CHAPTER 1 Counting Principles and Probability Students

Republic of the Philippines
NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY

Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.:CSPC2-1STSEM-2022-2023
College: INDUSTRIAL TECHNOLOGY

Campus :BAMBANG
DEGREE BS COMPUTER SCIENCE COURSE NO. CSPC 2

PROGRAM
SPECIALIZATION COURSE TITLE DISCRETE STRUCTURES 2
YEAR LEVEL II TIME FRAME 12 WK NO. 1-4 IM NO. 1
I. UNIT TITLE/CHAPTER TITLE
CHAPTER I – COUNTING PRINCIPLES AND PROBABILITY
II. LESSON TITLE
Counting Principles
Sample Spaces and Probability
The addition rules and multiplication rules for probability
Marginal and conditional probabilities
III. LESSON OVERVIEW
In this chapter we will deal with some counting techniques without direct enumeration of the
number of possible outcomes of a particular experiment or the number of elements in particular set. An
introduction to probability is also included in this chapter.
IV. DESIRED LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
1. Determine the sample space, event, and outcome of a probability experiment

2. Find the probability of compound events using addition and multiplication rules
3. Find the total number of outcomes in a sequence of events, using the fundamental counting rule
4. Find the number of ways that r objects can be selected from n objects, using permutation and
combination rule
V. LESSON CONTENT
FUNDAMENTAL COUNTING PRINCIPLE
If there are m ways to do one thing, and n ways to do another, then there are m*n ways of doing
both. Therefore, counting principle is the guiding rule for finding the number of ways to accomplish two
tasks.
A. Fundamental Counting Rule
1. Sum Rule
- Suppose that an event can be performed by either of two different procedures, with
m possible outcomes for the first procedure and n possible outcomes for the second.
If the two sets of possible outcomes are disjoint, then the number of possible
outcomes for the event is m + n.
“In accordance with Section 185. Fair Use of Copyrighted Work of Republic Act 8293, the copyrighted works included in this material may be reproduced for
educational purposes only and not for commercial distribution.”
NVSU-FR-ICD-05-00 (081220) Page 1 of 10
Example for sum rule: A scholarship is available, and the professor to receive this
scholarship must be chosen from the Information Technology, Computer Science or
Software Development departments. How many different choices are there for this
scholarship if there are 15 qualified professors from the Information Technology
department, 50 qualified professors from the computer science department and 26
qualified professors from the software development department?
Solution:
The procedure of choosing a professor from the Information Technology department

has 15 possible outcomes, the procedure of choosing a professor from the Computer
Science department has 50 possible outcomes, and the procedure of choosing a
professor from the software development department has 26 possible outcomes
Therefore, there are 15 + 50 + 26 = 91 possible choices to award the scholarship.
2. Product Rule
- In a sequence of n events in which the first has n 1 possibilities and the second event
has n2, and the third has n3, and so forth, the total number of possibilities of the
sequence will be n1(n2)(n3)…(nk).
Example for sum rule: A computer science student has a choice of 5 Mathematics
subjects and 6 English subjects. In how many ways can he choose 1 Mathematics
subject and 1 English subject?
Solution:
He can choose Mathematics subject in 5 ways, and with each of this choices
there are 6 ways of choosing an English subject.
Hence, the required number of ways = 5(6) = 30 ways.
B. Factorial Notation
Factorial Notation. n! (which read “n factorial”) is the product of the first n consecutive natural
numbers. 0! Is defined to be 1.
n! = n(n-1)(n-2)(n-3)…(3)(2)(1)
Example: evaluate the following:
a. 1! = 1
b. 3! = 3(2) (1) = 6
c. 5! = 5(4)(3)(2)(1) = 120
d. 6! – 4! = [6(5)(4)(3)(2)(1)] - [4(3)(2)(1)] = 720 – 24 = 696
e. 2!(3!) = 2(1) [3(2)(1)] = 2(6) = 12
10! 10 (9)(8)(7)(6)(5)(4)(3)(2)(1) 3,628,800
f. = = =30 , 240
5! 5(4)(3)(2)(1) 120
C. Permutation
Permutation. A permutation is an arrangement of all or part of a number of things (or objects) in a

