Passive House Design

Edition ∂ Green Books

Passive House
Design
Planning and design of
energy-efficient buildings

Roberto Gonzalo
Rainer Vallentin
Imprint
Authors:
Roberto Gonzalo, Dr.-Ing. Architekt
Rainer Vallentin, Dr.-Ing. Architekt
Co-author (building services):
Wolfgang Nowak, Prof. Dr.-Ing.
Project management and editorial work:
Jakob Schoof, Dipl.-Ing.
Editorial work and layout:
Jana Rackwitz, Dipl.-Ing.
Jakob Schoof, Dipl.-Ing.
Illustrations:
Ralph Donhauser, Dipl.-Ing. (FH)
Cover design:
Cornelia Hellstern, Dipl.-Ing. (FH)
Translation:
Sharon Heidenreich, Dipl.-Ing. (FH)
English proofreading:
J. Roderick O’Donovan, B. Arch.
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved,
whether the whole or part of the material is concerned,
specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, recitation,
re-use of illustrations and tables, broadcasting, reproduc-
tion on microfilms or in other ways, and storage in data
banks.
Duplication of this publication is only permitted under the
provisions of the German Copyright Law in its current ver-
sion. A copyright fee must always be paid. Violations are
liable for prosecution under the German Copyright Law.
DTP & layout:
Roswitha Siegler
Reproduction:
ludwig:media, Zell am See
Print:
GCC Grafisches Centrum Cuno, Calbe
1st edition 2014
Institut für internationale
Architektur-Dokumentation GmbH & Co. KG
Hackerbrücke 6, D-80335 München
Telephone: +49/89/38 16 20-0
Telefax: +49/89/39 86 70
www.detail.de
© 2014 Institut für internationale
Architektur-Dokumentation GmbH & Co. KG, Munich
A specialist book from Redaktion DETAIL
ISBN: 978-3-95553-220-8
The FSC-certified paper used for this book is manufac-
tured from fibres proved to originate from environmentally
and socially compatible sources.
Contents

Introduction 6 Urban design 68

Impact of energy-related aspects
Principles 8 on the urban design 68
Concept approach: energy efficiency 8 Design principles of compact and solar building 69
Definition of the Passive House standard 8 Model urban design guidelines 72
Passive House components 8 Reference projects 73
How does a Passive House work at different Completed Passive House developments 74
times of the year? 10
Thermal comfort and wellbeing 12 Non-residential building 76
Scope and field of application 14 Passive House principles in non-residential
Economy 16 buildings 76
Energy-related sustainability and Energy balance 77
climate protection 18 Features of different building typologies 80

Passive House planning 22 Reference buildings – non-residential 84

Main principles and comparison with
other standards 22 Passive House refurbishment 100
Passive house criteria 22 Conditions for an energy efficiency
Passive House Planning Package (PHPP) 24 refurbishment 100
Certified building components 28 Refurbishment standards and strategies 102
Certification of Passive House buildings 28 Energy balance and individual measures 103
Certified Passive House designers 28 Outlook 105
EnerPHit standard 28
Minergie-P standard 30 Reference buildings – Passive House 106
2000-Watt Society – SIA D 216 31 refurbishments
Net-zero energy standard 31
Building envelope components 126
Design and planning principles 32 Significance of the building envelope 126
General design issues 32 Opaque envelope constructions 126
Passive House design principles 34 Transparent components 129
Principle of thermal envelope and form factor 34 Other construction elements and special
Principle of homogeneity 36 components 131
Solar building design in Passive Houses 38 Building methods and construction systems 132
The importance of window placement 40
Basic principles of Passive House building services 42 Building services 134
Design-based energy balance 44 Ventilation 134
Impact of regional and urban climate 46 Space heating 139
Coordination of individual aspects 46 Heat supply concepts 140
Residential projects 46 Energy-efficient cooling systems 143

Reference buildings – residential 48 Outlook 144

Appendix 146
Introduction
Designing energy efficiency
This book is all about the design of Pas-
sive House buildings. Unlike many other
books published, the design concept is
considered not only from the viewpoint
of construction technology, energy effi-
ciency or building physics, but deliber-
ately takes a holistic approach from the
viewpoint of an architect and urban
planner. On the other hand, the book is
not intended to be a complete and aca-
demic design tool for energy-efficient
building. Instead it is designed to illus-
trate how theoretical and practical expe-
rience with Passive House buildings can
help contribute to the clarification of as
yet unresolved issues. In this context, it
is particularly interesting to determine
the extent as to which design principles
of solar and energy-efficient building are
expedient or, as individual features,
even mandatory to meet Passive House
standard. Naturally, these considera-
tions question the principles and even
provoke the assessment of improvement
strategies in the design process.
One aspect, in particular, has become
apparent in the short period of approxi-
mately 20 years in which the Passive
House standard has been around: the
design and planning strategies have
always been closely linked to the
energy-efficient technologies available
at the time of construction. The further
development of these technologies has
invariably affected the corresponding
design approach.
And yet, a large variety of design strate-
gies can lead to successful outcomes
so long as the overall energy-related tar-
get is kept in mind, which is to design
urban quarters, residential housing
estates and buildings that are sustaina-
ble from an energy point of view – also
in terms of the long-term, very ambitious
climate protection goals.
6
Target groups
There is an increasing interest in Pas-
sive Houses, also among architects.
However, this is not due to clever mar-
keting, but simply because it is one of
the most scientifically sophisticated and
practical energy efficiency standards for
buildings currently available.
This book is therefore addressed to all
architects, urban and specialist plan-
ners who want to find out more about
the Passive House concept or who are
just about to design their first Passive
House dwelling or Passive House hous-
ing estate. The contents will also pro-
vide new insight for those architects
and planners already familiar with the
Passive House standard. Among other
things, it includes the future assessment
of Passive House buildings with regard
to their energy sustainability, and
explains the impact this has on design.
Clients interested in the topic will find
the many reference projects and
insights into the design work of archi-
tects and specialist planners very worth-
while reading.
Passive House concept and design
The Passive House concept is based on
very clear and well-established energy-
related requirements and the verification
thereof using the specially developed
assessment tool: the Passive House
Planning Package (PHPP). The concept
is designed to give architects a high
degree of flexibility as to how target val-
ues can be reached, since precise rules
are deliberately avoided. It is fascinating
to see how designers, step by step,
have taken advantage of this freedom
and gradually extended the scope of
application. And, in our opinion, it is pre-
cisely this exploration of possibilities
that makes the architects’ contribution
towards the further development of the
Passive House standard so substantive.
Strict criteria
One question that often arises in the
context of Passive Houses is whether
the limit imposed on the space heat
demand – it should be no greater than
15 kWh / m2a – must really be quite so
strict. There are several ways to answer
this question:
• The target values of the Passive
House standard and the construc-
tional and technical approaches
have proven successful in practice.
Together they provide a well-balanced
mix of high comfort and performance
in terms of building physics, which is
reflected in economic and functional
efficiency.
• The space heat demand is the most
important value in defining the energy
performance of a building. It follows
that it also evaluates the architectural
design in terms of the overall energy
efficiency achieved.
• The principal design features and
properties of Passive House buildings
are based on the extremely low space
heat demand and the very small heat
load. Among these are excellent ther-
mal comfort in winter, the elimination
of draughts and very good indoor air
quality, the absence of otherwise
required radiators beneath windows,
as well as the simple arrangement of
building services in a core zone.
• User behaviour also varies quite con-
siderably in Passive House homes.
Different residents require different
room temperatures, ranging from
18 to 24°C; some like to open win-
dows in winter to air the interior. The
space heat demand measured in
identical dwelling units can therefore
vary between 3 and more than
40 kWh/m²a. Thus, the building ser-
vices concept of Passive House build-
ings should be designed in such a
way that even very different user

