odd signals
Even Signals :
A CT real valued signal x(t) is said to be a even

(symmetrical) signal if
x(t) = x(−t)
i.e., the original signal is equivalent to the folded

version or the mirror image of the original signal
For DT signals,
replace t by n

Odd signals :
A CT real valued signal x(t) is said to be a odd (unsymmetrical)

signal if
x(−t) = −x(t)
i.e., the folded version of the original signal x(t) is equal to the
inverted version of x(t)
For DT signals,
replace t by n

Decomposition of any arbitrary signal
Any arbitrary real valued CT signal x(t) can be expressed as a sum

of 2 signals, one of which is a even signal & the other is a odd
signal
x(t ) = xeven(t ) + xodd (t )
x(t) : Original CT signal
x(-t) : Reflection at t = 0
x(t ) + x(−t )
Even part of x(t) is xeven(t ) =
2
x(t ) − x(−t )
Odd part of x(t) is xodd (t ) =
2
For DT signals, replace t by n

Determine the even &
x(t) x(t)
odd parts of the CT 1 1
signal x(t)
t t
0 1 0 1
x(t) x(−t) x(−t)
1 1 1
t
0 1 t t
−1 0 −1 0
x(t) + x(−t) x(t) − x(−t)
1 1
t t
−1 0 1 −1 0 1
x(t ) + x(−t ) −1
xeven (t ) =
2 0.5 0.5
t
t −1 0
−1 0 1
1 −0.5
x(t ) − x(−t )
xodd (t ) =
+ 2
Determine the even &
odd parts of the DT
signal x(n)

Energy & Power signals
P & E are the characteristic properties / measures of any signal

P of a signal – rate at which the work is done by a signal in a system
E of a signal – total amt of work done in a system by a signal in a
specified amt of time
P=V*I
E = P * time
T 
E x (t ) = Lim  x(t ) dt =  x(t ) dt
2 2
E of a CT signal x(t) is given by
T →
−T −
An E signal is one which has got finite energy, a signal is said to be

E signal if the energy of the signal is finite, i.e., 0 < E < 
T
1
= Lim  x(t )
2
P of a CT signal x(t) is given by Px ( t ) dt
T → 2T
−T
An P signal is one which has got finite power, a signal is said to be

a P signal if the Power of the signal is finite, i.e., 0 < P < 
For periodic signals, av. pwr. is calculated over 1 time period.
T
T 2
1 1 CT signal
=  x(t ) dt = 
2 2
Px ( t ) x(t ) dt P&E
T 0
T −T
2
All periodic signals are P signals & all NP signals are E signals (Gen)
N 
= Lim  x ( n) = 
2 2
E of a DT signal x(n) is given by E x ( n ) x ( n)
N →
n=− N n = −
N
1
= Lim 
2
P of a DT signal x(n) is given by Px ( n ) x ( n)
N → 2 N + 1
n=− N
For periodic signals, av. pwr. is calculated over 1 time period.

N −1
1
= Lim  x ( n)
2
Px ( n )
N → N
n =0
All periodic signals are P signals & all NP signals are E signals (Gen)
DT signal
P&E


x(t ) = e−2t u(t ) ; t  0

2
E x (t ) = x(t ) dt
GR of the −
signal is  2
− 2t
= e u (t ) dt
−

− 4t
=  dt
e
−
− 4t 
e
=
−4
0
MR of the signal is − 4
e e − 4( 0)
 e − 2t u (t ) ; t  0
 = −
x(t ) =  −4 −4

0 ; o/w, , t  0 1 Given signal is a ES
=
4 Since 0 < E < 
Px(t)= 0

n
1 GR of the signal is
x ( n) =   u ( n)
3
This is a single sided DT sequence

It exists only for +ve times
Tabular repn of the signal is

n 0 1 2 3 4 5 ……
x(n) (1/3)0 (1/3)1 (1/3)2 (1/3)2 (1/3)3 (1/3)4…..
1 0.3333 0.1111 0.037 0.0123 …..
 1  n
MR of the signal is 
x(n) =  3  u (n); n  0..... for + ve times
 0 ; n  0.... for − ve times



E x ( n ) =  x ( n)
2
−
 n 2
1
=  u ( n)
−  3 
 2 n
1
= 

1
−  3 
u ( n)
 =
a n
n =0 1− a
 n
1
=   Here, a = 1/9
0 9
1
=
1− 9
= 1.125
, the given signal x(n) is an E signal since, E of the signal is finite,
i.e., 0 < E < 

Periodic & Aperiodic signals
A periodic signal is one which repeats itself after
successive intervals of time, it exists for all times
(−<t<)
Ex. : CT & DT sinusoidal signals
A non-periodic (aperiodic signal) is one which does

not repeat itself after successive intervals of time
Ex. : CT pulse (half rectified sine wave or a DT unit
sample

A CT signal x(t) is said to periodic with TP T if it satisfies
the eqn
x(t + T) = x(t) for all T …… condn for periodicity
The smallest value of T, i.e., T0 for which the above

equation holds good is called as the FTP, which is the
interval b/w successive repeats (exp in s)
The reciprocal of the FTP is called as the FF

(exp in cps or hz)
Note : All periodic signals are power signals

A CT signal which is not periodic is called as Aperiodic
signal
OR
If there is no value of T which satisfies the equation
x(t + nT) = x(t) is also called as Aperiodic signal.
A CT signal which does not repeat itself after every T
secs is also called as Aperiodic signal.
Ex. : A CT pulse.