definite order. The number of permutations of n objects taken r at a time is given by
n!
P(n,r) = nPr = , 0 0 ≤ r ≤n .
( n−r ) !
Permutations with Repeated Elements. It often happens that objects which are virtually identical
get arranged. Our inability to distinguish between these items reduces the number of possible
permutations by the number of ways these identical items themselves can be arranged.
n!
Pn = where n1 + n2 + n3 + … = n
n 1! ( n 2 ! ) ( n 3 ! ) …
Circular Permutations. When things are arranged in places along a closed curve or a circle, in
which any place may be regarded as the first or last place, they form a circular permutation. Thus
with n distinguishable objects we have (n-1)! arrangements. In symbol,
Pc = (n-1)!
Example 1:
Evaluate the following:
4! 4 ! 4 ( 3 ) (2)(1) 24
a. P(4,0) = = = = =1
( 4−0 ) ! 4 ! 4 ( 3 ) (2)(1) 24
5! 5(4 )(3)(2)(1) 120

b. P(5,2) = = = = 20
(5−2)! 3(2)(1) 6
7! 7 ! 7(6)(5)( 4)(3)(2)(1) 5,040

c. P(7,7) = = = = = 5,040
(7−7)! 0 ! 1 1
Example 2: How many different ways can a manager and a supervisor can be selected for an IT
company branch in Manila if there are 8 employees?
Solution: since order is important for the managerial and supervisory position we would need to
apply permutation. Then,
8! 8! 8(7)(6)(5)(4)(3)(2)(1) 40,320
P(8,2) = = = = = 56
(8−2)! 6 ! 6(5)( 4)(3)(2)(1) 720
Hence, there would be 56 ways to select a manager and a supervisor.
Example 3: how many different ways can 5 television commercials can be played during a 30-
minute television program?
Solution: since order is important, the solution is
5! 5! 5(4 )(3)(2)(1) 120

P(5,5) = = = = = 120
(5−5)! 0 ! 1 1
Hence there would be 120 ways to set up commercials.
Example 4: in how many ways can 4 students be seated at a round table?
Solution: Let one of them be seated anywhere. Then the 3 remaining can be seated in 3 ways.
Pc = (n – 1)! = (4 – 1)! = 3! = 6. Thus there are 6 ways of arranging 4 persons in a circle.
Example 4: There are 4 copies of Fortran book, 5 copies of COBOL book, and 3 copies of C++
book. In how many ways can they be arranged on a shelf?
Solution: There are 4+5+3=12 books of which are 4 copies of Fortran book, 5 copies of
COBOL book and 3 copies C++ book.
n! 12 !
The number of arrangement is Pn = = = 27,720
n 1! n 2 ! n 3 ! 4 ! (5 !)(3 !)
D. Combination
A combination is a mathematical technique that determines the number of possible arrangements

in a collection of items where the order of the selection does not matter. In combinations, you can
select the items in any order. Mathematically, the formula for determining the number of possible
arrangements by selecting only a few objects from a set with no repetition is expressed in the
following way:
C(n,r) = nCr = (nr) = nPr

r!
=
n!
( n−r ) ! r !
, 0 ≤ r ≤n .
Where:
n – the total number of elements in a set

r – the number of selected objects (the order of the objects is not important)
! – factorial
Example:
a. C(5,0) = (50) = ( 5−05 !) ! 0 ! = 5!5!(0 !) = 55((4)(3)(2)(1) =

120
=
120
4 )( 3 ) ( 2 ) ( 1 ) [1] 120(1) 120
=1
b. C(6,2) = (62) = ( 6−26 !) ! 2 ! = 4 !6(2! !) = 6(5)(4)(3)(2)(1)

4 ( 3 ) ( 2 ) ( 1 ) [1]
=
720
24(2)
=
720
48
= 15
Combination Problem 1
In how many ways can 4 board members be selected out of 15 board members of a company to
represent the body in the stockholders meeting?
Since this is combination problem, the answer is
C(15,4) = (154) = ( 15−4

15!
=
15!
) ! 4 ! 11!( 4 !)
=
15(14)(13)(12)(11!)
11! ( 3 ) ( 2 ) (1 ) [1]
= 1,365
Choose 2 Prizes from a Set of 6 Prizes

