LIMITS, FITS, AND TOLERANCES

Basic size:
The theoretical size of a part, derived from the design
after rounding off to the nearest whole millimetre.
Actual size:
The size actually obtained by machining.
Limits:
The two extreme permissible sizes between which the
actual size lies are called limits.
Maximum limit:
The maximum permissible size for a given basic size.
Minimum limit:
The minimum permissible size for a given basic size.
Tolerance:
The amount of variation permitted to a basic size.
Deviation:
The difference between the actual size or limit sizes,
either maximum or minimum, and the corresponding
basic size.
Actual deviation:
The algebraic difference between the actual measured
size and the corresponding basic size.
Upper deviation:
The algebraic difference between the maximum limit of
size and the corresponding basic size.
Lower deviation:
The algebraic difference between the minimum limit of
size and the corresponding basic size.
Zero line:
It is the line drawn from the top generator of the basic
shaft. The deviation on this is zero, hence the line is
called “Zero Line”.
Tolerance Zone:
In the graphical representation of a tolerance, the zone
bounded by the upper and lower limits of the basic size,
shown hatched is called tolerance zone.
 TOLERANCES
Tolerance on a basic size is obtained based on its
performance.
To achieve the required tolerance, the
manufacturing process which is capable of
accomplishing the specified tolerance
economically has to be selected.
BIS has classified the manufacturing process into
16 grades. (from 1 to 16).
 Standard Tolerance Grades
BIS has recommended the use of 18 standard
tolerance grades.
IT01, IT0, IT1, IT2, ……… IT16.
The symbol IT indicates that they are
recommended standard tolerance grades.
STG are divided into 2 groups based on the Basic
Size. Sizes upto 500mm and Sizes above 500 mm
to 3150 mm.
 NUMERICAL
Compute the IT tolerance of diameter 40 mm of
tolerance grade 5.
Soln:
Diameter 40 mm lies in the diameter step
30 – 50 mm. D  30  50 mm.
IT tolerance for grade 5 from table = 11 m =
0.011 mm
 Computation of IT Tolerance
The IT tolerance may be computed using the
equations given in table below:
GRADE IT IT6 IT IT8 IT9 IT10 IT11 IT12 IT13 IT14 IT15 IT16
5 7
TOLERANCE 7i 10i 16 25i 40i 64i 100i 160i 250i 400i 640i 1000
VALUES i i

Or from the table

Fundamental deviation table
 Positioning of Tolerances
Fundamental Deviation
To specify the position of the tolerance zone,
any one of the two deviations either upper or
lower may be chosen. The upper or lower
deviation that is chosen to specify the position
of the tolerance zone is called “fundamental
deviation”.
CAPITAL LETTERS are used to indicate fd of Holes
Lowercase letters are used to indicate fd of
shafts.
The BIS has recommended 25 types of fds’ for the
holes and shafts of basic sizes less than 500 mm.
For HOLES the fd are:
A B C D E F G H JS J K M N P R S T U V X Y Z ZA ZB ZC
For SHAFTS the fd are:
a b c d e f g h js j k m n p r s t u v x y z za zb zc.
The positioning of the fd is given as a graph by the
BIS.
Equations for the fd is also given (in terms of shafts)
Symbols used for fd for shafts and holes are:
Hole shafts
Upper deviation ES es
Lower deviation EI ei
Symbolic representation of tolerance
 40 B9
 = circular cross section
40 = Basic size
B = type of hole
9 = IT9
 NUMERICAL
Compute the fundamental deviations for a
circular hole of 35 mm diameter finished to H7
tolerance.
Soln:  35 H7
IT7 for 35 mm basic size = 25 m = 0.025 mm
Fundamental deviation for H hole is Lower
deviation and = ZERO
Lower limits of hole = B.S. + fd = 35 mm.

Upper limit of hole = L.L. + IT7 = 35 + 0.025 =

35.025 mm
 FITS
The relationship existing between the
mating surfaces of the parts because of
the differences in their dimensions is
called fit.
TERMINOLOGY
Clearance/Allowance
Is defined as the difference between the dimensions
of the hole and the shaft assigned intentionally to
obtain a particular type of fit.