Condition for sum of 2 periodic signals to be periodic or not
• Consider 2 CT periodic signals x1(t) & x2(t) with their TP’s T1 & T2
• The sum of 2 periodic signals may be periodic or may not be
periodic & depends on the relationship between their resp time
periods or frequencies
• Condition for sum of 2 periodic signals to be periodic is the ratio
of their time periods, i.e.,
T1
= a rational number
T2
• A DT signal x(n) is said to be periodic if & only if its frequency f is
a rational number, i.e., a ratio of 2 integers, i.e.,
f=k/N OR x(n + N) = x(n)
• Condn. for sum of 2 DT periodic signals to be periodic is ratio of

their time periods, i.e., N1 / N2 should be a rational number.

x(t) = sin 2t
The signal x1(t) is periodic with time period T1 if it satisfies the eqn
x1(t + T1) = x1(t )  T1

x1(t + T1) = sin 2 (t + T1)
= sin (2t + 2T1)
= sin (2t + 2)
= sin 2t . cos 2  + cos 2t . sin 2 
= sin 2t 1 0
= x1(t)
 The given signal x1(t) is periodic with time period T1 =  secs
x1(t ) = sin 2 (t)
= sin (2  f1 t)
2  f1 t = 2t
f1 = 1 /  = 1 / T1
T1 =  secs

x(t) = cos 2t + sin 3t The ratio of the 2 time periods is
Comparing with the std. form T1  3
= = ,
x(t ) = cos(2  f1t ) + sin (2 f 2t ) T2 2 / 3 2
We get, which is a rat. no. (ratio of 2 integers)
x1 (t ) = cos (2  f1t ) = cos (2 t ) & hence the signal x(t ) is a per. signal.
2  f1t = 2 t The fundamenta l time period of x(t ) is the
11 LCM of T1 =  & T2 = 2 / 3,
f1 = =
 T1 i.e., T = 2 .
T1 =  secs Periodic , the signal is periodic with TP of 2
x2 (t ) = sin (2  f 2t ) = sin (3
t ) , the signal is periodic with TP of 2 secs
2  f 2t = 3 t
3 1
f2 = =
2 T2
2
T2 = secs Periodic
3 Dr. Manjunath Course Material on S & S-1 99
x(n) = cos (n / 5)  n  1 
x(n) = cos   = cos  2  n
 5   10 
Comparing with the std. form
x(n) = A cos(2  f n) The physical significance is

there are 10 samples / cycle
We get, n
2  fn =
5
1 k
f = =
10 N
which is a rat. no. & is a
ratio of 2 integers with k = 1
& N = 10 & hence the signal
x(n) is a PS with TP = N = 10
samples

Deterministic & Stochastic Signals
Deterministic :
• If we are able to determine the value/shape of the signal before
its actual occurrence, then the given signal is known as a
deterministic signal
• The shape of the signal depends on the mathematical equation
• y(t) = sin (t)
• y(t) = t2 + 5
Stochastic :
• A random/stochastic signal takes on several possible values at
each value of time, i.e., at one value of time, the signal
magnitude/amplitude takes on different values
• Modelled using the theory of probability & random process
• Noise generated in a amplifier of a radio/TV, Tx, Rx,
Communication system

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Signals and Systems

T.C.Manjunath, Ph.D. (IIT Bombay), FIETE, Sr. Memb IEEE

Dr. Manjunath Course Material on S & S-1 2

CT / Analog signals Periodic & Aperiodic signals

Dr. Manjunath Course Material on S & S-1 4

No electronics & communications

Graphical representation of a signal is called as a waveform (reln b/w 2 par)

Mathematical representation of a signal is a mathematical equation

V(t) = A sin (t + )

Signal representation in TD – Waveform

Signal representation in DTD - Sequence

Dr. Manjunath Course Material on S & S-1 8

Laplace Transforms LT : Powerful mathematical tool which is used to

Fourier Transforms FT : Powerful mathematical tool which is used to

Z Transforms ZT : Powerful mathematical tool which is used to

Dr. Manjunath Course Material on S & S-1 11

Dr. Manjunath Course Material on S & S-1 12

Step Response of an R-C circuit

i/p o/p y(t)

Dr. Manjunath Course Material on S & S-1 13

CT signal Sampler DT signal

• DT signals are obtained by the sampling of CT signals.

Dr. Manjunath Course Material on S & S-1 15

Dr. Manjunath Course Material on S & S-1 16

Sampling theorem states as ….

Dr. Manjunath Course Material on S & S-1 17

They are called as elementary signals or the basic signals, because

1. Step signals (position)

Dr. Manjunath Course Material on S & S-1 18

t<0 t=0 t>0 t

t<0 t=0 t>0 t

Dr. Manjunath Course Material on S & S-1 21

parabolic i/p CTS parabolic response

Dr. Manjunath Course Material on S & S-1 22

M.R. x(t) = K (t) ; t = 0

i.e., x(t) = (t)

Dr. Manjunath Course Material on S & S-1 23

Dr. Manjunath Course Material on S & S-1 27

x(t) = A eat 1. When imag part = 0

x(t) = e( + j)t

 = angular freq = e j  t ….. Comp exp sig (sin/cos)

Dr. Manjunath Course Material on S & S-1 28

Dr. Manjunath Course Material on S & S-1 29

Dr. Manjunath Course Material on S & S-1 30

n y(n)=x(n−1) y(n) = x(n−1)

Time shifting opn

Time shifting opn

Time shifting opn

Time shifting opn

−1 y(−1) = x(2 × −1) = x(−2) = 0

1 y(1) = x(2 × 1) = x(2) = 2 1

2 y(2) = x(2 × 2) = x(4) = 0

DTS y(n)= ½ x(n)

Amplitude Scaling Operation

y(n) = x(n) . z(n)

Inverting & delaying 2

Inverting & advancing 2

Inverting & folding 2

Inverting, folding & advancing

Inverting, folding & delaying

Time shifting opn

Time shifting opn

Time shifting opn

Time shifting opn