Department of Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering: Siddaganga Institute of Technology, Tumakuru-3

SIDDAGANGA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, TUMAKURU-3
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & TELECOMMUNICATION

ENGINEERING
UNIT-4 Introduction to Digital Communication and

ANALOG AND DIGITAL COMMUNICATION
Course Code: 4RTE05
Formatting, Baseband Transmission

Digital communication system
• Important features of a DCS:
• The transmitter sends a waveform from a finite set of possible waveforms during a
limited time
• The channel distorts, attenuates the transmitted signal
• The receiver decides which waveform was transmitted given the distorted/noisy
received signal. There is a limit to the time it has to do this task.
• The probability of an erroneous decision is an important measure of system
performance
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Digital versus analog
• Advantages of digital communications:
• Regenerator receiver
Original Regenerated
pulse pulse
Propagation distance
• Different kinds of digital signal are treated identically.

Voice
Data A bit is a bit!
Media

Digital communication system

Formatting and transmission of baseband signal
Digital info.
Textual Format
source info.
Pulse
Analog Transmit
Sample Quantize Encode modulate
info.
Pulse
Bit stream waveforms Channel
Format
Analog
info. Low-pass
Decode Demodulate/
filter Receive
Textual Detect
sink
info.
Digital info.

Formatting Textual Information (Character Coding)
• Textual information comprises a sequence of alphanumeric characters. When
digitally transmitted, the characters are first encoded into sequence of bits
called bit stream or baseband signal.
• Group of k bits can then be combined to form new digits, or symbols, from a
finite symbol set or alphabet of such symbols.
• A system using a symbol set size of M is refereed to as M-ary system.
• For k=1, the system is called binary, the size of the symbol set M=2, and
modulator uses one of the two different waveforms to represent the binary
“one” and the other to represent the binary “zero”.
• For k=2, the system is termed as quaternary or 4-ary (M=4). At each symbol
time, the modulator uses one of the four different waveforms that represents
the symbol.
Formatting Textual Information (Character Coding)

Format analog signals
• To transform an analog waveform into a form that is compatible with a digital
communication system, the following steps are taken:
• Sampling
• Quantization and encoding
• Baseband transmission
SAMPLING
•A continuous time band limited signal can be represented by its samples, and can be
recovered from its samples, provided that Sampling frequency , (mmaximum frequency
of signal). The condition is referred as Nyquist criterion.
0 t
Sampling
Continuous time Discrete time
signal g(t) signal g(t)
Sampling frequency
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Ideal Sampling
Let continuous time band limited signal be
g(t)  G() s.t. G()  0
Ideal 0 Ts
Continuous time signal g(t) Sampling
Let periodic impulse train be Discrete time signal g(t
 p (t)   (t  T )     (   )
s s s ; where s 
 n Sampling
1
Then Sampled signal g (t)  g(t)  p (t) frequency S
0 Ts
t
Using multiplication property of FT
G ()  F[g (t)]  2 G()*[s   (  s

1
 n )]
1  
or G ()  G(  s
T nn )
Using linearity property of FT and convolution property of impulse
 s
1
Thus (t)  T  G(  n)
s n
Ideal Sampling
In Time domain:
Sampling results in conversion of continuous time g(t) Signal G()
signal into discrete time signal
A
t
 -m m 
p(t) Impulse train p()
1 s
0 Ts 2Ts 3Ts
t
 -2s -s 0 s 2s

g(t) Sampled signal
In Frequency domain: s> 2m F[g(t)]
A/Ts
Sampling results in multiple translation of signal
spectrum (linear combination of shifted signal
 -2s -s 0 s 
spectrum at integer multiples of sampling 0 Ts 2Ts 3Ts t 2s
frequency.

Sampling
Time domain Frequency domain

Ideal Sampling: Reconstruction

Reconstruction Filter g(t)
Low Pass filter 1
g(t)
Cut-off m Ts
0 Ts t Amplifier
  m t
1 with gain Ts
1 
H L ()   1
G()
g  (t) 
T  G(  n ) s
0 otherwise T
s
G( )
s n

Sampling Example: Musical CD
Audio frequency range is 20Hz-20KHz.
Musical CD consists of two channels of music (for stereo sound) sampled at 44.1 KHz (oversampling satisfying Nyquist
criterion) and quantized to 16 bit. Compute the data size of CD for 70 minutes music.
CD data= 2 x (44.1 x 103) x 16 x 60 x70 bits = 740.88 MB