Clearance = Size of hole – Size of shaft

 Classification of fits
• Fits are classified in terms of the algebraic sign
of the clearances.

1) Clearance fit
2) Interference fit
3) Transition fit
 Clearance fit
A clearance fit is established when a
positive clearance exists between the hole
and the shaft.
 Interference fit
A interference fit is established when a
negative clearance exists between the hole
and the shaft.
 Transition fit
A transition fit is established when the
dimensions of the hole and the shaft are
such that there exists a positive clearance
or a negative clearance when the shaft is
fit into the hole.
 SYSTEM OF FITS

HOLE BASIS SYSTEM

SHAFT BASIS SYSTEM

The Pitter-N.P.L. Gauge Interferometer.
Metrology of Screw Thread
 Limitations of Thread Micrometer
The micrometer must be set to a
standard thread plug. If not done so in
the fIrst instance, there will be error due
to helix angle of the thread being
measured. When setting the instrument
to a standard plug gauge it will be
observed that the reading is not exactly
zero, as previously inferred, when the
spindle and anvil are brought together.
Two Wire Method.
 Two Wire Method.
The effective diameter of a screw thread may be
ascertained by placing two wires or rods of identical
diameter between the flanks of the thread, as shown in
Fig. 13.15, and measuring the distance over the outside
of these wires. The effective diameter E is then
calculated as

The wires used are made of hardened steel to sustain the wear
and tear in use. These are given a high degree of accuracy and
finish by lapping to suit different pitches.
Dimension T can also be determined by placing wires over a
standard cylinder of diameter greater than the diameter under
the wires and noting the reading Ri and then taking reading with
over the gauge, say
Actually P is a constant value which has to be added to the
diameter under the wires to give the effective diameter. The
expression for the value of P in terms of p (pitch), d (diameter of
wire) and x (thread angle) can be derived as follows:

In Fig. 13.15 (b), since BC lies on the effective diameter line,

AQ is half the value of P
 BEST SIZE WIRE.
The best size wire is one, in which
case the wire makes contact with
the thread flank.
i.e., the contact points of the wires
should be, on the pitch line or
effective diameter.
In other words, OP is perpendicular to
the flank position of the thread.
It is desired to measure the Effective
diameter of a 32 x 3.5 mm pitch metric plug
screw gauge. For this purpose, following
readings (average values) were noted.
Micrometer reading over the standard
cylinder of 30.500 mm and the wires of 2.000
mm diameter as 13.3768 mm.
Micrometer reading over the gauge and wires
as 12.2428.
Soln:
Effective diameter =T + P .
Measurement and Testing of Gears
 Gear teeth forms
The most commonly used forms of gear teeth are
• involute and
• cycloidal.
The two great advantages associated with involute for the
flank curve of gear teeth are :
i. Variations in the centre distance between two gears have
no effect on the velocity ratio between a pair of involute
gears.
ii. The involute rack has straight teeth. Thus the complex
involute form on gear can be generated from a simple
cutter.
iii. The involute system has a standard pressure angle which is
either 20° or 14.5° whereas on the cycloidal system the
pressure angle varies from zero at pitch line to a maximum
at the tips of teeth.
iv. In the cycloidal system for achieving correct meshing the
gears must, be operated on centre that will maintain
theoretical pitch circles in exact contact which is not
necessary in involute system.
 Involute Curve
•An involute curve is defined as the
locus of a point on straight line which
rolls around a circle without slipping.