You have won first place in a contest and are allowed to choose 2 prizes from a table that has 6
prizes numbered 1 through 6. How many different combinations of 2 prizes could you possibly
choose?
In this example, we are taking a subset of 2 prizes (r) from a larger set of 6 prizes (n). Looking
at the formula, we must calculate “6 choose 2.”
C(6,2) = (62) = ( 6−26 !) ! 2 ! = 4 !6(2! !) = 6(5)(4)(3)(2)(1)

4 ( 3 ) ( 2 ) ( 1 ) [1]
=
720
24(2)
=
720
48
= 15 Possible Prize
Combinations
The 15 potential combinations are {1,2}, {1,3}, {1,4}, {1,5}, {1,6}, {2,3}, {2,4}, {2,5}, {2,6}, {3,4},
{3,5}, {3,6}, {4,5}, {4,6}, {5,6}
Choose 3 Students from a Class of 25
A teacher is going to choose 3 students from her class to compete in the spelling bee. She
wants to figure out how many unique teams of 3 can be created from her class of 25.
In this example, we are taking a subset of 3 students (r) from a larger set of 25 students (n).
Looking at the formula, we must calculate “25 choose 3.”
C(25,3) = (253 ) = ( 25−3

25 !
=
25!
) ! 3 ! 22! (3 !)
= 2,300 Possible Teams
Choose 4 Menu Items from a Menu of 18 Items
A restaurant asks some of its frequent customers to choose their favorite 4 items on the menu.
If the menu has 18 items to choose from, how many different answers could the customers
give?
Here we take a 4 item subset (r) from the larger 18 item menu (n). Therefore, we must simply
find “18 choose 4.”
C(18,4) = ( )
18
4
=
18!
=
18 !
( 18−4 ) ! 4 ! 14 !(4 !)
= 3,060 Possible Answers
SAMPLE SPACES AND PROBABILITY
A. Sample Space
An outcome is the result of a single trial of probability experiment, while a sample space is the
set of all possible outcomes of a probability experiment.
Examples of Experiments, Outcomes, and Sample Spaces

Experiment Outcome Sample Space
Toss a coin once Head, Tail S = {Head, Tail}
Toss a coin twice HH, HT, TH, TT S = { HH, HT, TH, TT}
Roll a die 1,2,3,4,5,6 S = { 1,2,3,4,5,6}
Exam result Pass, Fail S = { Pass, Fail }
Game result Win, Lose S = { Win, Lose }
Example 1: Determine the sample space for rolling two dice.
Solution: Given that each die can land in 6 different ways, and two dice (or a pair of dice) are
rolled, the same space can be represented by an array. The table below shows the list of pairs
of sample.
Sample space rolling two dice

Die 2
Die 2
1 2 3 4 5 6
1 (1, 1) (1, 2) (1, 3) (1, 4) (1, 5) (1, 6)
2 (2, 1) (2, 2) (2, 3) (2, 4) (2, 5) (2, 6)
3 (3, 1) (3, 2) (3, 3) (3, 4) (3, 5) (3, 6)
4 (4, 1) (4, 2) (4, 3) (4, 4) (4, 5) (4, 6)
5 (5, 1) (5, 2) (5, 3) (5, 4) (5, 5) (5, 6)
6 (6, 1) (6, 2) (6, 3) (6, 4) (6, 5) (6, 6)
Example 2: determine the sample space for drawing one card from ordinary deck of cards.
Solution: Given that there are 4 suits (diamond, clubs, hearts, and spades) and 13 of each suit
(ace through king); there are 54 outcomes in the sample space for an ordinary deck of cards.
The table below shows the sample space for ordinary deck of cards.
Sample space for ordinary deck of cards
Example 3: Using tree diagram, construct a sample space that describes all three-child families
according to the genders of the children with respect to birth order.
Solution: Two of the outcomes are “two boys then a girl,” which we might denote bbgbbg, and
“a girl then two boys,” which we would denote gbbgbb.
Clearly there are many outcomes, and when we try to list all of them it could be difficult to be
sure that we have found them all unless we proceed systematically. The tree diagram shown in
below, gives a systematic approach.
The diagram was constructed as