demands can be fulfilled in terms of
heating performance and perfect
comfort. If one were to increase the
space heat demand to, for example,
20 kWh / m²a, the very basic heating
system, commonly used in Passive
House buildings, would no longer
suffice to meet the demands.
Open approach versus “laissez faire”
This book takes a very open approach
to the design of energy-efficient build-
ings. The energy balance, using certi-
fied calculation programs and simula-
tions, has been identified as the only
really reliable tool. Those who verify their
design using this tool but, at the same
time, for good reasons, extend, replace
or dispense with the undoubtedly very
effective planning principles are very
welcome to do so. However, this proce-
dure requires a great deal of discipline,
because each creative exceedance
demands a sound knowledge of princi-
ples and their implications.
This approach is therefore the exact
opposite of a “laissez faire” attitude.
Simply because of its low reserve
capacity, the Passive House is less tol-
erant than buildings with lavishly dimen-
sioned heating and cooling systems.
Book contents
The structure of this book is based on
the planning process of a Passive
House. It starts with an explanation of
fundamental aspects including the defi-
nition of standards, project design,
building physics and building services.
The topical focus is on architecture-
related design issues. This is followed
by insights into the application of Pas-
sive House principles in urban planning,
since this is regarded as the basis for
the meaningful development of energy-
efficient buildings.
A separate chapter focuses on non-resi-
dential buildings completed according
to Passive House standard. In this field
especially, there is an increasing variety
of typologies, ranging from schools, to
museums and indoor swimming pools.
The weighting of factors in the energy
balance varies according to type and
use. Nevertheless, in the case of these
buildings, too, the design and construc-
tion have a significant impact on the
overall efficiency.
In recent times, energy efficiency
upgrades have become an important
field of application for Passive House
components. However, the difficult cir-
cumstances often encountered in these
schemes mean that not all elements can
be improved sufficiently to meet the
Passive House standard of a new build.
Further limitations are frequently added,
such as the sensitivity of a scheme
(building conservation), issues concern-
ing space and building approval, as
Energy-efficient building design
well as demands to perform refurbish-
ments in stages rather than in a single
step. With the introduction of the Ener-
PHit standard, the Passive House Insti-
tute has developed a fine-tuned and
practical planning concept for energy
efficiency upgrades.
Passive House projects
A range of completed Passive House
projects in this book illustrate the exem-
plary implementation of the principles
for energy-efficient and solar building.
The projects have generally been built
with an average budget and ordinary
user requirements. The selected exam-
ples present a wide range of building
typologies, spatial configurations and
structural concepts, as well as different
solutions concerning building services.
The Passive House standard referred to
in this book is the “classic” Passive
House concept as determined by the
German Passive House Institute. In
order to present the Passive House
developments taking place in other
countries (e.g. the Swiss Minergie-P
standard), the projects selected also
include some buildings that marginally
exceed Passive House standard.
1.1 Residential estate in Frankfurt am Main (D) 2008,
Stefan Forster Architekten. Development of a
building with a mixed-use concept, including liv-
ing, shopping and dining, on the former site of a
tram depot in the city centre.
1.1
7
Principles
Concept approach: energy efficiency
The Passive House concept is based on
a scientific, objective method and is
characterised by consistency and trans-
parency. Its energy-related targets
define a clearly determined framework
within which the design of the Passive
House takes place. How the targets are
actually met is quite purposely left to the
designer. Thus, there are no predeter-
mined design principles, construction
methods or building services solutions.
The only crucial factor is the energy per-
formance of the building and its con-
structional and technical components.
The criteria are simple and well-
founded. Complicated interdependen-
cies of the target values between, for
example, the size and compactness of
the building or the type of building are
deliberately avoided.
The overriding concept is extremely sim-
ple: nobody is interested in a wasteful
consumption of energies and resources
as an end in itself. Everybody is far more
interested in the result and comfort that
can be achieved through its consump-
tion. Among the energy services
expected are, for example, a comforta-
ble workplace or home which is warm in
winter and sufficiently cool in summer.
There should always be an adequate
supply of fresh air in the interior without,
however, having to sit in a draught. Fur-
thermore, we need facilities in buildings
for washing, bathing and showering, for
washing and drying laundry, storing and
preparing food and the opportunity to
call on these according to our daily rou-
tines, which can occasionally be very
spontaneous. It must also be possible to
compensate for a lack of daylight, either
in a room or at a certain time of day, by
providing a suitable amount of artificial
light in order to perform each and every
task at any time.
8
This list more or less includes our entire
sphere of life and all of the economic,
public and private activities involved.
Most of these services can be rendered
with a much lower use of energy than is
usual practice today. The Passive
House concept is designed to imple-
ment this efficiency standard conse-
quently in the proposal, planning, devel-
opment and operation of buildings. For
economic and practical reasons, it
begins with components that are gener-
ally required in every building anyway.
These are further developed in such a
way that, in relation to the small addi-
tional constructional and technical effort
required, superior results and comfort
are achieved in total.
Definition of the Passive House
standard
To begin with, the energy consumption
in a Passive House is reduced with pas-
sive measures to such a low level that
the building hardly requires any heating,
cooling, humidification or dehumidifica-
tion to meet the predetermined climate
and comfort conditions.
Among the passive measures, the most
substantial contribution is made by the
thermal insulation of the building. Most
of the heat demand in winter can be
covered by passive heat sources, such
as the sun, the occupants, office or
household appliances and the heat
extracted from the exhaust air. The ther-
mal insulation also helps to reduce heat
gains inside a building in summer. Fur-
ther passive measures, such as shading
devices, natural ventilation, easily
accessible storage mass, as well as a
systematic reduction of internal heat
loads, either suffice to keep the building
cool on their own or are able to reduce
the cooling load sufficiently so that it can
• Concept approach: energy efficiency
• Definition of the Passive House standard
• Passive House components
• How does a Passive House work at
different times of the year?
• Thermal comfort and wellbeing
• Scope and field of application
• Economy
• Energy-related sustainability and
climate protection
be covered with the use of very little
energy. The application of technical
equipment is therefore limited to the
active ventilation of the interior space.
This should include heat recovery and
possibly also the recovery of moisture.
Furthermore, the Passive House con-
cept is designed to provide a controlled
supply of the very small space heat
demand, and if necessary also cooling
demand, according to the individual
requirements of the residents or users.
Passive House components
The Passive House concept represents
the state-of-the-art technical solution for
energy-efficient building. The aim has
been to improve the constructional and
building services components in
building,s in terms of their energy effi-
ciency, to such a degree that the heating
system can be downsized considerably.
The main components of a Passive
House building include:
Excellent thermal insulation
The most obvious feature of a Passive
House building is the excellent thermal
insulation of the entire building envelope.
The opaque elements (exterior walls,
roofs, ground and ceiling slabs) have,
depending on the form factor of the
building and the quality of the other con-
structional and technical components,
U-values ranging between 0.08 and
0.18 W / m2K. In order to provide a high
level of thermal comfort, the U-values of
the windows are below 0.80 W / m2K.
This requires insulated frames and the
use of triple thermal protection glazing.
Avoiding thermal bridges; air and wind-
tight construction of the building envelope
Good thermal insulation includes excel-
lent detailing of all junctions. This is nec-

essary not only from an energy point of
view but also in terms of building physics
(fig. 2.4, p. 10):
• In order to avoid the thermal insulation
of plane surfaces simply ending at junc-
tions, it is necessary to make sure that
all thermal bridges are prevented or at
least minimised.
• An airtight construction of the building
envelope is necessary to eliminate
draughts, leak-induced damage and
ventilation heat loss.
• The wind-tight construction of the
building envelope avoids the thermal
insulation from being wind-washed, i.e.
air penetrating into and around the
insulation, and thus reducing its effec-
tiveness.
Coordinated passive solar components
High solar contributions to the heating
can be made by using Passive House-
suitable windows and glazing systems.
And this does not even require an exces-
sively large solar aperture area, i.e. even
a moderate window area can suffice. The
size and number of glazed areas can be
selected according to other aspects,
such as daylight autonomy, the desired
indoor/outdoor connection or design-
related considerations. The solar gain
through windows can only provide a sub-
stantial contribution towards the space
heating if the heat loss of the window
frames and window panes is kept to an
absolute minimum.
For summer conditions, it is essential,
like in all buildings, to limit the solar
aperture to the size necessary in terms
of lighting and the connection to the
exterior space, or to provide controllable
shading devices. Depending on the
design of the building, different window
quantities (e.g. window sizes) and quali-
ties (U-value of the window and g-value
of the glass) must be checked and
assessed according to the impact they
have on the performance both in sum-
mer and winter conditions. Alongside
affecting the energy balance, these con-
siderations have a significant impact on
the appearance and the user friendliness
of the building.
High-performance ventilation unit
Alongside the reduction of transmission
heat loss, the minimization of ventilation
heat loss, through the installation of a
mechanical ventilation unit with a heat
recovery system, is a key aspect of a
Passive House building’s low space heat
demand. All rooms within the thermal
envelope of a Passive House are there-
fore provided with fresh air using a com-
fort ventilation system with heat recovery
and a controlled supply and extraction of
Passive House components
air. The main aspect here is to ensure the
air exchange necessary from a hygiene
point of view. The effective heat supply
rate of the mechanical ventilation unit
should be at least 75 % in order to pro-
vide a suitable degree of efficiency and
comfort.
Adapted heating and cooling systems
A Passive House requires heating and
cooling systems that are suitable to
match the low heating and cooling
demands of the building. Generally
speaking, any conventional type of heat-
ing system can be used. In many cases,
though, Passive House buildings can
be heated using the supply air only.
Additional heating surfaces, if at all
required, do not necessarily have to be
placed beneath windows, which was
previously the case. This has the effect
of simplifying and reducing the installa-
tion work, which frees up the additional
expenditure for the heat recovery system
of the mechanical ventilation unit. These
aspects have a considerable impact on
the economic efficiency of the Passive
House concept.
2.1 School for speech correction in Griesheim (D)
2011, Ramona Buxbaum Architekten. The new
build includes three separate, compact pavilions
built as timber frame structures.
2.1
9
 Principles