Aliasing
g(t) Signal
• In case of under sampling (), shifted G()
versions of signal spectrum shall overlap A
resulting in spectral distortions. In such
case, signal can not be recovered from its t  -m m

samples. This effect is known as ALIASING. g(t) Sampled signal s> 2m F[g(t)]
• To avoid aliasing effect due to spurious As
frequencies, a pre alias filter is applied

before sampling -2s -s 0 s 
0 Ts 2Ts 3Ts t  2s
s= 2m As F[g(t)]
3Ts t -2s -s 0 2s 

0 Ts 2T s s

g(t) Sampled signal s <2m
F[g(t)]
 As
0 Ts -2s - 0 s 2s 
2T s 3Ts t s

Natural Sampling
In Natural sampling, each sample is pulse of duration T with amplitude varying in accordance to signal value.
Natural sampling may be thought of multiplication of signal with pulse train.
gN(t)
t t
Natural 0 Ts T
Continuous time Sampling

Natural samples g N(t)
signal g(t)
Sampling
frequency S 0 Ts t
T

Natural Sampling

Natural Sampling
g(t) Signal G()
A
 m 
t -m
Pulse Train
s T
0 Ts t -2s -s s 2s


T 0
gN(t) Natural Sampling

s> 2m F[gN(t)]
As
-s 0 s 2s 
0 Ts T t -2s
Natural sampling, introduces amplitude scaling as per sample function at every shifted version of G(), and not
the aperture effect as in Flat top sampling.

Natural Sampling: Reconstruction
gN(t) Natural Sampling Reconstruction Filter g(t)

Low Pass filter
Cut-off m
0 Ts T
t Amplifier with t
  m gain T/Ts
H L ()  1
T  T  
g N (t)  exp   Sa ns T G(  s 0 otherwise G( )
Ts  2  2 n )
  n

Flat Top Sampling
As ideal impulse can’t be generated, practical sampling pulse will exist for a duration. In Flat top sampling, for each sample,
the value is hold for a duration T.
Flat top sampling may be thought of as output of a system with impulse response h(t) shown in figure to the input of ideal
samples.
g(t) gF(t)
System with
impulse response
t t t
Ideal 0 Ts
h(t) 0 Ts T
Continuous time Sampling Ideal samples g(t) 1

Flat top samples g F(t)
signal g(t) T t
Sampling p(t)
1
frequency S
0 Ts
t

Flat Top Sampling

Flat Top Sampling
G()
A
 m 
p(t) Impulse train t -m
p()
1 s
0 Ts 2Ts 3Ts t
 -2s -s 0 s 2s

g(t) Sampled signal s> 2m As
F[g(t)]
0 Ts 2Ts 3Ts t
 -2s - 0 s 
s 2s
gF(t) F[gF(t)]
As
s> 2m
-2s -s 2s 

t
0 Ts T 0 s
Flat top sampling, introduces aperture effect as per sample function

Flat Top Sampling: Reconstruction
gF(t) Reconstruction Filter g(t)

Low Pass filter Equalizer
Cut-off m
T
t 1 t
0 Ts
  m Ts
H ( )  T   m
H L ()  1  T 
Sa 

2  G( )
s 0 otherwise
Ts 1
T Sa  T 
H()  2 
t
-m m

Aliasing

Anti-Aliasing Filter
PRE-FILTERING TECHNIQUE POST-FILTERING TECHNIQUE
Typical Filter cut-off is chosen as to accommodate the transition band of practical filters therefore the modified
sampling rate is
Sources of Corruption
SAMPLING AND QUANTIZATION EFFECTS
• Quantization Noise
• The distortion is inherent in quantization is a round-off or truncation error.
• It is introduced by the need to approximate the analog waveform with quantized samples is referred to as
quantization noise.
• The amount of noise is inversely proportional to the number of levels employed in the quantization process.
• Quantizer saturation
• The quantizer allocates L levels to the task of approximating the continuous range of inputs with a finite set of
inputs.
• The range of inputs for which the difference between the input and the output is small is called the operating
range of converter.
• If the input exceeds this range, the difference between the input and output becomes large, converter operates in
saturation.
• Saturation errors, being large, are more objectionable than quantizing noise.
• Saturation is avoid by using automatic gain control (AGC), which effectively extends the operating range of the
converter.
• Timing Jitter
• If there is slight jitter in the position of the sample, the sampling is no longer uniform.
• The jitter is usually a random process and thus the sample positions are not accurately known.
• Timing jitter can be controlled with very good power supply isolation and stable clock references.
Sources of Corruption
CHANNEL EFFECTS
• Channel Noise
• Thermal Noise, interference from other users, and interference from circuit switching transients can cause errors in
detecting the pulses carrying the digitized samples.
• Channel-induced errors can degrade the reconstructed signal quality quite quickly.
• This rapid-degradation of output signal quality with channel-induced errors is called a threshold effect.
• Intersymbol Interference
• The channel is always bandlimited. A bandlimited channel disperses or spreads a pulse waveform passing through
it.
• When the channel bandwidth is close to signal bandwidth, the spreading will exceed a symbol duration is close to
the signal bandwidth, the spreading will exceed a symbol duration and cause signal pulses to overlap.
• This overlapping is called intersymbol interference (ISI).