•It could also be defined in another

way as the locus of a point on a piece
of string which is unwound from a
stationary cylinder.
 Thus it is obvious that
in an involute curve
the length of the
generator (G1R1) will
always be equal to the
arc length GR1) of the
base circle from the
point of tangency to
the origin of involute
at G.
Similarly generator G2 =arc GR2
 Terminology of Gear Tooth
Base Circle.
It is the circle from which involute fonn is generated.
Only the base circle on a gear is fixed and unalterable.
Pitch Circle.
It is an imaginary circle most useful in calculations. It
may be noted that an infinite number of pitch circles
can be chosen. each associated with its own pressure
angle.
Pitch Circle Diameter (P.C.D.).
It is the diameter of a circle which by pure rolling action
would produce the same motion as the toothed gear
wheel. This is the most important diameter in gears.
Module
It is defined as the length of the pitch circle diameter per
tooth. Thus if P.C.D. of gear be D and number of teeth N,
then
module (m) = D/N.
It is generally expressed in mm.
Diametral Pitch
It is expressed as the number of teeth per inch of the
P.C.D.
Circular Pitch (C.P.).
It is the arc distance measured around the pitch circle
from the flank of one tooth to a similar flank in the nexth
tooth.
 C.P. =D/N =m
Addendum.
This is the radial distance from the pitch circle to the
tip of the tooth. Its value is equal to one module.
Clearance.
This is the radial distance from the tip of a tooth to the
bottom of a mating tooth space when the teeth are
symmetrically engaged.
Its standard value is 0.157 m.
Dedendum.
This is the raidal distance from the pitch circle to the
bottom of the tooth space.
Dedendum =Addendum + Clearance
=m + 0.157 m
= 1.157 m.
Tooth Thickness.
This is the arc distance measured along the pitch circle
from its intercept with one flank to its intercept with the
other flank of the same tooth.
Normally tooth thickness =C.P./2 =m/2
But thickness is usually reduced by certain amount to
allow for some amount of backlash and also owing to
addendum correction.
Face of Tooth.
It is that part of the tooth surface which is above the
pitch surface.
Flank of Tooth.
It is that part of the tooth surface which is lying below the
pitch surface.
Line of Action and Pressure Angle.
The teeth of a pair of gears in mesh,
contact each other along the
common tangent to their base circles
as shown in Figure. This path is
referred to as line of action. As this is
the common generator to both the
involutes, the load or pressure
between the gears is transmitted
along this line. The angle between
the line of action and the common
tangent to the pitch circles is
therefore known as pressure angle
ф.
The standard values of ф are
14.5° and 20°.
 :. Dia. of base circle Db = P.C.D. X cosø

Base Pitch.
It is the distance measured around the base circle from
the origin of the involute on the tooth to the origin of a
similar involute on the next tooth.
Involute Function.
It is found from the fundamental principle 01 the
involute, that it is -the locus of the end of a thread
(imaginary) unwound from the base circle.
Mathematically its value is
Involute function  =tan ø - ø
where ø is the pressure angle.
The relationship between the
involute function and the pressure
angle can be derived as follows :
OA =base circle radius =Rb
OP =pitch circle radius =Rp
and BP =involute profile of gear
tooth
The analytical inspection of the gears consists in
determination of the following teeth elements in which
the errors are caused due to manufacturing errors.
(A)Profile.
(B)Spacing.
(C)Pitch.
(D)Runout or eccentricity or concentricity.
(E)Thickness of tooth.
(F) Lead.
(G)Backlash.
 Measurement of Individual Elements
Measurement of tooth thickness.
There are various methods of measuring the gear
tooth thickness.
(i) Measurement of tooth thickness by gear tooth
vernier calliper.
(ii) Constant chord method.
(iii) Base tangent method.
(iv) Measurement by dimension over pins.
 Measurement of Individual Elements
Gear tooth vernier calliper

The gear tooth

vernier has
two vernier
scales and they
are set for the
width (w) of the
tooth and the
depth (d) from
the top, at which
w occurs.
 Measurement of Individual Elements

GEAR TOOTH VERNIER CALLIPER

The tooth thickness can be very conveniently measured
by a gear tooth vernier. Since the gear tooth thickness
varies from the tip to the base circle of the tooth, the
instrument must be capable of measuring the tooth
thickness at a specified position on the tooth. Further
this is possible only when there is some arrangement to
fix that position where the measurement is to be taken.
The tooth thickness is generally measured at pitch
circle and is, therefore, referred to as pitch-line
thickness of tooth.
Measurement of Individual Elements
Gear tooth vernier calliper
Considering one gear tooth, the
theoretical values of w and d can be
found out which may be verified by
the instrument.
It may be noted that w is a chord
ADB, but tooth thickness is specified
as an arc distance AEB. Also the
distance d adjusted on instrument is
slightly greater than the addendum
CE, w is therefore called chordal
thickness and d is called the chordal
addendum.
 Constant Chord Method.
In the above method, it is seen that both the chordal
thickness and chordal addendum are dependent upon
the number of teeth. Hence for measuring a large
number of gears for set, each having different number
of teeth/would involve separate calculations. Thus the
procedure becomes laborious and time-consuming one.

