Cebu Institute of Technology

computer studies

Basic
Electronic
Communications

Data Communications
 Cebu Institute of Technology
computer studies

Signal A detectable physical quantity or impulse (as a voltage,

or magnetic field strength) by which messages or information
can be transmitted.

Two Kinds of Signals

1. Digital - can take only discrete values

2. Analog - can take values within a continuous range.

Data Communications
 Cebu Institute of Technology
computer studies
Digital Signals
Periodic
amplitude

1
0
time

Non-periodic
amplitude

1
0
time

Data Communications
 Cebu Institute of Technology
computer studies
Analog Signals
Periodic
amplitude 2
1
0
-1
-2

Non-periodic

30
amplitude

Data Communications
-30
 Cebu Institute of Technology
computer studies
Periodic Signals
A periodic signal s will have the same value as that of s at time t
after a time interval T has elapsed.
S(t + T) = s(t) (equation 1)
where - < t < +

Three Characteristics of Periodic Signals

1. Amplitude - the instantaneous value of a signal in any time. For
electrical the unit is volts.
2. Frequency - the number of repetitions per unit time. The common
unit of frequency is repetitions per second or cycles
per second or Hertz.
3. Phase - used to indicate a relative position and the unit used is
the same as that for angles
Data Communications
 Cebu Institute of Technology
computer studies
Period and Frequency
• Period
– refers to the amount of time, in seconds, a signal needs to complete
one cycle.
• Frequency
– refers to the number of periods in one second.
• F = 1/T and T = 1/F

Units of period and frequency

Unit Equivalent Unit Equivalent
Second (s) 1s hertz (Hz) 1 Hz
–3 3
Milliseconds (ms) 10 s kilohertz (KHz) 10 Hz
–6 6
Microseconds ( ) 10 s megahertz (MHz) 10 Hz
–9 9
Nanoseconds (ns) 10 s gigahertz (GHz) 10 Hz
–12 12
Picoseconds (ps) 10 s terahertz (THz) 10 Hz

Data Communications
 Cebu Institute of Technology
computer studies

A sinusoid with peak amplitude of 5 volts and frequency of 3 Hz

amplitude (volts)

6
4
2
0
-2
-4
-6
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
time (sec)

Data Communications
 Cebu Institute of Technology
computer studies

Periodic signals y(t) and z(t) with amplitudes of 1, and a phase lag
of /2. The function y(t) is said to be ahead by /2 over z(t).
amplitude (volts)

2
y(t) z(t)
1
0
-1 /2
-2
time (sec)

Data Communications
 Cebu Institute of Technology
computer studies
Sinusoids
Time domain:

y(t) = A sin (2 f t +  ) (equation 2)

where
A = amplitude

t = time
 = phase

f = frequency = 2 /

Data Communications
 Cebu Institute of Technology
computer studies

SIGNAL TRANSMISSION

I(t) O(t)
ENCODER DECODER
digital or digital
analog data data

I(t) O(t)
MODULATOR DEMODULATOR
digital or analog
analog data data
Block diagram for digital and analog signal transmission using
the co-dec (encoder-decoder) for digital signals and the mo-dem
(modulator-demodulator) for analog signals.
Data Communications
 Cebu Institute of Technology
computer studies

Encoding and Modulating Techniques

• Digital data with digital signals
• Digital data with analog signals
• Analog data with digital signals
• Analog data with analog signals

Data Communications
 Cebu Institute of Technology
computer studies

Definitions
Data rate - the amount of data in bits per second that is transmitted

Duration or length of a bit - the amount of time it takes for the

transmitter to emit a bit (1/data rate).

Modulation rate - the rate at which signal level is changed, expressed

in units of baud.

Data Communications
 Cebu Institute of Technology
computer studies
Digital Data with Digital Signal
1) Non Return-to-Zero Level (NRZ-L)
0 = low
1 = high
2) Non Return-to-Zero Inverted (NRZ-I)
0 = no transmission at the beginning of interval
1 = has transition at the beginning of interval
3) Bipolar AMI (Alternate Mark Inversion)
0 = no line signal
1 = positive or negative level, with successive 1’s alternated
4) Pseudoternary
0 = positive or negative level with successive 0’s alternated
1 = no line signal
Data Communications
 Cebu Institute of Technology
computer studies
Digital Data with Digital Signal
5) Manchester
0 = transition from high to low at the center of an interval
1 = transition from low to high at the center of an interval
6) Differential Manchester
0 = transition at the beginning of an interval
1 = no transition at the beginning of an interval
There is always a transition at the center of an interval

Data Communications
 Cebu Institute of Technology
computer studies
Digital signal encoding techniques
0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0
NRZ - L

NRZI

Bipolar - AMI

Pseudoternary

Manchester

Differential Manchester
Data Communications
 Cebu Institute of Technology
computer studies

