CHAPTER ONE

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Background of the Study

Soil erosion is recognized as one of the world's most serious environmental problems (Pimentel
2006). Globally; about 80% of the current degradation of agricultural land is caused by soil
erosion. Soil erosion is a major problem in many regions of the world (Lieskovský et al.,
2014),especially in East Africa, where Ethiopia shows the highest erosion rates (Gessesse et al.
2014), Ethiopia is believed as one of the Sub-Saharan African countries most seriously affected
by soil erosion. In the Ethiopian highlands deforestation for crop production, cultivation of
marginal lands and overgrazing dramatically increased the vulnerability of agricultural lands to
rainfall-driven soil erosion (Melaku et al., 2018). Ethiopia loses nearly 2 billion tons of fertile
soil per annum (Gebremedhin 2010).

Agriculture, as in many other developing countries, is the mainstay of the Ethiopian economy
where nearly 80 percent of the population earns its livelihood, contributing 41 percent to the
GDP, and about 85 percent of the foreign exchange earnings (MoFED, 2015). Although the
country‘s economy is mainly based on agriculture, the land productivity and the agricultural
economy have become seriously affected by unsustainable land management practices both in
areas of crops and in grazing lands, which resulted in increased land resource degradation mainly
due to erosion. Such dependence on agriculture and land resources leads to increased
vulnerability of the country‘s economy to problems related to land degradation, which poses an
ominous threat to the food security status of the populati and future development prospects of the
country (Tsegaye and Bekele (2010)). The depletion of land resources continues to be a
significant worry, especially in developing nations where agriculture is the main driver of
economic growth. Like other Sub-Saharan African nations, land degradation is a big issue in
Ethiopia.

The country's overall economic growth and agricultural productivity are significantly impacted
by land degradation, which includes soil erosion and deterioration in soil quality(MEKURIA,
2020). More than 2 million hectares of Ethiopia's highlands have suffered significant
degradation, resulting in a decrease in the yield of cereal crops, as per Ref. (Mekuriaw &
Amsalu, 2023). Apart from the effects of human activity, the intricate topography of the nation.
Apart from human-caused factors, the intricate terrain of the nation intensified the consequences
of land degradation. Land degradation continues despite the efforts of many groups to protect
land resources, and it has been identified as the primary cause of vulnerability and food
insecurity.

Despite the importance of agriculture in the Ethiopian economy, the level of food production has
been low and the country is dependent on food imports. Increasingly, many farmers in Ethiopia
are incapable of producing enough food to satisfy household consumption. The direct
consequences are the occurrences of famines and reduced productivity of land (Shiferaw and

Holden, 1998).

Ethiopia had food security until the 1960s, but since the drought of 1975, food production has
been very poor and lagged behind the population growth. As a result, a significant amount of
food (mainly as aid) has been received every year (Seyoum et al., 1998).

Environmental and soil conservation are critical for increasing crop yields and improving the
standard of living of rural households. As a result, it is essential to establish enabling conditions
so that many farmers can use SWC methods (Karidjo et al., 2018).

The adoption of SWC measures will only be complete when they are consistently used and
thoroughly incorporated into agricultural systems

The soil is the soul of a farm. Proper soil management will maximize forage and crop
production. However, this precious resource, mainly in the developing world, has deteriorated
and is lost at an alarming rate as a result of poor management practices (Yohanis, 1989). In
Ethiopia, soil resource degradation has become a serious problem affecting all spheres of the
social, economic, and political life of the population. It is one of the major challenges to the
agricultural development and food security of the country.

Studies have found over 80% of the land suffers from some degree of soil erosion (Nyssen et al.,
2008). The steep slopes are highly prone to wash away topsoil during heavy rains, degrading
fertility and water retention capacity over time (Bezabih et al., 2011). Furthermore, deforestation
to clear additional farmland exacerbates erosion risks by depleting ground cove (Alemayehu et
al., 2009).

Declining soil quality has major implications for smallholder food security and livelihoods in the
region. Yields are already low due to predominance of rain-fed cultivation and poor accessibility
of inputs and markets (Habitu et al., 2017).Further losses of productivity from erosion undermine
crop yields and undermine coping capacity against intermittent drought years (Bezabih et al.,
2011). Poverty rates in East Bale Zone are among the highest in Oromia at over 60% (CSA,
2018). Addressing land degradation issues through sustainable land management is therefore a
development priority.