follows. There are two possibilities for the first
child, boy or girl, so we draw two line
segments coming out of a starting point, one
ending in a bb for “boy” and the other ending
in a gg for “girl.” For each of these two
possibilities for the first child there are two
possibilities for the second child, “boy” or
“girl,” so from each of the bb and gg we draw
two line segments, one segment ending in
a bb and one in a gg. For each of the four
ending points now in the diagram there are
two possibilities for the third child, so we
repeat the process once more.
The line segments are called branches of the tree. The right ending point of each
branch is called a node. The nodes on the extreme right are the final nodes; to each one there
corresponds an outcome, as shown in the figure.
From the tree it is easy to read off the eight outcomes of the experiment, so the sample
space is, reading from the top to the bottom of the final nodes in the tree,
S={bbb,bbg,bgb,bgg,gbb,gbg,ggb,ggg}
B. Simple and compound events
An event is a collection of one or more outcomes of an experiment; it may be simple event

of a compound event. A simple event is an event that includes one and only one of the outcomes
for an experiment and is denoted by E, it is also called as elementary event. On the other hand, a
compound event is a collection of more than one outcome for an experiment; it is also called a
composite event.
Example: In a group of Catholic Christian, some are in favor or death penalty as major punishment
for heinous crimes and others are against it. Three persons are selected at random and asked
whether they are in favor of or against death penalty. How many distinct outcomes are possible?
List all outcomes included in each of the following events and mention whether they are simple or
compound events.
a. All three persons are in favor of death penalty.

b. At least one person is in favor of death penalty.
c. Exactly one person is against death penalty.
Solution:
Let F = a person in favor of death penalty as major punishment for heinous crimes.
A = a person against death penalty as major punishment for heinous crimes.
This experiment has the following 8 outcomes: FFF, FFA, FAF, AFF, FAA, AFA, AAF, AAA.
a. The event “all three persons are in favor of death penalty” will occur if FFF is obtained. Thus,
“All three persons are in favor of death penalty” = {FFF}
Because this event includes only one of the eight outcomes, it is a simple event.
b. The event “At least one person is in favor of death penalty” will occur if one of the person is in
favor, or two of the persons are in favor, or three of the persons are in favor. Thus,
“At least one person is in favor of death penalty” = {FAA, AFA, AAF, FFA, FAF, AFF, FFF}
Because this event includes more than one outcome, it is a compound event.
c. The event “Exactly one person is against death penalty” will occur if one of the three persons
selected are against death penalty. Thus, it includes the three possible outcomes
”Exactly one person is against death penalty” = {FFA, FAF, AFF}
Because this event includes more than one outcome, it is a compound event.
C. Probability
The probability of an outcome e in a sample space S is a number P between 1 and 0 that

measures the likelihood that e will occur on a single trial of the corresponding random experiment.
The value P=0 corresponds to the outcome e being impossible and the value P=1 corresponds to
the outcome e being certain.
The probability of an event A is the sum of the probabilities of the individual outcomes of
which it is composed. It is denoted P(A).
The following formula expresses the content of the definition of the probability of an event:
If an event E is E={e1,e2,...,ek}, then
P(E)=P(e1)+P(e2)+...+P(ek)
The following figure expresses the content of the definition of the probability of an
event:
Since the whole sample space SS is an event that is certain to occur, the sum of the
probabilities of all the outcomes must be the number 11.
In ordinary language probabilities are frequently expressed as percentages. For example,