20 °C -5°C Energy-efficient electrical installations remaining heat demand can be covered

The use of power-efficient devices, work
35 W/m2 or household appliances and lighting, as
well as all other service facilities
U = 1.40 W/m2K Building stock (e.g. elevators) and electronic devices
(e.g. communication technology) is a
8 W/m2 fundamental aspect of the Passive
House concept (fig. 2.5). However, the
implementation of this aspect is often
U = 0.30 W/m2K EnEV disregarded by architects and consult-
ants since it is not considered to be
within the scope of normal services. Its
3 W/m2
impact on the primary energy balance,
the greenhouse gas emissions and com-
fort conditions in summer is quite con-
U = 0.12 W/m2K Passive House
siderable though. It is for this reason that
2.2 all power consumers are accounted for
and assessed in the electricity balance
outside air extract air of the primary energy criterion.
0°C 20 °C
How does a Passive House work at
different times of the year?
Heat exchanger
ηHR = 90 % The functional principles of a Passive
House are explained below. The exem-
plary illustrations are based on a single-
exhaust air supply air unit dwelling in a Central European
climate and take into account the resi-
3°C 18 °C
dents’ lifestyle. The ventilation concept
2.3 and performance, which is adapted to
35
the corresponding season, is of central
Annual space heat demand [kWh/m2a]
solely by the preheated supply air, and
possibly a few additional, carefully
placed radiators. It is also possible to
completely separate the ventilation and
heating system and control them individ-
ually. The heating period in a Passive
House lasts from November to March
and is therefore much shorter than that
of a conventional building.
In-between seasons
In the in-between seasons, autumn and
spring, the Passive House does not
need to be heated, provided the heat
recovery system of the mechanical ven-
tilation unit is still being operated. It is
fairly easy to adjust the temperature in
the interior of a Passive House by open-
ing the windows for short periods of time
to get rid of excess heat due to, for
example, undesirable solar heat gains.
Because of the high radiation of the low
standing sun, the use of shading
devices and glare control is especially
important on very sunny days.
Summer
In summer, Passive House buildings are
very similar to conventional buildings of
similar construction. Contrary to popular
belief, the very good thermal insulation

importance. actually helps to keep rooms cool. This

30 28.2 is especially true for attic storeys, which
Winter are often uncomfortable to use in sum-
25 Fresh outside air is drawn into the build- mer due to overheating. By using win-
ing through a central opening or structure dows with forced ventilation and adjust-
20 19.8 with an integrated filter and transported to able shading devices at the most impor-
17.1
15.0
the core element of the mechanical venti- tant openings, the residents have some
15 lation unit, the heat exchanger, with the very effective passive cooling strategies
Passive House limit 13.5
help of energy-saving fans. At the same at their disposal. However, the condi-
10 time, a second fan extracts waste air from tions for their installation must already
rooms where moisture and pollutants are be made at the design stage, including
5 most often generated (e.g. kitchen, bath- the perfect arrangement of windows to
room, utility room). The heat contained in provide cross ventilation, possibly
0
3.0 1.5 1.0 0.6 0.3 the extract air is transferred to the outside involving several storeys, as well as the
n50 pressure test factor air in the heat exchanger (fig. 2.3). The integration of shading devices.
2.4 preheated air is continuously supplied to The mechanical ventilation unit is often
Primary energy (non-renewable) [kWh/m2a]

150 household the living spaces (e.g. living room, bed- also operated in summer purely to pro-
electricity
aux. power rooms). A high quality of supply air is vide better thermal comfort. In this case,
Passive House limit
120 hot water ensured by the steady and permanent however, the heat recovery system must
heating exchange of air. While it is not necessary be circumvented, either by installing a
100 to open windows for ventilation purposes, bypass or by exchanging it for a sum-
90
this can be done if required, for example mer casette. The use of energy-efficient
50 in the case of a party or where cooler electrical appliances is fundamental for
25 bedrooms are preferred at night. good comfort conditions in summer
50 15 10 The excellent insulation of the building since this prevents the build up of criti-
5
envelope and the controlled air cal heat loads in the interior space.
25 25 25 exchange provided by the mechanical
ventilation unit with heat recovery reduce Opening of windows in Passive Houses
20 20 20 the heat loss to a minimum. The high In contrast to the common misconcep-
0
average power improved efficient quality glazing even ensures high solar tion that you are not allowed to open
efficiency today heat gain in the middle of winter. The windows in a Passive House, window
2.5
10
Annual space heating energy balance [kWh/m2a] How does a Passive House work at different times of the year?

Frequency of overtemperature h (δ > 25 °C) [%]

100 25
space heating internal heat gains solar heat gains transmission ventilation
90
without ventilation heat recovery
80 20
without ground heat exchanger
70

60 ventilation heat recovery 80% 15

24.5 29.2
ground heat exchanger 20%
35 % 42 %
50 5.9
13% 8.5
40 23.2 12 %
10
50%
30
40.4
40.4 36.6 58 %
20 8.1 5
18% 87% 53 %
10 15
0 32% 0
Gains Losses Gains Losses frequent average infrequent
Passive House Passive House without heat recovery
2.6 2.7

3
6

1
4

5 2

25

21

24
22 23 13
20

8 9 18 17
16

21 supply air
supply air
7
waste air
19 19
10 15

12 11 14

26

2.8
2.2 Heat flow through an exterior wall dependent mal comfort (frequency of indoor temperature 13 central core with fire resistant ventilation ducts
on the U-value of the construction rising above 25 °C). (F 90)
2.3 Performance of the highly efficient heat recov- 2.8 Overview of the most important Passive House 14 sanitary rooms arranged around the central core
ery system (with ηHR = 90 %) components and their interaction in a schematic 15 waste air filter
2.4 Annual space heat demand of a Passive section. 16 insulated exterior wall
House dependent on the airtightness meas- 1 air intake with filter (F 7 filter) 17 wind-tight layer (e.g. external rendering)
ured by the blower door pressure test 2 frost protection coil 18 airtight layer (e.g. internal plastering)
2.5 Primary energy value of a Passive House 3 heat exchange chamber 19 Passive House window with triple glazing
dependent on the efficiency of electrical sys- 4 support fan (intake duct) 20 blind box integrated into insulation layer
tems (household appliances, communication 5 support fan (exhaust duct) 21 fixed overhang (e.g. balcony slab)
electronics, lighting, pumps, fans) 6 exhaust air outlet (e.g. deflector hood) as a shading device for the south-facing facade
2.6 Impact of ventilation heat recovery on the 7 fireproof dampers 22 balcony set in front of the structure
energy balance of a Passive House. The annu- 8 supply air terminal in dwelling unit (only point-fixed to building)
al space heat demand would rise from 15 to 9 secondary heating coil 23 window ventilation (tilt position)
almost 40 kWh/m2a without heat recovery. 10 waste air fan 24 window ventilation (cross ventilation in summer)
2.7 Impact of residents opening windows for 11 bathroom radiator 25 roof overhang to provide shading of south facade
ventilation purposes to improve summer ther- 12 optional additional heating surface 26 bottom block course made of aerated concrete