Quantization
 Sampling results in a series of pulses of varying amplitude values ranging between two
limits: a min and a max.
 The amplitude values are infinite between the two limits.
 We need to map the infinite amplitude values onto a finite set of known values.
 This is achieved by dividing the distance between min and max into L zones, each of
height 
Δ = (max - min)/L
 The midpoint of each zone is assigned a value from 0 to L-1 (resulting in L values)
 Each sample falling in a zone is then approximated to the value of the midpoint.

Quantization
 Assume we have a voltage signal with amplitutes Vmin=-20V and Vmax=+20V.
 We want to use L=8 quantization levels.
 Zone width = (20 - -20)/8 = 5
 The 8 zones are: -20 to -15, -15 to -10, -10 to -5, -5 to 0, 0 to +5, +5 to +10, +10 to +15, +15 to +20
 The midpoints are: -17.5, -12.5, -7.5, -2.5, 2.5, 7.5, 12.5, 17.5
 Each zone is then assigned a binary code.
 The number of bits required to encode the zones, or the number of bits per sample as it is commonly
referred to, is obtained as follows:
l = log2 L
 Given our example, l = 3
 The 8 zone (or level) codes are therefore: 000, 001, 010, 011, 100, 101, 110, and 111
 Assigning codes to zones:
 000 will refer to zone -20 to -15
 001 to zone -15 to -10, etc.

Quantization Error
 When a signal is quantized, we introduce an error - the coded signal is an approximation of the actual
amplitude value.
 The difference between actual and coded value (midpoint) is referred to as the quantization error.
 The more zones, the smaller  which results in smaller errors.
 BUT, the more zones the more bits required to encode the samples -> higher bit rate
 Signals with lower amplitude values will suffer more from quantization error as the error range: /2, is fixed
for all signal levels.
 Non linear quantization is used to alleviate this problem. Goal is to keep SNQR fixed for all sample values.
 Two approaches:
 The quantization levels follow a logarithmic curve. Smaller ’s at lower amplitudes and larger’s at
higher amplitudes.
 Companding: The sample values are compressed at the sender into logarithmic zones, and then
expanded at the receiver. The zones are fixed in height.

Quantization Error

Quantization Error
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Bit rate and bandwidth requirements of PCM
 The bit rate of a PCM signal can be calculated form the number of bits per sample x the sampling rate
Bit rate = l x fs
 The bandwidth required to transmit this signal depends on the type of line encoding used. Refer to
previous section for discussion and formulas.
 A digitized signal will always need more bandwidth than the original analog signal. Price we pay for
robustness and other features of digital transmission.
We want to digitize the human voice. What is the bit rate, assuming 8 bits
per sample?
Solution
The human voice normally contains frequencies from 0 to 4000 Hz. So the
sampling rate and bit rate are calculated as follows:

Speech Signal Characteristics

Uniform and Non-Uniform Quantization

Realizing Non-Uniform Quantization

Line Coding/ PCM waveform Types
 Binary 1’s and 0’s, such as in PCM signaling, may be represented in various serial–bit signaling formats
called line codes.
 The simplest is to represent ‘1’ by a square pulse and ‘0’ by 0 volt. But the simplest is not always good
enough. Also, a long sequence of ‘0’ may appear as a loss of transmission.

 In order to take care of these and many other requirements, the symbols are transformed in to various
different wave shapes, a process named line coding.

 Different wave shapes result in different spectrum suiting different needs. Hence in a way, line codes are
also spectrum shaping codes.

 Mapping of binary information sequence into the digital signal that enters the channel
– Ex. “1” maps to +A square pulse; “0” to –A pulse

Line Coding/ PCM waveform Types
Line code selected to meet system requirements:
 Transmitted power: Power consumption = $
 Bit timing: Transitions in signal help timing recovery
 Bandwidth efficiency: Excessive transitions wastes BW
 Low frequency content: Some channels block low Frequencies
 long periods of +A or of –A causes signal to “droop”
 Waveform should not have low-frequency content
 Error detection: Ability to detect errors helps
 Complexity/cost: Is code implementable in chip at high speed?
There are 2 major categories: return–to–zero (RZ) and non return–to–zero (NRZ).
 With RZ coding, the waveform returns to a zero–volt level for a portion (usually one–half) of the bit
interval.