we would say that there is a 70% chance of rain tomorrow, meaning that the probability of rain
is 0.70. We will use this practice here, but in all the computational formulas that follow we will use
the form 0.70 and not 70%.
Example 1: A coin is called “balanced” or “fair” if each side is equally likely to land up. Assign a
probability to each outcome in the sample space for the experiment that consists of tossing a single
fair coin.
Solution: With the outcomes labelled h for heads and t for tails, the sample space is the set
S={h,t}. Since the outcomes have the same probabilities, which must add up to 11, each outcome is
assigned probability 1/2.
Example 2: A die is called “balanced” or “fair” if each side is equally likely to land on top. Assign a
probability to each outcome in the sample space for the experiment that consists of tossing a single
fair die. Find the probabilities of the events E: “an even number is rolled” and T: “a number greater
than two is rolled.”
Solution: With outcomes labelled according to the number of dots on the top face of the die, the
sample space is the set S={1,2,3,4,5,6}
Since there are six equally likely outcomes, which must add up to 11, each is assigned
probability 1/6.
1 1 1 3 1
Since E = {2,4,6}, P(E) = + + = =
6 6 6 6 2
4 2
Since T = {3,4,5,6}, P(T) = =
6 3
Example 3: Two fair coins are tossed. Find the probability that the coins match, i.e., either both
land heads or both land tails.
Solution: In one example above, we constructed the sample space S={2h,2t,d} for the situation in
which the coins are identical and the sample space S'={hh,ht,th,tt} for the situation in which the two
coins can be told apart.
The theory of probability does not tell us how to assign probabilities to the outcomes, only what to
do with them once they are assigned. Specifically, using sample space S, matching coins is the
event M={2h,2t} which has probability P(2h)+P(2t). Using sample space S′ matching coins is the
event M′={hh,tt} which has probability P(hh)+P(tt) In the physical world it should make no difference
whether the coins are identical or not, and so we would like to assign probabilities to the outcomes
so that the numbers P(M) and P(M′) are the same and best match what we observe when actual
physical experiments are performed with coins that seem to be fair. Actual experience suggests that
1
the outcomes in S' are equally likely, so we assign to each probability , and then...
4
1 1 1
P(M′)=P(hh)+P(tt)= + =
4 4 2
Similarly, from experience appropriate choices for the outcomes in SS are:
1
P(2h) =
4
1
P(2t) =
4
1
P(d) =
2
The previous three examples illustrate how probabilities can be computed simply by counting when
the sample space consists of a finite number of equally likely outcomes. In some situations the
individual outcomes of any sample space that represents the experiment are unavoidably unequally
likely, in which case probabilities cannot be computed merely by counting, but the computational
formula given in the definition of the probability of an event must be used.
Example: The breakdown of the student body in a local high school according to race and ethnicity
is 51% white, 27% black, 11% Hispanic, 6% Asian, and 5% for all others. A student is randomly
selected from this high school. (To select “randomly” means that every student has the same
chance of being selected.) Find the probabilities of the following events:
B: the student is black,

M: the student is minority (that is, not white),
N: the student is not black.
Solution: The experiment is the action of randomly selecting a student from the student population
of the high school. An obvious sample space is S={w,b,h,a,o}. Since 51% of the students are white
and all students have the same chance of being selected, P(w)=0.51, and similarly for the other
outcomes. This information is summarized in the following table:
Outcome w b h a o
Probability 0.51 0.27 0.11 0.06 0.05
Since B = {b}, P(B)=P(b)=0.27

Since M = {b, h, a, o}, P(M)=P(b)+P(h)+P(a)+P(o)=0.27+0.11+0.06+0.05=0.49
Since N = {w, h, a, o}, P(N)=P(w)+P(h)+P(a)+P(o)=0.51+0.11+0.06+0.05=0.73
The student body in the high school considered in the last example may be broken down into ten
categories as follows: 25% white male, 26% white female, 12% black male, 15% black female, 6%
Hispanic male, 5% Hispanic female, 3% Asian male, 3% Asian female, 1% male of other minorities
combined, and 4% female of other minorities combined. A student is randomly selected from this
high school. Find the probabilities of the following events:
B: the student is black

MF: the student is a non-white female
FN: the student is female and is not black
Solution: Now the sample space is S={wm,bm,hm,am,om,wf,bf,hf,af,of}. The information given in

the example can be summarized in the following table, called a two-way contingency table:
Race / Ethnicity
Gender
White Black Hispanic Asian Others
Male 0.25 0.12 0.06 0.03 0.01
Female 0.26 0.15 0.05 0.03 0.04
Since B = {bm, bf}, P(B)=P(bm) + P(bf) = 0.12 + 0.15 = 0.27

Since MF = {bf, hf, af, of}, P(M) = P(bf) + P(hf) + P(af) + P(of) = 0.15 + 0.05 + 0.03 + 0.04 = 0.27
Since FN = {wf, hf, af, of}, P(FN) = P(wf) + P(hf) + P(af) + P(of) = 0.26 + 0.05 + 0.03 + 0.04 = 0.38
VI. LEARNING ACTIVITIES (to be uploaded in MS Teams)
VII. EVALUATION
Quiz thru MS Teams
VIII. REFERENCES
Counting Principles. (n.d.). Retrieved August 7, 2020, from

https://people.richland.edu/james/lecture/m116/sequences/counting.html
Stephanie. (2020, July 30). Fundamental Counting Principle (The Multiplication Counting Rule): How to
use it. Retrieved August 07, 2020, from https://www.statisticshowto.com/fundamental-counting-
principle/
The Basic Counting Principle. (n.d.). Retrieved August 7, 2020, from