11
Principles

ventilation actually plays a central role. In space, the temperature and humidity lev- • the clothing, in particular the thermal
winter, there is no need to open windows els must be within a certain range and resistance and wind-tightness
since the mechanical ventilation unit is balanced throughout the space and day. • physical processes, such as thermal
responsible for the air exchange neces- Thermal comfort is, in this case, of great conduction, thermal radiation, convec-
sary in terms of hygiene. Residents are in significance. It is dependent on a number tion and evaporation in and on the body
agreement that this actually eases the of parameters, which can be narrowed and in interaction with the surroundings.
burden and increases comfort levels. In down fairly precisely with the help of sci-
all other seasons, window ventilation is entific and statistical methods [1]. The Thermal comfort
absolutely essential to generate comforta- thresholds of sensitivity differ considera- Concerning homes and offices, the com-
ble temperatures in the interior space. bly according to the parameter used. In fort levels, at which at least 90 – 95 % of
Measurements in residential buildings addition, individual preferences play an those questioned felt comfortable, can be
during the height of summer have shown important role, making them an important determined as follows [1, 2, 3]:
that different temperatures are metered component of the comfort definition. • The air temperature should be set at
according to different window opening The room climate can be, in good approxi- around 21 °C (± 1 Kelvin) with the pos-
habits: whereas rooms with frequently mation, determined by four parameters sibility of being adjusted to between
opened windows stay quite cool, the tem- that affect a person present in a room. 18 and 24 °C. Temperatures higher than
perature in rooms where windows are These are listed according to their degree 24 °C (± 2 Kelvin) can be tolerated in
opened only sporadically rises signifi- of significance: summer by adapting the clothing
cantly during heat waves (fig. 2.7, p. 11). • radiation temperature of the surround- accordingly (fig. 2.9).
ing surfaces • The average surface temperature
Conclusion • room temperature should not differ from the air tempera-
The functional principles and energy per- • relative air velocity close to the human ture by more than 2 – 3 Kelvin; the differ-
formance of a Passive House enable the body ence between component surfaces
design and development of buildings with • humidity. should not exceed 3 – 4 Kelvin. Floor
a high degree of thermal comfort without temperatures are perceived as comfort-
having to resort to a high consumption of In the case of “slightly naive” empirical able at between 19 and 26 °C.
energy and elaborate technical installa- analyses, there are, dependent on the • Both in winter and summer, the temper-
tions. The energy demand of Passive building culture and the corresponding ature difference between head and foot
House buildings does not, however, construction method, large differences in (sedentary activity) should not exceed
equal zero. This is, on the one hand, due buildings in regard of the prevailing com- 2 Kelvin.
to economic factors and, on the other fort levels. It is easy in this respect to • The relative air humidity should be
hand, in order to provide sufficient flexibil- draw the wrong conclusion and assume between 40 and 70 %. From a medical
ity in case of periods of absence, the that comfort requirements are influenced point of view, relative humidity levels
arrival of new residents or changes in by culture. If one however performs below 30 % are regarded as unhealthy.
building use. The installed heating system detailed systematic surveys, there are • The air movement indoors should not
is intended to cater for the individual tem- hardly any cultural differences worth men- exceed 0.08 m/s in habitable rooms
perature requirements of residents and tioning. Even the climate zones (tropical, (danger of draughts).
balances, in addition to the mechanical subtropical, temperate, cold) are irrele- • In summer, however, at operative tem-
ventilation system, the heat loss through vant. This is an extremely important dis- peratures above 25 °C, an increased air
opening windows at the height of winter. covery that was made by Ole Fanger [2], velocity can help to readjust thermal
whereby the human being and its body- perception and make occupants feel
heat balance function as an objective, more comfortable.
Thermal comfort and wellbeing because biology related, criterion for • At high operative temperatures
comfort levels. The following factors are (> 25 °C), all radiating heat sources
The starting point of energy-efficient of significance in this case: (radiation temperature > 25 °C, e.g.
design is the human being. In order for a • the activity and the generation of body overhead rooflights) are considered
person to feel comfortable in an interior heat it involves very unpleasant.
Predicted percentage of dissatisfied (PPD) [%]

Predicted percentage of dissatisfied (PPD) [%]

Operative room temperature [°C]

30 30 34 without cooling with cooling

winter summer

25 25
30

20 20
26

15 15
DIN EN ISO 7730 DIN EN ISO 7730
(PPD = 10%) 22
(PPD = 10%)
10 10
(PPD = 6%) (PPD = 6%)
18
5 5
ASHRAE ASHRAE
“A“ “A“
0 0 14
16.4 17.3 18.2 19.1 20 20.9 21.8 22.7 23.6 20.7 21.6 22.5 23.4 24.3 25.2 26.1 27 27.9 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Operative temperature [°C] Operative temperature [°C] Moving average of outdoor temperature [°C]
a b 2.9 2.10
12

• At high temperatures (> 30 °C) and
high humidity levels (> 50 % relative
humidity), the heat regulation capacity
of the body is reduced to such a
degree that countermeasures must be
taken (cooling, dehumidification).
Adaptive model
Whereas the requirements for high ther-
mal comfort in winter are not disputed,
there are different approaches to achieve
comfortable conditions, independent of
clothing and cooling strategies, in the in-
between seasons and summer (fig. 2.9
and 2.10). Clothing in summer is lighter,
which means that the temperature per-
ceived as comfortable increases. Espe-
cially during spells of hot weather,
greater air movement is not considered a
nuisance. It is also a fact that, under cer-
tain conditions (no dress code, individual
regulation of window ventilation and
shading devices), building users accept
higher operative temperatures during hot
weather periods. From a design point of
view, these findings increase the scope
of using passive cooling strategies with-
out an active cooling system so long as
air conditioning, which would not be con-
trolled by the building users individually,
is avoided in agreement with the client
and consultants (fig. 2.10).
Passive House concept – winter time
Thanks to the very good thermal insula-
tion, in winter surface temperatures
throughout a Passive House are suffi-
ciently high. The quality of window
frames and window panes is extremely
important for the provision of thermal
comfort since this is the only way to
achieve even surface temperatures
indoors and limit the cold air drop at
windows. In order to ensure the same
comfort in buildings with floor-to-ceiling
glazing (approx. 3 m high), Passive
House-certified windows must achieve a
2.11
whole window U-value of ≤ 0.85 W / m2K.
This is the only solution which ensures
that radiators beneath windows can be
omitted.
In Passive House buildings it is possible to
keep the air movement in living rooms
within a comfortable range of < 0.07 m/s.
This is achieved by the very good airtight-
ness (leaks at floor-to-wall junctions and
around windows are most critical in this
respect), Passive House-certified win-
dows and positioning the supply air out-
lets close to the ceiling. All in all, the
temperature stratification is less pro-
nounced in a Passive House than in a
conventional building, and suffering from
cold feet is not an issue. From a design
point of view, it is important to highlight
that even the zone close to the facade is
fully usable in a Passive House. This al-
lows new concepts for the use of space
and furnishings to be considered and
creates a more intensive connection be-
tween inside and outside.
Passive House concept – summer time
Passive House buildings are no different
to conventional buildings of the same con-
struction type in summer. Nevertheless,
for reasons of efficiency, the energy
demand for active cooling must be lim-
ited. All passive strategies for cooling
(good thermal insulation, a small propor-
tion of glazed areas or effective shading
devices, natural ventilation through win-
dows, low internal heat loads, thermal
mass) are therefore of great importance.
A small, low capacity cooling system
should not be considered until all of these
measures have been exhausted (see
p. 143).
Temperature differences in a home
The even temperature distribution
throughout a Passive House demands
special solutions for cooler (e.g. bed-
rooms, larder) and warmer rooms (e.g.
2.12
Thermal comfort and wellbeing
bathrooms). A back-up heating system
should generally be available for the
bathroom. Bed comfort is very much
dependent on the heat transfer proper-
ties of the mattress, the bed covers and
clothes. Without opening the window, it is
difficult in a Passive House to provide the
lower bedroom temperature frequently
preferred. However, this is often a case
of acclimatisation as the author and his
family’s personal experience of living in a
Passive House can confirm: in the first
winter, the bedroom was always kept
cool at night by tilting the window. In
the second winter, the issue was solved
by adapting the bed covers and clothes,
as is the case in summer, too. Neverthe-
less, it can be assumed that a proportion
of the window ventilation observed in
Passive House buildings in winter is
attributable to the request for cooler bed-
rooms at night.
Concept of “climate composition”
The configuration of interior and exterior
space requires special design solutions
in terms of thermal properties: concerning
the exteriors, the outdoor climate inevita-
bly plays the most signifcant role. In the
interior, however, an artificial climate is
created which differs fundamentally from
that outdoors. There are also transitional
zones, such as balconies, terraces, cov-
ered seating and entrance areas, which
function as intermediate realms from a cli-
mate perspective. Strictly speaking, these
transitional zones include all urban out-
door spaces, a phenomenon which Bruno
Taut, for example, expressed in his con-
cept of the “outside living room” [4]. The
creation of human habitats can therefore
also be interpreted as a “climate compo-
sition” [5]. It is the interplay of wellbeing,
both in interior and exterior spaces, in dif-
ferent seasons and at different times of
the day, that provides the key to intact
and climate-responsive architecture.
2.9 Predicted percentage of dissatisfied (PPD) at
different operative room temperatures. The toler-
ance zones according to ASHRAE comfort class
A and DIN EN ISO 7730 are also illustrated.
a winter situation (winter clothing 1.2 clo,
sedentary activity, e.g. dwelling unit, school,
office with 1.2 met)
b summer situation (summer clothing 0.5 clo,
sedentary activity with 1.2 met).
2.10 Comfortable zones for the operative temperature
according to DIN EN 15 251 for buildings without
cooling (adaptive approach, category II)
and with cooling/heating (PMV/PPD approach,
category II)
2.11 Residential building in Paris (F) 2004, Edouard
François: plants function as a visual shield and a
climate component
2.12 Waterside promenade in Split (HR) 2008, 3LHD
Architects: sun shading as part of the spatial de-
sign. The structure divides the urban space into
zones with different functions.
13
Principles
Scope and field of application
Since the introduction of the Passive
House standard at the end of the 1980s,
its field of application has experienced
continuous further development.
Improvements have been made not only
with regard to building types but also
with regard to locations and climate
zones which have now also become
home to Passive House buildings. Archi-
tects have made important contributions
to these advances by never ceasing to
explore typological, functional and
design-related options.
Prototype development
The Passive House concept was not
developed by an architect, but by a
theoretical physicist. This in particular
increased confidence in the scientific
validity and ultimately led to the success
of the concept. At the beginning of the
1990s, energy efficiency building was
dominated by conflicts between solar
architecture and thermal insulation, with
the latter, at best, able only to reach a
low-energy standard.
Systematic, critical thinking skills were
necessary to identify a future-oriented
concept in this unsatisfactory situation.
In his dissertation [6], Wolfgang Feist
discussed the benefits of dynamic
building simulations. He then issued a
second consecutive study in which he
proved the Passive House concept on
the basis of systematic parametric stud-
ies and specified the constructional and
technical approach to meet the require-
ments. When the first Passive House
building was completed in Darmstadt,
Germany, many Passive House compo-
nents were not yet available. This was
especially true for the windows and the
mechanical ventilation unit, which in part
required elaborate detailing and cus-
tom-built developments.
2.13
14
Second-generation Passive Houses
The introduction of the Thermal Insulation
Regulation in 1995 accelerated the devel-
opment in the German building industry
towards energy efficiency. Whereas the
professors of architecture were still criti-
cising the requirements of the Thermal
Insulation Regulation as “enforced insula-
tion” [7], triple thermal insulation glazing
and high quality insulation systems sud-
denly appeared on the market. It was
small and medium-sized businesses that
recognised the concept as a new trend
and used the stimulating environment to
develop Passive House-certified win-
dows, mechanical ventilation units, air-
tightness and insulation systems.
At the same time, the newly founded
Passive House Institute conducted a
series of systematic simulations and cor-
responding field research, the results of
which were always published immedi-
ately. These developments can easily be
tracked by looking into the Passive House
conference proceedings and minute
books published by the Research Group
for Cost-efficient Passive Houses [8].
At first most of the Passive House build-
ings completed were residential buildings
(single-unit homes, terrace houses and
multi-unit dwellings) in Germany, Vorarl-
berg in Austria, Switzerland and Scandi-
navia. Many of these were accompanied
and monitored in terms of their design by
the Institute. The measurements taken in
Passive House housing estates, in partic-
ular, were extremely important for the vali-
dation of the concept, since this was the
only way to make statistically significant
statements about the achievements: on
the one hand, the measurements ren-
dered visible the influence of residents (in
form of normally distributed consumption
levels ranging from almost zero to
approximately 40 kWh/m2 a); on the other
hand, the mean values highlighted that
the figures calculated by using the Pas-
2.14
sive House Planning Package (PHPP)
corresponded fairly accurately with the
measurements taken on site (fig. 12.32,
p. 142).
Newest developments
In the meantime, the Passive House con-
cept has become established as a global
standard with a wide range of application
fields. This is highlighted not only by the
number of completed Passive House
buildings but also by the wide variety of
available Passive House-certified building
products and technical devices, as well
as other services, such as certifications
and further training programmes. From
the viewpoint of the planner, the evident
change in planning concepts is extremely
interesting since they can now be inter-
preted and implemented far more easily
than in the early stages.
Non-residential buildings
It took a few years until the first non-resi-
dential buildings, such as office build-
ings, schools and kindergartens, were
developed according to Passive House
standard. Prior to the application, it was
necessary to clarify whether, due to differ-
ent user conditions than those in residen-
tial buildings, the concept was sustaina-
ble in the first place. Non-residential
buildings often require individualised
and sometimes more elaborate ventilation
and heating concepts. On the other hand,
it is precisely these buildings which can
occasionally, in comparison to statutory
energy standards, be completed as a
Passive House without increasing the
costs. One of the reasons for this is the
greater compactness of such buildings.
In recent years, more and more buildings
have been developed according to Pas-
sive House standard, among these are
churches, museums, assembly halls,
supermarkets, factories and workshops,
to name but a few.
2.15
 Scope and field of application