Necessary properties of line code/ PCM waveform
1. Self synchronization – It should be possible to recover the clock pulse from the received
data. Clock should not be lost even in case of a long sequence of ‘0’. Self-synchronization,
where the timing information is extracted from the received signal itself
2. Low probability of bit error – It should be convenient to design a receiver, which receives
the specific line code and results a low probability of bit error.
3. PSD – Spectrum of the line code should suit the physical medium.
4. Bandwidth – Band width of the line coded signal should be low.
5. No DC – DC power content should be ideally zero to enable AC coupling.
6. Low frequency power – Power at very low frequency should as low as possible.
7. To suit channel coding – Line code should be such that subsequent coding for error
detection/correction is easy.
8. Power efficiency – Required transmission power should be small.
9. Transparency – Line code should be such that any sequence of ‘1’ & ‘0’ must have only
one inference.

Classification of Line codes
The waveforms for the line code may be further classified according to the rule that is used to assign voltage
levels to represent the binary data. Some examples include:
– Unipolar Signaling: In positive–logic unipolar signaling, the binary 1 is represented by a high level (+A volts)
and a binary 0 by a zero level. This type of signaling is also called on–off keying (OOK).
– Polar Signaling: Binary 1’s and 0’s are represented by equal positive and negative levels
– Bipolar (Pseudo ternary) Signaling: Binary 1’s are represented by alternating positive or negative values. The
binary 0 is represented by a zero level. The term pseudo ternary refers to the use of 3 encoded signal levels to
represent two–level (binary) data. This is also called alternate mark inversion (AMI) signaling.
– Manchester Signaling: Each binary 1 is represented by a positive half–bit period pulse followed by a negative
half–bit period pulse. Similarly, a binary 0 is represented by a negative half–bit period pulse followed by a
positive half–bit period pulse. This type of signaling is also called split–phase encoding.

Classification of Line codes
– Polar NRZ: Also called NRZ–L where L denotes the normal logic level assignment.
• The NRZ-L is similar to Unipolar, in that the voltage directly depends on the bit it represents.
• A positive voltage generally represents a ‘1’, and a negative voltage represents a ‘0’ (or vice versa).
• Unlike the unipolar scheme, NRZ-L alleviates the problem of the DC component.
– Bipolar RZ: Also called RZ–AMI, where AMI denotes alternate mark (binary 1) inversion.
– Bipolar NRZ: Also called NRZ–M, where M de-notes inversion on mark (binary 1)

Unipolar Signalling
Unipolar Non-Return to Zero (NRZ):
In unipolar NRZ the duration of the MARK pulse (Ƭ ) is equal to the duration (To) of the symbol slot.
Advantages:
– Simplicity in implementation.
– Doesn’t require a lot of bandwidth for transmission.
Disadvantages:
– Presence of DC level (indicated by spectral line at 0 Hz).
– Contains low frequency components. Causes “Signal Droop”.
– Does not have any error correction capability.
– Does not posses any clocking component for ease of synchronization.
– Is not Transparent. Long string of zeros causes loss of synchronization
Unipolar Signalling
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
Unipolar Signaling
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
Unipolar Signaling
 When Unipolar NRZ signals are transmitted over links with either transformer or capacitor coupled (AC) repeaters, the
DC level is removed converting them into a polar format.
 The continuous part of the PSD is also non-zero at 0 Hz (i.e. contains low frequency components). This means that AC
coupling will result in distortion of the transmitted pulse shapes. AC coupled transmission lines typically behave like
high-pass RC filters and the distortion takes the form of an exponential decay of the signal amplitude after each
transition. This effect is referred to as “Signal Droop”.