https://www.mathsisfun.com/data/basic-counting-principle.html
CalculatorSoup, L. (n.d.). Combinations Calculator (nCr). Retrieved September 21, 2020, from
https://www.calculatorsoup.com/calculators/discretemathematics/combinations.php
Libretexts. (2020, August 17). 3.1: Sample Spaces, Events, and Their Probabilities. Retrieved
September 22, 2020, from
https://stats.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_Statistics/Book:_Introductory_Statistics_(Sh
afer_and_Zhang)/03:_Basic_Concepts_of_Probability/
3.01:_Sample_Spaces,_Events,_and_Their_Probabilities

CHAPTER 1 Counting Principles and Probability Students

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

CHAPTER 1 Counting Principles and Probability Students

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Republic of the Philippines

NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY

College: INDUSTRIAL TECHNOLOGY

DEGREE BS COMPUTER SCIENCE COURSE NO. CSPC 2

I. UNIT TITLE/CHAPTER TITLE

CHAPTER I – COUNTING PRINCIPLES AND PROBABILITY

II. LESSON TITLE

III. LESSON OVERVIEW

IV. DESIRED LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

1. Determine the sample space, event, and outcome of a probability experiment

FUNDAMENTAL COUNTING PRINCIPLE

A. Fundamental Counting Rule

The procedure of choosing a professor from the Information Technology department

Therefore, there are 15 + 50 + 26 = 91 possible choices to award the scholarship.

Hence, the required number of ways = 5(6) = 30 ways.

Example: evaluate the following:

Permutation. A permutation is an arrangement of all or part of a number of things (or objects) in a

Evaluate the following:

5! 5(4 )(3)(2)(1) 120

7! 7 ! 7(6)(5)( 4)(3)(2)(1) 5,040

Hence, there would be 56 ways to select a manager and a supervisor.

Solution: since order is important, the solution is

5! 5! 5(4 )(3)(2)(1) 120

Hence there would be 120 ways to set up commercials.

Example 4: in how many ways can 4 students be seated at a round table?

A combination is a mathematical technique that determines the number of possible arrangements

C(n,r) = nCr = (nr) = nPr

n – the total number of elements in a set

a. C(5,0) = (50) = ( 5−05 !) ! 0 ! = 5!5!(0 !) = 55((4)(3)(2)(1) =

b. C(6,2) = (62) = ( 6−26 !) ! 2 ! = 4 !6(2! !) = 6(5)(4)(3)(2)(1)

Since this is combination problem, the answer is

C(15,4) = (154) = ( 15−4

Choose 2 Prizes from a Set of 6 Prizes

C(6,2) = (62) = ( 6−26 !) ! 2 ! = 4 !6(2! !) = 6(5)(4)(3)(2)(1)

Choose 3 Students from a Class of 25

C(25,3) = (253 ) = ( 25−3

Choose 4 Menu Items from a Menu of 18 Items

SAMPLE SPACES AND PROBABILITY

Examples of Experiments, Outcomes, and Sample Spaces

Example 1: Determine the sample space for rolling two dice.

Sample space rolling two dice

Sample space for ordinary deck of cards

The diagram was constructed as

B. Simple and compound events

An event is a collection of one or more outcomes of an experiment; it may be simple event

a. All three persons are in favor of death penalty.

The probability of an outcome e in a sample space S is a number P between 1 and 0 that

If an event E is E={e1,e2,...,ek}, then

In ordinary language probabilities are frequently expressed as percentages. For example,

Similarly, from experience appropriate choices for the outcomes in SS are:

B: the student is black,

Since B = {b}, P(B)=P(b)=0.27

B: the student is black

Solution: Now the sample space is S={wm,bm,hm,am,om,wf,bf,hf,af,of}. The information given in

Since B = {bm, bf}, P(B)=P(bm) + P(bf) = 0.12 + 0.15 = 0.27

VI. LEARNING ACTIVITIES (to be uploaded in MS Teams)

Quiz thru MS Teams

Counting Principles. (n.d.). Retrieved August 7, 2020, from

The Basic Counting Principle. (n.d.). Retrieved August 7, 2020, from

You might also like