A variety of soil and water conservation techniques are commonly used across Ethiopia to
combat erosion and declining fertility issues. Terracing involves constructing elevated barriers
and channels across slopes to break up gradient and catch runoff (Nyssen et al., 2008). Grass
strips and hedgerows are planted to stabilize soils and reduce surface flow velocity, allowing
infiltration (Bezabih et al., 2011). Minimum tillage practices like direct seeding minimize
disturbance of topsoil structure compared to plowing (Nyssen et al., 2009). Application of
farmyard manure improves soil organic matter levels and water retention (Habitu et al., 2017).
Government extension programs have promoted these practices for decades. However, adoption
rates remain uneven especially among smallholder farmers cultivating mountainside lands
(Bezabih et al., 2011). Barriers include labor requirements, costs of construction, lack of tenure
security, and biophysical constraints of farm plots (Alemayehu et al., 2009). Such problem is
also common in the case of East Bale Zone Gololcha woredas’ which are one of the victims of
the problem. In light of this, it is important to determine the use of soil conservation measures by
small holder farmers in the study area.

1.2. Statement of problem

Soil erosion mainly induced by water is the leading cause of land degradation both in areas of
farming and grazing/common lands and it‘s one of the most serious environmental and socio-
economic problems in Ethiopia. In addition to natural factors such as rainfall and erodible soils,
population pressure, deforestation, overgrazing, unsustainable land management, sever soil loss
and expansion of farming on fragile and marginal lands causes severe land degradation and low
agricultural productivity. Land degradation induces on-site costs to individual farmers and off-
site costs to society which results in a decline in crop production, loss of biodiversity/vegetation
cover, food and livelihood insecurity, siltation/sedimentation, shortage of feed/fodder, reduction
of livestock productivity and loss of ecosystem services (Yisehak et al., 2013).

Soil erosion and degradation pose serious threats to rural livelihoods and food security in East
Bale Zone, Ethiopia. The mountainous terrain experiences high erosion risks due to steep slopes,
fragile soils, and erratic rainfall patterns exacerbated by climate change (Nyssen et al., 2008).
Over 80% of land is affected, stripping away topsoil and reducing fertility and water retention
capacity over time (Alemayehu et al., 2009). This undermines the main livelihood systems of
smallholder farmers who predominantly rely on subsistence rain-fed.
Declining soil quality from erosion impacts crop yields and threatens food security in this food-
insecure region where over 60% live below the poverty line (Holden & Shiferaw, 2004). As
degraded lands become less productive, coping capacity is reduced and vulnerability increases,
especially during drought years (Bezabih et al., 2011; Tesfaye et al., 2021).

Continued loss of fertile soils surpassing natural replenishment rates depletes long-term
agricultural viability (Nyssen et al., 2008). Marginal lands are forced into cultivation or
abandoned altogether, intensifying pressure on the landscape. Loss of vegetation cover further
worsens flooding and degrades ecosystems critical for sustaining rural livelihoods (Alemayehu et
al., 2009).
Risks of land and livelihood crises may grow substantially without sufficient uptake of soil
conservation (Holden & Shiferaw, 2004).
To strengthen resilience against these threats, adoption of soil conservation measures must
increase substantially among smallholder farmers (Tesfaye et al., 2021). However, empirical
evidence is lacking on key determinants specifically in East Bale Zone's unique agro-ecological
conditions (Holden & Shiferaw, 2004). Quantifying relationships between farmer characteristics
and reported usage can highlight effective policy and project design (Ashiagbor et al., 2020).
Owing to this fact, factors that basically determine soil conservation measures by small holder
farmers still have remained unidentified in the study area. Therefore, appropriate understanding
of the factors will have paramount importance in the policy formulation and improve the
implementation of existing policy and program interventions designed to achieve widespread
adoption of soil conservation measures, and to expand soil conservation practices by farmers in
the study area in particular and in East Bale zone in general. Therefore the study aims is to
address critical knowledge gaps through primary data collection and analyses in Gololcha
Woreda. Findings could guide local partners to promote scalable, impactful solutions through
targeted initiatives before degradation worsens rural vulnerabilities and inequalities (Alemayehu
et al., 2009). Urgent action is demanded to curb detrimental trends and protect livelihood
systems across generations in this region of Ethiopia

1.3. Objective of the study

1.3.1. Main objective
The main objective of the study is to investigate determinant of soil conservation measure by
small holder in the study area.