Application of the Passive House concept

in other climate zones and cultures
With the internationalisation of the Passive
House concept, other climate zones and
building cultures, with their specific back-
grounds and design principles, have
come into play. We can only hope that,
instead of copying the most fundamental
and specifically Central European design
features, individual and regionally differ-
entiated concepts will evolve that take
into consideration the architectural, cul-
tural and socio-economic particularities of
the location concerned.

Energy efficiency upgrades using Passive

House components
It seemed initially as if insuperable diffi-
culties would hinder the use of Passive
House components for the energy effi-
ciency refurbishment of existing build-
ings: how was one to deal with unavoida-
ble thermal bridges, for example at floor-
to-wall and roof junctions or balconies?
Would it make sense to use high-quality
insulation systems to upgrade the build-
ing envelope?
As was the case with the first Passive
House buildings, it was research work
and the scientific monitoring of pilot pro-
jects which finally paved the way to suc-
cess. Today the use of Passive House
components has become a matter of
course in every refurbishment project. A
lot of new product developments are par-
ticularly interesting for precisely this field
of application.
It is becoming evermore apparent that the
extensive use of the Passive House con-
cept in new and existing buildings is a
key to improvement, especially in terms of
sustainability: for a multitude of reasons
an energy supply that uses predominantly
renewable sources can only be achieved
if the energy demand of the total existing
building stock is gradually reduced to an
overall lower level of energy consumption.
2.17
2.13 Terrace houses in Darmstadt-Kranichstein (D) The first Passive House-certified school is a sol-
1991, Architekten Bott-Ridder-Westermeyer. id construction with timber facade elements.
The first Passive House ever was built as a solid The wave-shaped planted roof extends into the
structure with a composite thermal insulation landscape at the ends of the building. The
system. Large windows in the south facade classrooms face south-east; the seminar rooms
maximise solar heat gain. An unheated con- and offices north-west. With a n50 value of
servatory functions as a buffer zone on the 0.09/h, the building highlights the advantages
north side. Numerous components (e.g. the of a large, compact structure in terms of air-
windows) were developed in Passive House tightness.
quality for the first time for this building. 2.16 Refurbishment of a terrace house in Barcelona
2.14 Residential housing estate in Dornbirn (A) 1997, (E) 2012, Calderon-Folch-Sarsanedas Arqui-
Hermann Kaufmann Architekten. tectes. Thanks to Passive House components,
Austria's first Passive House housing estate the heat demand of this dwelling, built in 1918,
was built as a prototype using a multi-storey was reduced from 171 to 17 kWh/m2a.
timber construction system. Open corridors 2.17 Klaus-Weiler-Fraxern secondary school (A)
provide access to the dwelling units in the east; 2003, Dietrich Untertrifaller Architekten.
the living rooms and bedrooms face west. The Austria's first Passive House school was built as
window surface areas are, also for financial rea- a timber structure using mainly prefabricated
sons, kept quite small. elements. In comparison to a conventional solid
2.15 Montessori school in Aufkirchen near Munich structure, the extra costs for Passive House
(D) 2002, Architekten Grotz-Wallbrunn-Vallentin. standard amounted to only 3 %.
2.16
15
 Principles