Digital Data with Analog Signal

Modulating Techniques

• Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

• Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
• Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

Data Communications
 Cebu Institute of Technology
computer studies
Analog Modulation Techniques for Digital Data
0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1

Digital
data

ASK

FSK

PSK
Data Communications
 Cebu Institute of Technology
computer studies

Amplitude Shift Keying

s(t) = xA cos (2 fc t + c )

where
A = amplitude
x = digital data input
fc = carrier frequency
c = carrier phase
If x = 0, s(t) = 0. If x = 1, s(t) = Acos (2fct + c) is called the
carrier signal, the output sinusoid that is varied depending on the
data to be sent. Thus, the binary digital data is represented with either
the presence (binary 1) or absence of it (binary 0).
Data Communications
 Cebu Institute of Technology
computer studies
Frequency Shift Keying
xA cos (2 f1 t + c ) binary 1
s(t) =
xA cos (2 f2 t + c ) binary 0
where
A = amplitude
x = digital data input
fc = carrier frequency
f1 = fc + offset
f2 = fc - offset
c = carrier phase

Data Communications
 Cebu Institute of Technology
computer studies
Phase Shift Keying
A cos (2 fc t +  ) binary 1
s(t) =
A cos (2 fc t ) binary 0
where
A = amplitude
x = digital data input
fc = carrier frequency
f1 = fc + offset
f2 = fc - offset
c = carrier phase
If the reference of a phase shift is with respect to the previous
transmitted bit, it is termed as differential PSK.
Data Communications
 Cebu Institute of Technology
computer studies

Quadrature Phase Shift Keying

QPSK is another form of angle-modulated digital modulation. There
are four output phases possible for a single carrier frequency with four
different inputs, with 2 bits per input (dibit).

Phase Shift Digital Data

450 11
1350 10
2250 00
3150 01

Data Communications
 Cebu Institute of Technology
computer studies

4-PSK Modulator
sin(ct + 1350) sin(ct + 450) 10 11

00 01

sin(ct + 2250) sin(ct + 3150)

Phasor Diagram Constellation Diagram

Data Communications
 Cebu Institute of Technology
computer studies

4-PSK Modulator
1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0

+1350 -450 +450 -1350

Data Communications
 Cebu Institute of Technology
computer studies
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
QAM is another technique of converting digital data into analog
signals that vary (or shift) both phase and amplitude of the carrier
signal.
Binary input Amplitude Phase
000 0.765V -1350
001 1.848V -1350
010 0.765V -450
011 1.848V -450
100 0.765V +1350
101 1.848V +1350
110 0.765V +450
111 1.848V +450
Data Communications
 Cebu Institute of Technology
computer studies

8-QAM Modulator
cos ct 111 (1.848V)
101 101 111
100 110 (0.765V) 100 110

-sin ct sin ct

000 010 000 010
001 001 011
011
-cos ct
Phasor Diagram Constellation Diagram

Data Communications
 Cebu Institute of Technology
computer studies

Analog Data with Digital Signal

Coder - converts analog data into digitized form suitable for
transmission
Decoder - restores digital data into its analog form.data

Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) - a modulation technique that uses

codecs and follows the sampling theorem which requires
that the analog signal be sampled at least twice the rate of
the highest significant signal frequency.
A PCM codec transfers n-bit signals where the MSB
represents the sign bit. The remaining bits are used to
indicate the magnitude .
Quantizing - conversion of a given voltage to its equivalent
Data Communications
binary code.
 An actual
Cebu PSTN of
Institute setup
Technology
computer studies

Data Communications
 Cebu Institute of Technology
computer studies
PCM Modulation
111 +3V
110 +2V
101 +1V Analog input
100/000 0V
001 -1V data
010 -2V
011 -3V

t1 Sample pulse
t2 t3
111 +3V
110 +2V
101 +1V Quantized
100/000 0V
001 -1V equivalent
010 -2V
011 -3V
111 010 101 PCM code

Data Communications
 Cebu Institute of Technology
computer studies
3 Stages required to convert analog signal to
digital signal
1. Sampling- to take samples of the analog signal at discrete time
interval.
2. Quantizing- is the rounding off of the sampled data to the
nearest coded value. The coded values are called steps. The
rounding off of values causes distortion, the more steps, the more
accurate is the data.
3. Coding- translates the quantized values to binary code
equivalent.
Analog Data with Analog Signals
Two main reasons why transmit analog data using analog signals
1. Data needs to be sent using high frequency
2. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) will be used.
Data Communications
 Cebu Institute of Technology
computer studies
Signal Degradation
Causes of signal degradation:
• Attenuation
• Capacitance
• Time delay and delay distortion
• Noise

Attenuation - the measure of the decrease in signal strength at the

receiving end due to electrical losses in the length
of the conductor and in the dielectric medium.
Capacitance - the measure of the electrical energy stored in
the dielectric between separate conducting materials
like wires.
Data Communications
 Cebu Institute of Technology
computer studies

Signal Degradation
Time Delay - is the time measurement it takes for the signal to reach
a distance away from one end. The unit used is usually
nanoseconds per foot meter.