1.3.2. Specific objective of the study

The specific objectives are:
1. To identify and describe the most commonly used traditional (indigenous) and improved soil
conservation methods in the study area
2. To identify physical, socio economic and institutional factors which affect smallholder
Farmers to use soil conservation measures in the study area
3. To assess the extent of use of soil conservation measures in the study area.

1.4. Research question

At the end of the paper work the researcher were going to answer and analysis the following
question,
a. What are the most commonly used traditional (indigenous) and improved soil
conservation methods in the study area?
b. What factors affect smallholder Farmers to use soil conservation measures in the
study area?
 c. What are the extents of use of soil conservation measures in the study area?

1.5. Significance of study

The reason for land degradation and its consequence in Ethiopia has been emphasized
repeatedly. For a long time, concern had been raised on the alarming degradation of the natural
resource in general and soil erosion in particular in the country. Different stakeholders involved
in rural development are highly concerned with this problem and they have been taking
considerable measures to increase agricultural production and to improve or maintain the
existing natural resource base of the country.
Therefore, the findings of the study will contribute to the appropriate understanding of the
factors that determine the use of soil conservation measures by small holder farmers’ to use Soil
Conservation measures in the study area. Understanding of these factors would help to improve
the implementation strategies of existing Soil Conservation program and to formulate further
policy interventions.
1.6. Scope of the study
The study will take place in Oromia regional state in Bale zone, Golocha Woreda. The study
will mainly focuses on determining factors affect the use of soil conservation measures by small
holder farmers in selected study areas of woredas kebeles.
 CHAPTER TWO
2. LITREATURE RIEVEW
This chapter presents review of relevant literatures on definition of basic terms and concepts.
The results and gaps of previous researches and thought, theoretical and conceptual frame work
of adoption and empirical studied related to soil erosion/land degradation, decision making and
use of soil conservation measures by smallholder farmers reviewed and presented.

2.1. Definitions and Concepts

2.1.1. Definitions of terms
Soil is normally considered as the fine earth which covers land surfaces as a result of the in
situ weathering of rock materials or the accumulation of mineral matter transported by water,
wind, or ice. The distinctive feature of soil is that to this weathered mineral material is added
organic material. This organic material may be both living and dead. The dead organic matter
will include little altered and freshly added dead plant roots and leaf and other plant litter,
dead fauna, and organic material in various stages of decomposition from little modified
relatively fresh materials to the complex decomposed material called humus. It is this
mixture of mineral and organic material which gives the soils their distinctive
characteristics(Nortcliff et al., 2011)