The constant chord method does away with these

difficulties. Constant chord of a gear is measured
where the tooth flanks touch the flanks of the basic
rack.
The teeth of the rack
are straight and
inclined to their
centre lines at the
pressure angle as
shown in Fig.
 1   P.C.D.

PD=PF=arcPF=1/4x circularpitch= 4 N
m

4
Since line AP is the line of action, i.e. it is
tangential to the base circle, CAP- = ø
In right angled Δ APD, AP=PD cos ø. = (π/4) m cos ø

In triangle PAC,AC =AP cos ø. = (π/4) m cos2 ø.

C = constant chord =2AC= (π /2) m cos2 ø .

Where ø is the pressure angle (from Fig.)

Now PC=AP sin ø. =(π /4)m cos ø, sin ø

. d =addendum - PC  m   m cos  sin 

4
  
 m 1  cos  sin  
 4 
Also height of AB above pitch line = PC

 
m cos  sin   m sin 2
4 8
 Base Pitch.
This is defined as the circular
pitch of the teeth measured
on the base circle.
In Figure, AB represents the
portion of a gear base circle,
CD and EF the sides of two
teeth, FD
being the base pitch. From
the property of involute, if
any line as GH is drawn to cut
the involutes and tangential
to, the base circle, then
GH = FD
 Base Pitch.
Thus base pitch could also be defined as equal to the
linear distance between a pair of involutes measured
along a common generator.
Base circumference =2πRB
:. Base pitch =2 π RB/N
If ø is the pressure angle, then RB = P.C.R. x cos ø
= (P.C.D./2)cos ø

:. Base pitch = (2 π /N) x (P.C.D./2) x cos ø

= π m COS ø
 'David Brown' tangent comparator
= π m COS ø
This is the distance between tangents to the curved
portions of any two adjacent teeth and can be measured
either with a height gauge or on an enlarged projected
image of the teeth. This principle is utilised in 'David
Brown' tangent comparator and it is the most commonly
used method.
Base Pitch Measuring Instrument.
 The Base Tangent Method.
In this method, the span of a convenient number
of teeth is measured with the help of the
tangent comparator.
This uses a single vernier calliper and has, therefore, the
following advantages over gear tooth vernier which used
two vernier scales :
(i) the measurements do not depend on two vernier
readings, each being function of the other.
(ii) the measurement is not made with an edge of the
measuring jaw with the face.
Consider a straight generator (edge) ABC being rolled
back and forth along a base circle.
Its ends thus sweep out opposed involutes A2AA1 and
C2CC1 respectively. Thus the measurements made across
these opposed involutes by span gauging will be
constant (i.e. AC = A1 C1= A2C2 = A0C0) and equal to the
arc length of the base circle between the origins of
involutes.
The value of the distance between two opposed involutes,
or the dimension over parallel faces is equal to the
distance round the base circle between the points where
the corresponding tooth flanks cut i.e., ABC in Fig.

It can be derived mathematically as

follows:
 The angle between the points A and C on
the pitch circle where the flanks of the
opposed involute teeth of the gear cut
this circle can be easily calculated.
Let us say that the gear has got 'N' number of
teeth and AC on pitch circle corresponds to 'S'
number of teeth.
:. Distance AC = (S- 1/2) pitches

:. Angle subtended by
AC = (S - 1/2)x 2π/N radians
Angles of arcs BE and BD
Involute function of pressure angle
= = tan ø - ø
As already defined, length of arc BD = distance
between two opposed involutes and thus it is
'David Brown' tangent comparator
Checking of involute shape of gear
Parkinson Gear Tester