180
Capitalised costs (present value) [€/m2]

construction & energy costs

total costs
Economy • subsidy programmes, financial support
maintenance costs
160 and tax incentives.
140 In a Passive House, the energy-relevant
jump in costs building components and the ventilation Statement of costs and benefits
120
system are improved to such a degree Since the profitability of long-term capital
100 that the heating system can be down- spending is always dependent on assump-
sized to a scale at which there is a signifi- tions concerning future prices, inflation
80
cant difference in costs. It is precisely for and interest rates, statements concerning
60 this reason that, despite the higher invest- future costs and benefits are always fraught
40
ment costs, a Passive House can do bet- with uncertainty. The still frequently used
ter in financial terms than a Low Energy payback period is generally not a suitable
20 House. Beyond this optimum value, how- criterion to assess profitability since it does
0 ever, the total costs of a Passive House not take into consideration the design life of
0 15 30 45 60 75 building can rise dramatically (fig. 2.18). a measure. The dynamic net present value
Annual specific space heat demand [kWh/m2a] Thus, the definition of the Passive House method or the annuity method, for example,
2.18 standard has an easily comprehensible are more appropriate. In these cases, the
350
Investment-related additional costs [€/m2 (TFA)]

very high average very low energy-economic background: costs expected to be incurred at different
300
• The functional criterion has been times during the design life of a project are
selected in such a way that it is possi- discounted at a selected rate of interest to
250 ble to heat the building solely with the determine the net present value for a partic-
mechanical ventilation unit (which has ular reference date.
200 to be installed anyway) or simply by A fairly insensitive criterion, contrary to
adding a few extra radiators. For this to general assumptions, is the price of the
150 work, the average daily heat load has to energy saved by a measure as opposed
be ≤ 10 W/m2 of treated floor area. to a reference value in Euro/kWh. The
100 • To fulfil the heat load criterion, the main drawback with conventional feasibil-
energy performance of the building ity studies is that their micro-economic
50
envelope and the mechanical ventila- approach does not consider the external
0 tion system has to be at a sufficiently costs which, from an macroeconomic per-
Multi-family Terrace Single-family high level. This is usually the case if the spective, actually have to be included.
dwelling house dwelling
space heat demand is <15 kWh / m2TFAa.
2.19 Economically most efficient insulation
Total costs in 30 years [1000 €]

35 extra investment maintenance costs

heating costs fan power costs
The relationship between objective, eco- thickness
30
nomic and functional criteria is such that, One of the most common questions con-
in contrast to national energy standards, cerning cost efficiency is: which insulation
25 there are no dependencies between the thickness is most suitable from an eco-
requirements and the form factor or size nomic point of view? This issue is illus-
20 of the building. The leeway for a “laissez trated in figure 2.21 for the energy effi-
faire” attitude is not very great, and, if ciency upgrade of a facade, which, in any
15 requirements are disregarded, problems event, would have required a new coat of
are inevitable: the opportunity to down- paint. From an economic perspective the
10 size the heating equipment is limited to a most favourable values are for an insula-
very small margin due to the low reserve tion thickness (λ = 0,035 W/mK) ranging
5
capacity of the system. between 18 and 30 cm or for U-values
between 0.17 and 0.11 W/m2K. The opti-
0
EnEV EnEV Passive Passive House Feasibility mum values are fairly even since the
2002 2009 House + subsidisation Alongside questions concerning the relia- expense of scaffolding is independent of
2.20 bility and energy efficiency of measures the insulation thickness, and the only
16
Annual costs (present value) [€/m2]

energy costs investment costs to reduce energy consumption, the costs that really make a difference are
14 assessment of their feasibility should those for the additional material.
always have priority. For those making The higher expenditure for better quality
12
decisions on investments, it is very impor- insulation is negligible. On the other hand,
10 tant to have suitable selection methods it might be possible, under certain circum-
and criteria at hand. The following factors stances, to achieve a greater independ-
8 are of importance: ence from rising energy prices.
• investment costs
6 optimal U-values
• design life of the measure Economic assessment of individual con-
4 • rates of interest structional and technical components
• annual energy consumption It is normally possible to assess each
2
• average energy costs during the design measure separately. Experience has
0 life and therefore an estimation of shown that the cost efficiency of Passive
0 cm 12 cm 24 cm 36 cm
(U = 1.41) (U = 0.24) (U = 0.13) (U = 0.09) energy price inflation House components differs considerably
Insulation thickness [cm]/U-value [W/m2K)] • costs for maintenance and repair work (fig. 2.23):
2.21
16
 Economy

• All forms of insulation measures have a

positive effect. The price for a saved kil-
owatt hour, in comparison to average
quality insulation (e.g. EnEV 2009), is
approx. 4 – 7 Cent/kWh and is therefore
well below today's energy prices.
• Triple thermal insulation glazing is also
very cost efficient.
• Thermal Passive House-certified win-
dow frames at 7 – 10 Cent/kWh are only
just economically viable.
• The same applies to mechanical venti-
lation units with a heat recovery system
in comparison to a system with a simple
exhaust air fan.
• Interestingly, it is already feasible today 2.22

for Passive House buildings to use a
solution that includes a heat pump and
on-site generated solar power for the
supply of energy.
Boundary conditions for economic assessments
period under consideration 20 years (with constant interest rate)
nominal interest for investments (e.g. mortgage loan) 4.7 %
near interest rate for investments 3 % (average value without inflation)

Economic assessment of different energy design life of the components 20 / 30 / 50 years

standards residual value after 20 years 0 % / 24.1 % / 42.2 %

In normal circumstances, it makes little price for final energy (average value 2010 – 2030) 0.10 Euro/kWh (mineral oil, natural gas incl. VAT)
sense to evaluate the feasibility of individ- additional costs for auxiliary energy (electricity) 0.008 Euro/kWh (for pumps, automatic control, etc.)
ual measures. The fact is that planners
provision of space heating (average value 0.12 Euro/kWh (incl. generation, storage and distribu-
usually assess the efficiency of the overall 2010 – 2030) tion heat loss as well as the use of auxiliary energy)
concept (new build or comprehensive
price for electricity 0.30 Euro/kWh or 0.25 Euro/kWh (heat pumps)
energy efficiency upgrade) or coordi-
system costs for additional heat output (Low Energy 400 Euro/kWh or 0.017 Euro/kWh
nated packages, as in the case of a refur- House and Passive House)
bishment performed in several stages.
Even in theses cases, however, the Pas- 2.23
sive House standard fares better than Assessment of cost differences for constructional and technical components:
conventional reference standards. Moreo- EnEV standard versus Passive House standard
ver, opportunities to downsize the heating Component EnEV 2009 Passive House Cost difference
system can also reduce costs quite con-
exterior wall insulation 14 – 18 cm 24 – 40 cm 12 – 25 Euro/m2
siderably (fig. 2.20).
roof insulation 20 – 25 cm 30 – 50 cm 15 – 35 Euro/m2

Low-cost Passive Houses floor slab / basement ceiling 12 – 16 cm 20 – 30 cm 12–20 Euro/m2

The degree of the above-mentioned jump
in costs is dependent on several bound-
ary conditions, in particular the design.
The fact that the cost of the construction
and technical equipment of a Passive
House is highly dependent upon its com-
pactness and the available solar energy
is a fundamental issue in this regard. The
application of the design principles,
described in detail later, therefore has a
significant impact on the economic imple-
mentation of the Passive House concept.
The Research Group for Cost-efficient
Passive Houses has done much of the
spadework in this respect [9].
On closer examination, it is apparent that
the economic aspects generally weigh
more heavily than the energy-related
ones. In the past, Passive House build-
ings developed according to these con-
siderations have frequently been com-
pleted for the same price as buildings
which only just meet the current statutory
energy requirements (fig. 2.22).
windows UW = 1.2 W/m2K
-1
airtight execution n50 = 1.5 / 3.0 h
blower-door test optional
ventilation unit extract air fan
conventional
heating incl. heating surfaces
conventional
energy-efficient appliances standard
2.18 Economic arguments for the Passive House con-
cept: the impact of reducing the costs by down-
sizing the heating system is greatest at a very
low heat demand of 15 kWh/m2a.
2.19 Specific, investment-related extra costs of
Passive House buildings per square metre of liv-
ing area, categorised according to the area of
application (opaque insulated building enve-
lope, windows, airtightness, ventilation system,
heating)
2.20 Total cost comparison of various energy stand-
ards illustrated using the example of the town
terrace houses in Munich (p. 56ff.). The presen-
tation incorporates the annualisation of the in-
vestment costs, the annuity and the average en-
ergy prices from 2006 to 2012.
UW = 0.8 W/m2K 80 –120 Euro/m2
-1
n50 = 0.6 h 0 – 5 Euro/m2TFA
indispensable 350 – 400 Euro/ DU
supply/extract system with
heat recovery
30 – 60 Euro/m2TFA
supply air heating only up to – 20 Euro/m2TFA
heating surfaces up to – 10 Euro/m2TFA
top-market devices 0 – 5 Euro/m2TFA
2.24
2.21 Establishing the best insulation thickness
(WLG 035) for the refurbishment of an exterior
wall, which anyway requires repainting.
2.22 Example for cost-efficient Passive Houses:
Multi-unit dwellings in Stuttgart-Burgholzhof (D)
2003, Architekten R + H Rudolf. The ensemble
includes three buildings with identical construc-
tions, but different energy supply systems.
2.23 Boundary conditions for economic assessments,
updated values from 2012, valid for Germany.
These values have been used as a basis for the
figures 2.18 – 2.21 as well as 2.23.
2.24 Assessment of cost differences for various
constructional and technical components be-
tween an average quality (EnEV 2009) and a
high quality (Passive House)