Soil conservation practices are those farming

operations and
management strategies conducted with the
goal to control soil
erosion by preventing or limiting soil particle
detachment and
transport in water or air.
Soil conservation practices are those farming
operations and
management strategies conducted with the
goal to control soil
erosion by preventing or limiting soil particle
detachment and
transport in water or air.
Soil conservation practices are those farming
operations and
management strategies conducted with the
goal to control soil
erosion by preventing or limiting soil particle
detachment and
transport in water or air.
Soil conservation practices are those farming
operations and
management strategies conducted with the
goal to control soil
erosion by preventing or limiting soil particle
detachment and
transport in water or air.
Soil conservation practices are those farming
operations and
management strategies conducted with the
goal to control soil
erosion by preventing or limiting soil particle
detachment and
transport in water or air.
Soil conservation practices are those farming
operations and
management strategies conducted with the
goal to control soil
erosion by preventing or limiting soil particle
detachment and
transport in water or air. Although some
aspects of soil conser-
vation practices may relate to water
conservation, and although
soil and water conservations are strongly
linked, the authors
concentrate herein on soil conservation. The
objective of this
Soil conservation practices are those farming
operations and
management strategies conducted with the
goal to control soil
erosion by preventing or limiting soil particle
detachment and
transport in water or air. Although some
aspects of soil conser-
vation practices may relate to water
conservation, and although
soil and water conservations are strongly
linked, the authors
concentrate herein on soil conservation. The
objective of this
Soil conservation practices are those farming
operations and
management strategies conducted with the
goal to control soil
erosion by preventing or limiting soil particle
detachment and
transport in water or air. Although some
aspects of soil conser-
vation practices may relate to water
conservation, and although
soil and water conservations are strongly
linked, the authors
concentrate herein on soil conservation. The
objective of this
Soil conservation practices are those farming
operations and
management strategies conducted with the
goal to control soil
erosion by preventing or limiting soil particle
detachment and
transport in water or air. Although some
aspects of soil conser-
vation practices may relate to water
conservation, and although
soil and water conservations are strongly
linked, the authors
concentrate herein on soil conservation. The
objective of this
Soil conservation practices are those farming operations and management strategies conducted
with the goal to control soil erosion by preventing or limiting soil particle detachment and transport
in water or air. Although some aspects of soil conservation practices may relate to water
conservation, and although soil and water conservations are strongly linked, the authors
concentrate herein on soil conservation.(Baumhardt & Blanco-Canqui, 2014)
Soil conservation practices are those farming
operations and
management strategies conducted with the
goal to control soil
erosion by preventing or limiting soil particle
detachment and
transport in water or air. Although some
aspects of soil conser-
vation practices may relate to water
conservation, and although
soil and water conservations are strongly
linked, the authors
concentrate herein on soil conservation. The
objective of this
Soil Erosion: Soil erosion is a form of land degradation and can be described as detachment,
transport and deposition of soil particles due to natural conditions. The chief agents of soil
erosion are water and wind. Erosion can be classified into sheet, rill, gully and in-stream (Merritt
et al., 2003). Rates of erosion are dependent on climate, soil type and topography. Soil erosion
also increase when land is inappropriately used (Webster, 2005)
According to setiz Soil erosion is a natural phenomenon that has been thrown off balance by
human activity and particularly by agriculture. It is associated with severe environmental
impacts, high economic costs, reduced productivity and thus influences food security as well as
social and economic development.

Land degradation: FAO (2010) defines land degradation as the declining quality of the lands
caused by either human activity or natural processes that limits the land‘s productive potential
and ecological functions. Interrelated land degradation components include soil erosion,
sedimentation, acidification, deforestation, nutrient mining, and others.
The UNCCD (2007) defines land degradation as ―reduction or loss of the biological or
economic productivity and complexity of rain-fed cropland, irrigated cropland, or range, pasture,
forest and woodlands resulting from processes such as: (i) soil erosion caused by water and/or
wind; (ii) deterioration of the physical, biological or economic properties of the soil; and (iii)
long-term loss of natural vegetation‖. Land degradation is recognized as one of the major
environmental and socio-economic problems nowadays both for developed countries and
developing countries like Ethiopia.

2.2. Theoretical and Conceptual Framework

2.2.1. Theoretical Framework
In the degradation-conservation discourse, three major perspectives have recently emerged:
classic, populist and neo-liberal (Biot et al., 1995). According to the classic approach, the
problem of land degradation can be overcome by technocratic solutions, thus tending to ignore
the socio-economic side of the problem. On the other extreme, the populist approach puts
emphasis on the role of local knowledge and land management practices and underscores the
importance of stakeholder participation in conservation activities. In this perspective, the link
between poverty and land degradation is critical; policy formulation and action towards
conservation should base itself on local peoples knowledge and land use practices. Taking a
middle-ground position, the neo-liberal approach draws from both the classic and the populist
approaches. It acknowledges the classic approach in its view that technology is available to
control land degradation that can be adopted or adapted wherever and whenever required.
Acknowledging the populist view, the neo-liberal approach puts emphasis on empowerment of
the people for their adoption or adaptation of the technologies at the farm level. In other ways,
the argument on major causes of land degradation incorporated in this neo-liberal view is
centered on institutional failures and lack of adequate incentives for the adoption/adaptation of
conservation technologies among the land users. This study employed the neo-liberal approach
as its theoretical backdrop. Therefore, it holds the view that there is a plethora of land
conservation technologies. The problem lies in the acceptance and adoption of the technologies
by the land users. That is the problem of land degradation persists in Ethiopia, and elsewhere for
that matter, not because of lack of technical fixes to the problem but due to lack of sufficient
consideration of socio-economic and institutional factors in solution prescriptions.