Noise - is referred as an unwanted or undesired signal inserted into the

transmitted signal.
Types of Noise
1. Thermal noise - is due to thermal vibration of charge carriers in a
conductor. It is a function of temperature and is
equally distributed in the frequency spectrum and
cannot be eliminated.
2. Intermodulation noise - arises when the transmission medium is
used to carry different signals at different
Data Communications
frequencies.
 Cebu Institute of Technology
computer studies
Signal Degradation
3. Crosstalk - comes from another wire. A changing signal or current
on a wire produces a magnetic field around it. If there is
no conductor carrying the same current but in opposite
direction, there will be no second magnetic field to
oppose or cancel the original. A changing magnetic field
can induce current in another wire, thus resulting in
crosstalk. This noise can be minimized if you provide a
tight coupling between a pair of wires by twisting them
with each other.
4. Impulse noise - a non-continuous, irregular pulse or spike which
usually comes in high amplitude but short duration. An
example of this is the spike due to an electromagnetic
disturbance like lightning or when turning on/off a
motor.
Data Communications
 Cebu Institute of Technology
computer studies
Signal Degradation
Transmitted signal

Attenuation

Capacitance

Propagation delay

Impulse noise
Data Communications
 Cebu Institute of Technology
Long Distance Communication:
computer studies

Modulation and Demodulation

• Carrier Waves: a continuous, oscillating signal
propagate farther.
• used in telephone, radio and TV (though they transfer
different things).

The carrier oscillates continuously, even when no data is being sent.

Data Communications
 Cebu Institute of Technology
computer studies
How to encode data into the carrier wave

• By modulating (modifying) the carrier slightly,

• Wave go across the medium
• Demodulated (decoded) at the receiving
destination.
• It is all about representation of information
using 1 or 0 in an efficient way over a medium
while allowing both parties involved to
understand each other.

Data Communications
 Cebu Institute of Technology
computer studies
Types of Modulation: 3 Basic Types
• Amplitude Modulation. (AM radio stations)
– Varies the strength of the outgoing signal in proportion to the
information being sent.

Data Communications
 Cebu Institute of Technology
computer studies
Frequency Modulation
• (FM radio stations)
– Varies the frequency of the underlying carrier in proportion
to the information being sent
– (a) AM (b) FM
.

Data Communications
 Cebu Institute of Technology
computer studies
Phase shift modulation
• AM and FM encode on bit in
one cycle.
• Phase shift modulation
encodes more by changing
the timing of the carrier wave
abruptly.
• Each change is called a phase
shift. Hardware can measure Arrows: where the carrier
the amount of shift in a wave abruptly jumps to a new
point in the cycle.
• The number of bits
transferred per second is a
multiple of the baud rate.

Data Communications
 Cebu Institute of Technology
computer studies
Modems (used to encode and decode)
• Modems (abbreviation of modulator and demodulator)
– modulator: encode data and modify wave.
– demodulator: receive modified wave and decode into data.
– full duplex communication-
– Modem can be used with any media such as radio,
telephone line (dial up modem).

Data Communications
 Cebu Institute of Technology
computer studies
Carrier Frequencies and Multiplexing
• Two more signals using different carrier frequencies can be
transmitted over a single medium simultaneously without
interference.
• Like TV channel.
• Frequency division multiplexing (FDM)
– Use multiple carrier frequencies for independent signals.
– Practical for broadband (high-bandwidth) transmission systems.

Data Communications
 Cebu Institute of Technology
computer studies
Static Channel Allocation
• The traditional way of allocating a single
channel among multiple competing users is
Frequency Division Multiplexing.
• If there are ‘N’ users, the bandwidth is
divided into ‘N’ equal sized portions.
• Each user has a private frequency band,
there is no interference between users.

Data Communications
 Cebu Institute of Technology
computer studies
Static Allocation Channel

Data Communications
 Cebu Institute of Technology
computer studies
Wave Division Multiplexing
• Used for optical transmission.
• For fiber optics, different frequencies
correspond to different colors of the light
spectrum.
• Optical FDM = Wave Division Multiplexing=Color
Division Multiplexing

Data Communications
 Cebu Institute of Technology
computer studies
Time Division Multiplexing.
• Divides time into segments or "buckets“ and
allow sources transmit in turn.
• Synchronous (slotted) time Division
Multiplexing (STDM): bucket size are the
same for each sources. Suitable to telephone
voice.
• Statistical Multiplexing: bucket size varies
according to the usage of each sources. No
data, no basket assigned.
Data Communications