17
 Principles
Potential CO2 emissions [1013 t = 10,000 gigatons]

10 crude oil Energy-related sustainability to two Kelvin, then the maximum global
natural gas
and climate protection carbon budget that may be emitted dur-
coal
8 budget 2010–2050 ing the period from 2010 to 2050 is 750
The demand for sustainable development billion tons. This can be achieved if, by
has been a subject of discussion in archi- 2050, carbon dioxide emissions are
6 tecture, urban and regional planning for halved in comparison to the level of 1990
many years. And matters concerning [11]. From an energy justice point of view,
factor = 118 !

energy have undoubtedly always been a the remaining emissions budget must be
4 key issue in this respect. The question divided equally among all human beings.
here is: what contribution can be made In line with the principle “contraction and
by the Passive House concept? convergence” [12], the emissions per
2 Total permissible
budget capita, which are currently at very differ-
2010–2050 (2°C target) Attempt to specify what really matters ent levels in different countries, are to be
0 A sustainable energy supply must ensure reduced to 1.0 – 1.5 t CO2 per person and
Deposits Budget 2010–2050 that: year by 2050 (fig. 2.26).
2.25 • the negative effects on the atmosphere, Carbon dioxide emissions have increased
Per capita CO2 emissions [t/a]

18 USA Switzerland ecosystems as well as human societies again by approximately 50 % since 1990.
Germany China
16 Austria India
and cultures are limited to a perma- This is in particular due to the increased
nently acceptable level (ecological and energy demand of the newly industrial-
14 cultural dimension), ised countries and the still very high emis-
12
• all people have access to safe and sions of the industrial countries. What
affordable energy at all times (social remains is a window of only 10 to 15
10 and economic dimension), years for a turnaround and a break-
8 • the quality of life and prosperity does through of the mitigation strategies. Fur-
Convergence time: not take place at other people's or soci- ther delaying the emissions cut would
6 2050, with ety's expense, today as well as in future necessitate a reduction rate so extreme
1.25 t/(person · a)
4 (intergenerational justice), that it could hardly be implemented from
• energy systems and sources can also a political and social point of view [13].
2
be used by future generations in Various climate protection scenarios
0 exactly the same way (durability, ability show that it is, in the short to medium
2010 2020 2030 2040 2050 2060 for regeneration). term, possible to stabilise carbon dioxide
2.26 emissions using available technologies in
Primary energy demand [PWh/a]

300
efficiency additional efficiency The current global energy system does order to then move on to more effective
renewable improvements in comparison
fossil to the reference development not fulfil a single one of these require- mitigation strategies (fig. 2.29).
250
nuclear (WEO scenario 2009) ments – not even approximately. The
main reason is the lavish and wasteful Availability of renewable energy carriers
200 way in which fossil and nuclear energy From a sustainability point of view, renew-
sources are used with risky technologies able energies cannot be developed
and marginally efficient systems. Not the haphazardly. Especially with regard to
150
resource issue, but climate protection is biomass, food safety, competition in its
the most fundamental sustainability prob- usage and various other nature conser-
100 lem: the carbon dioxide emissions that vation matters have to be considered
would result from the use of all known and carefully [14]. The same issues are also
50
assumed fossil resources amount to the a concern when using water power.
120 - fold of the global carbon dioxide These limitations must be taken into
emission budget thought to be only just account in the form of guidelines and
0
2010 2030 2050 permissible for the period from 2010 to specific assessments when implementing
2.27 2050 [10]. In the transformation process, sustainability strategies (fig. 2.27).
CO2 emissions [mil t/a]

300 household appliances hot water it is therefore climate protection and not
cooking space heating
250
the limited availability of energy resources National climate protection programmes
that defines within which period certain and the building sector's contribution
reduction goals have to be met in regard Because greenhouse gas emissions are
200
to greenhouse gas emissions and the use predominantly energy-related, it is possi-
of non-renewable primary energy carriers. ble to determine national climate-compat-
150 According to this approach, the other ible per capita primary energy consump-
aforementioned requirements are signifi- tion rates. Figure 2.30 presents these
100 cant secondary conditions, which must be figures for Germany together with the for-
fulfilled simultaneously. mer development since 1950. According
to the graph, the fossil primary energy
50
Climate protection requirements demand, in particular, must be reduced
According to the current state of climate significantly. There are a variety of solu-
0
1990 Reference CP CP+
sciences, if the temperature increase is to tions in regard to reducing the total pri-
2050 2050 2050 be limited, with a suitable safety margin, mary energy demand, which are depend-
2.28
18
 Energy-related sustainability and climate protection

CO2 emissions [mil t/ a]

80,000
ent on whether greater importance is IIASA-WEC C1 EQW-S450C
IIASA-WEC B EQW-S350C
attached to the development of renewa- 70,000
IIASA-WEC A2 EQW-S550C

BAU
ble energies or to increasing energy effi- IIASA-WEC A3 data 1860–2010
ciency. The following observations will 60,000 IIASA-WEC A1 Greenpeace E[R]
IS 92a (IPCC-BAU) Greenpeace E[R]adv
highlight the degree to which measures WBGU pathway WEO
50,000
and energy standards in buildings – in
particular the Passive House standard – 40,000
affect the adherence to such climate pro-
tection goals. The middle graph b, which 30,000
is based on a combination of economi-
cally viable strategies concerning both 20,000

MIT
fields of activity, efficiency and renewable
10,000
energies, has been used for these obser-
vations [15]. 0
1850 1900 1950 2000 2050 2100
The dilemma of average quality 2.29
Primary energy consumption per capita [kWh/a]

60,000
“Economically viable” means that energy total primary energy a energy-intensive pathway
upgrades should be performed to exist- b economic pathway
50,000 c energy-efficient pathway
ing building stock only if, from a technical
or functional viewpoint, the buildings,
components or technical devices in any 40,000
a
case need to be replaced. The only costs
that then have to be covered are those for 30,000
the extras in comparison to an average b
quality upgrade. This is the only way to
20,000
actually make most climate protection
c
measures feasible. In science this pro- proportion of fossil primary energy
cess is called “coupling principle”. 10,000
This principle also expresses that: if a
component has just been replaced, then 0
it only makes sense to perform a further 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020 2040 2060 2080 2100
energy efficiency upgrade once its life- 2.30
Annual space heat demand [TWh/a]

500
span has elapsed. a reference scenario
“Halfhearted” refurbishment measures 450 b climate protection scenario (as of 2020)

are therefore a waste of effort, and the 400 a

a
energy performance of the component 350 b a
simply remains average for a further a
300
period of 30 to 50 years. In order to avoid a
“the dilemma of average quality”, every 250 b
outstanding refurbishment should strive 200 b
for an ambitious energy standard [16].
150
As a last consequence, it follows that the b
current practice of political institutions, 100 b
which is to increase the number of refur- 50
bishments with the help of subsidies, is
0
leading in the wrong direction. It would 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050 2060
actually be more important to increase new builds since 1990 fully refurbishable limited refurbishment
the energy performance of every single 2.31
refurbishment measure and not support
2.25 Comparison between the potential carbon scenario 1990 and 2050. For further information
untargeted subsidies that are granted in a dioxide emissions from the known deposits of see note 15 on p. IV – 142.
non-selective way according to the princi- fossil energy carriers and the carbon budget, 2.29 World-wide energy-related carbon dioxide emis-
which is only just permissible to meet the 2 °C sions from 1860 to 2100. The actual develop-
ple of indiscriminate all-round distribution. target. ment from 1860 to 2010 is illustrated as a black
2.26 Climate protection strategies of different coun- line. The emission pathways of various “business
Priority of building culture tries according to the principle “contraction & as usual” (BAU) and mitigation scenarios (MIT)
convergence” 2010 – 2050. Beginning with differ- have also been included. For further information
The stock of residential buildings is every- ent values, the annual per capita emissions see note 17, p. 28.
thing but homogenous. On the contrary, gradually converge by 2050. 2.30 Climate protection-compatible primary energy
2.27 Development of the primary energy demand pathways for Germany until 2100. The develop-
there are many cases that are extremely according to the Greenpeace climate protection ment of the primary energy consumption from
sensitive in terms of their construction, scenario “energy [r]evolution” 2007 – 2050. Addi- 1950 to 2005 has been added for better under-
which are here referred to as building tional savings achieved through improvements standing. For further information see note 15,
in efficiency (based on the reference scenario) p. II – 59.
stock with limited opportunities for refur- have been added. For further information see 2.31 Development of the annual space heat demand
bishment (fig. 2.33). From a building con- note 17 on p. 32f. in the German stock of residential buildings for
2.28 Development of carbon dioxide emissions within the reference scenario and the climate protec-
servation, building culture or design point the German stock of residential buildings for the tion scenario for the period 1990 – 2060. For fur-
of view, certain measures, for example reference scenario and the climate protection ther information see note 15 on p. IV – 20.