Unipolar Signaling
Return to Zero (RZ): In unipolar RZ the duration of the MARK pulse (Ƭ ) is less than the duration (To) of the symbol slot.
Typically RZ pulses fill only the first half of the time slot, returning to zero for the second half.
Advantages:
– Presence of a spectral line at symbol rate which can be used as symbol
timing clock signal.
Disadvantages:
– Continuous part is non-zero at 0 Hz. Causes “Signal Droop”.
– Occupies twice as much bandwidth as Unipolar NRZ.
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– Is not Transparent 46
Polar Signaling
Polar Non-Return to Zero (NRZ):
In polar signaling a binary 1 is represented by a pulse g1(t) and a binary 0 by the opposite (or antipodal) pulse g0(t) = -g1(t).
Polar signaling also has NRZ and RZ forms.
Advantages:
– No DC component.
Disadvantages:
– Is not transparent.
Polar Signaling
Polar Non-Return to Zero (NRZ):
In polar signaling a binary 1 is represented by a pulse g1(t) and a binary 0 by the opposite (or antipodal) pulse g0(t) = -g1(t).
Polar signaling also has NRZ and RZ forms.
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
– Is not transparent.
BiPolar Signaling
 Bipolar Signaling is also called “alternate mark inversion” (AMI) uses three voltage levels (+V, 0, -V) to represent two
binary symbols. Zeros, as in unipolar, are represented by the absence of a pulse and ones (or marks) are represented by
alternating voltage levels of +V and –V.
 Alternating the mark level voltage ensures that the bipolar spectrum has a null at DC
 And that signal droop on AC coupled lines is avoided.
 The alternating mark voltage also gives bipolar signaling a single error detection capability.
 Like the Unipolar and Polar cases, Bipolar also has NRZ and RZ variations.

BiPolar Signaling
Bipolar NRZ
Bipolar RZ

BiPolar Signaling
Bipolar NRZ signaling
Advantages:
– Occupies less bandwidth than unipolar and polar NRZ schemes.
– Does not suffer from signal droop (suitable for transmission over AC coupled lines).
– Possesses single error detection capability.
Disadvantages:
– Is not Transparent.
Bipolar RZ signaling
Advantages:
– Occupies less bandwidth than unipolar and polar RZ schemes.
– Possesses single error detection capability.
– Clock can be extracted by rectifying (a copy of) the received signal.
Disadvantages:
–Is not Transparent.

Manchester Signalling
In Manchester encoding , the duration of the bit is divided into two halves. The voltage remains at one level during the first
half and moves to the other level during the second half.
A ‘One’ is +ve in 1st half and -ve in 2nd half.
A ‘Zero’ is -ve in 1st half and +ve in 2nd half.

Manchester Signalling

Manchester Signaling
 The transition at the center of every bit interval is used for synchronization at the receiver.
 Manchester encoding is called self-synchronizing. Synchronization at the receiving end can be achieved by locking on to
the transitions, which indicate the middle of the bits.
 It is worth highlighting that the traditional synchronization technique used for unipolar, polar and bipolar schemes,
which employs a narrow BPF to extract the clock signal cannot be used for synchronization in Manchester encoding. This
is because the PSD of Manchester encoding does not include a spectral line/ impulse at symbol rate (1/To). Even
rectification does not help.
Advantages:
– Easy to synchronize with.
– Is Transparent.
Disadvantages:
– Because of the greater number of transitions it occupies a significantly large bandwidth.
– Does not have error detection capability.
These characteristic make this scheme unsuitable for use in Wide Area Networks. However, it is widely used in Local Area
Networks such as Ethernet and Token Ring.

Spectral Attributes of PCM waveforms

PCM word size

PAM, PPM and PWM

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SIDDAGANGA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, TUMAKURU-3

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & TELECOMMUNICATION

UNIT-4 Introduction to Digital Communication and

Formatting, Baseband Transmission

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• Different kinds of digital signal are treated identically.

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G ()  F[g (t)]  2 G()*[s   (  s

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g(t) Sampled signal

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CD data= 2 x (44.1 x 103) x 16 x 60 x70 bits = 740.88 MB

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frequencies, a pre alias filter is applied

3Ts t -2s -s 0 2s 

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Continuous time Sampling

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0 Ts t -2s -s s 2s

gN(t) Natural Sampling

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gN(t) Natural Sampling Reconstruction Filter g(t)

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Continuous time Sampling Ideal samples g(t) 1

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-2s -s 2s 

Flat top sampling, introduces aperture effect as per sample function

gF(t) Reconstruction Filter g(t)

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 001 to zone -15 to -10, etc.

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expanded at the receiver. The zones are fixed in height.

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enough. Also, a long sequence of ‘0’ may appear as a loss of transmission.

different wave shapes, a process named line coding.

also spectrum shaping codes.

– Ex. “1” maps to +A square pulse; “0” to –A pulse

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 Bit timing: Transitions in signal help timing recovery

 Bandwidth efficiency: Excessive transitions wastes BW

 Low frequency content: Some channels block low Frequencies

 long periods of +A or of –A causes signal to “droop”

 Waveform should not have low-frequency content

 Error detection: Ability to detect errors helps

 Complexity/cost: Is code implementable in chip at high speed?

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