2.3. Empirical Studies soil conservation

Studies on the determinants of soil and water conservation decision behaviour of farmers in
Ethiopia have been limited. Generally the past approach to soil conservation study emphasized
technical solutions to soil erosion problems to the neglect of socioeconomic constraints
(Shiferaw and Holden, 1998).

For decades it was believed that technological innovations combined with scientific methods
were the answers to soil erosion problems. However, regardless of advances in the development
and promotion of technologies, the soil erosion problem persisted, forcing changes in attitudes to
the way to tackle the problem. This led to the realization that soil conservation is not only a
technical problem but also a socio economic problem, which directed attention to socioeconomic
and behavioral factors influencing soil conservation decision making. This is evident from the
ever-increasing literature on this area (Wegayehu, 2003).

Here, some literatures were reviewed to come up with some general idea concerning issues on a
range of agro-climatic, socio-economic, institutional and farm level/biophysical factors
influencing farmer‘s decision to conserve soil erosion.
Amsalu and De Graaff (2006) examine the determinants of farmers' adoption and continued use
of introduced stone terraces in an Ethiopian highland watershed using bivariate probit model.
Their results show that the factors influencing adoption and continued use of the stone terraces
are different. Adoption is influenced by farmers' age, farm size, perceptions on technology
profitability, slope, livestock size and soil fertility, while the decision to continue using the
practice is influenced by actual technology profitability, slope, soil fertility, family size, farm
size and participation in off-farm work. Thus, the results indicate the importance of
household/farm and plot level factors in farmers' conservation decision.
In the study of resource degradation and adoption of land conservation technologies by smallholders
in the Ethiopian highlands, Bekele and Holden (1998), found out the importance of perception of soil
erosion problems, attitude towards soil conservation, household and farm characteristics, farmers‘
perception of technology specific attributes and land quality were differentials in shaping
conservation decisions.
A study conducted by Yitayal et al. (2007), to examine the determinants and extent of use of soil
conservation practices in Dedo district, Jimma zone using Tobit model indicated that the significant
variables affecting use of improved soil conservation measures in the study area are; area of
cultivated land, land to labour ratio, age of the household head, education level of the household
head, distance of the farm plot from home, slope of the farm plots and availability of extension
services. The level of formal education in the household and the extension visit were important
variables affecting the probability and intensity of using improved soil conservation
technologies. This underscores the importance of human capital development in increasing the
probability and intensity of using soil conservation technologies. Availability of extension
services positively influenced the use of improved soil conservation measure. This underscores
the need for policies aimed at improved soil conservation measures, which are likely to influence
the awareness of individual farmers through extension service towards the effect of soil
conservation.
A study done by (Ashiagbor et al., 2020)The results of the binary logistic regression model analysis
revealed that the factors that positively and significantly influencing the adoption of soil and
water conservation practice were perception on soil and water conservation practice and soil
erosion problem, education level and a member of a local institution, family labour while
engagement in off-farm activities, walking distance between farmland and residence, the
distance between nearest market and home and land- to- man ratio were found to be negatively
and significantly influencing the adoption of SWC practices in the study area. Therefore, to
increase the likelihood of adoption, agricultural practitioners should organize and train farmers to
effectively introduce conservation initiatives.

The result of the study of (Assefa & Kefyalew, 2022) revealed that old farmers are less
interested in the adoption of soil and water conservation practices, while young farmers are
more interested. The result also showed that sex of household heads, access to extension
services, credit service, farm size, stage of watershed and access to training have positive
relationship to SWC measures. Whereas farmland distances, family size, level of education, and
age of household heads are negatively correlated.
The majorities of the farmers are aware and perceived soil erosion by water and land degradation
as a problem constraining crop production in their farm plots. Furthermore, farmers were able to
identify the different causes of soil erosion in their land based on knowledge they have through
farming conditions.
Agricultural extension services are important to assist farmers by identifying and analyzing their
production problems and by making them aware of opportunities for improvement. It plays
significant role in increasing crop production by promoting the use of improved seeds, fertilizers,
chemicals and other improved farming practices. Currently, the focus on the extension services
in the district is on crops, livestock and natural resources in an integrated development approach.
There are 126 Development Agents (DA), who live within the Kebeles (i.e., lowest
administrative units) and provide extension services to the farmers. The farmer-DA ratio is one
important issue, which needs attention (HDARDO 2014).

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