19
Principles
2.32
exterior wall insulation, cannot be car-
ried out in the same way as in fully refur-
bishable buildings (fig. 2.34). In some
situations, such as buildings with decora-
tive interior finishes, floors or ceilings
worthy of protection, interior insulation
may also not be regarded as an accepta-
ble solution. However, it must also be
noted that building stock with limited
opportunities for refurbishment only
makes up around 5 to 10 % of the total
residential building stock and does not
therefore present a problem in meeting
the climate protection goals. It is for this
reason that, in terms of energy efficiency
refurbishment, building conservation
and building culture take precedence
over climate protection [17].
Climate protection strategies
Based on the aforementioned proposi-
tions, it is possible to establish which
energy standards will have to be met by
future new builds and energy efficiency
upgrades in order to satisfy a climate-
compatible development path. This is
illustrated here in an exemplary way for
the sector of private households in Ger-
many by presenting the German stock of
2.32 Acceptable integration of a photovoltaic plant on
pastureland
2.33 Limited possibilities for refurbishment
2.34 Fully refurbished building
2.35 Climate protection standards for residential
buildings. The criteria concerns the space heat
demand, the primary energy factor and the
global warming factor and is categorised
according to new builds, fully refurbishable
buildings and those with limited opportunity for
refurbishment for the period from 2010 to 2050.
2.36 Carbon dioxide emissions generated by private
households from 1990 to 2050. Comparison be-
tween the reference scenario and the climate
protection scenario according to the field of
application and in relation to the target corridor.
2.37 Load curve for heating and production of do-
mestic hot water in two residential estates. In the
Low Energy housing estate (comparable to the
EnEV, OIB and Minergie standards) the heating
period is almost twice as long as that of the
Passive House. The heat load in the coldest
months is four times as high.
20
2.33
existing residential buildings in a cohort
model and establishing two main scenar-
ios [18]:
• In the reference scenario, the currently
applicable average energy standard is
applied to new builds and refurbish-
ments and refined by only gradually
tightening the requirements. The transi-
tion concerning power generation and
heating facilities follows general trends.
• In the climate protection scenario, only
Passive House technologies are
applied in new builds and all energy
efficiency upgrades as of 2015/2020.
This also includes the use of power-
efficient household appliances. Further-
more, all energy generating systems
are modified in order to reduce the pro-
portion of fossil energy carriers from
80 % today to approximately 40 % in
2050.
The climate protection scenario illustrates
how the target can be met comfortably.
The key aspects of the climate protection
strategies after 2015/2020 are as follows:
• Introduction of the Passive House
standard for new builds as well as for
energy efficiency upgrades in the exist-
ing building stock using Passive House
components.
• Use of particularly power-efficient
household appliances, light bulbs and
other electrical devices in all dwelling
units.
• Decarbonisation of the heat and power
generation by gradually replacing fossil
energy carriers by renewable ones.
• Increased efficiency in the generation,
storage and distribution of energy
throughout the whole power plant com-
plex and all heating systems.
A reduction of private household carbon
emissions from approximately 250 million
tons in the year 1990 to 30 – 40 million
tons in the year 2050 can only be
2.34
achieved by combining the measures
mentioned above. This corresponds to
a reduction of almost 90 % (fig. 2.36).
According to the boundary conditions of
the reference scenario with 125 million
tons of carbon dioxide emissions, the
climate protection goal for 2050 will be
missed by a factor of 2.5, thus, question-
ing the overall objective of climate protec-
tion. This failure is largely due to average
quality of the implemented constructional
and technical components used in the
building envelope and the ventilation
concept. Owing to the high heat and
power demand, as well as the slow transi-
tion of heating systems and power plants,
fossil fuels remain the dominant energy
carrier.
Climate protection standards
All energy-based standards for residential
building that are in line with the long-term
climate protection goals can be defined
as climate protection standards [19].
They are based on the results of model
calculations for the climate protection
scenario. A difference is made between
new builds, buildings that are fully refur-
bishable and those with limited opportu-
nity for refurbishment. In the case of the
latter category, a further differentiation is
made based on whether interior insulation
can be added (fig. 2.35). The respective
limits always include the household
power consumption. Due to the structural
changes concerning the generation of
electricity and heat, the requirements will
have to be adjusted at regular intervals
(dynamic pattern). New values will, for
example, be issued every ten years.
Owing to the prevailing uncertainties, they
have to be considered as preliminary val-
ues. Nevertheless, an indication is given
of the way in which, as matters stand at
the moment, the climate protection stand-
ards and the underlying building services
concepts are expected to develop.
 Energy-related sustainability and climate protection

Induced energy expenditure system, seasonal storage facilities that The Passive House concept's contribution
Energy-related sustainability also can compensate for the fluctuations towards sustainable development
includes the induced energy expenditure between summer (excess) and winter The Passive House concept already
of a building or housing estate. In this (shortage) are required in addition to the largely fulfils the energy-related require-
context, there is a close connection short-term storage facilities. Alongside ments that are, from a sustainability point
between density and space efficiency on biomass, the conversion of excess elec- of view, required from a new build today.
a regional as well as urban scale: tricity from wind power and photovolta- Lower efficiency levels are quite clearly
• The production and disposal of build- ics into hydrogen or methane is also an not sustainable. In the case of energy effi-
ings also requires energy. The two most option that needs to be considered in ciency refurbishments, the application of
important aspects influencing the pro- future. Large proportions of renewable Passive House components, according to
duction energy input are the form factor methane can be fed into the gas grid or the requirements of the Ener PHit stand-
and the construction method used. caverns. However, the processes ard, is a tried and tested solution.
• The energy expenditure induced by the involved are extremely elaborate and Nevertheless, some changes will have to
infrastructure (access, local amenities, associated with considerable conversion be made to the Passive House concept in
public buildings) and mobility varies loss and costs [20]. future, including a reduction of the pri-
considerably and is, in a first approxi- The use of this valuable energy carrier mary energy factor in new builds from
mation, dependent on the density of the is therefore only acceptable in very 120 to 100 kWh / m2a, a different assess-
development. efficient systems (e.g. Passive House ment system for renewable energy carri-
buildings, combined heat and power ers (e.g. budget approach or a full valida-
Storage technologies (“winter gap”) cycles in cities). Buildings with a high tion of biomass) as well as the incorpora-
The annual cycle concerning the distribu- or medium heat and power demand in tion of greenhouse gas ratings in the cer-
tion of energy demand and generation is winter are not suitable for a sustainable tification process. Hence, the necessary
extremely important for the future assess- energy system since these require the developments mainly concern the build-
ment of energy supply technologies. provision of large and expensive stor- ing services, and it is clear a Passive
Solar systems, for example, are anticyclic age capacities. Besides, they would House heated with fossil energy carriers
in their generation and demand: when the necessitate the further development of can only be rated as sustainable on an
demand for heat and power is high, the renewable energy systems, which interim basis, for example in connection
yield is low. would exceed the opportunities for a with the use of extremely power-efficient
If large proportions of renewable energy sustainable transformation of our cultural electrical appliances throughout the
carriers are incorporated in the supply landscape (fig. 2.32). building.

Required climate protection standards in residential buildings for the years 2010 to 2050 Notes
[1] DIN EN ISO 7730 and as in note 2 and 3
Period New build Existing, fully Existing, limited possibilities [2] Fanger, Ole: Thermal Comfort. New York 1970
refurbishable for refurbishment [3] ASHRAE 55-2010: Thermal Environmental Con-
with interior without interi- ditions for Human Occupancy. Atlanta 2010
insulation or insulation [4] Taut, Bruno: Außenwohnraum. In: EINFA 4/1931, p. 2
[5] Twarowksi, Mieczyslaw: Sonne und Architektur.
Space heat demand 2010 – 2050 15 35 70 100 Munich 1962, p. 8
[kWh/m2a] [6] Feist, Wolfgang: Passivhäuser in Mitteleuropa,
Primary energy factor 2010 – 2020 100 120 170 220 Dissertation. Kassel 1992
not renewable [7] Kurt Ackermann et al.: Novelle der Wärme-
2020 – 2030 80 100 150 190 schutzverordnung. In: DAB, 12/1992, p. 2013
[kWh/m²a]
2030 – 2040 50 60 80 100 [8] see www.passiv.de
[9] ibid.
2040 – 2050 15 20 40 60
[10] Scientific Advisory Board of the German Federal
Greenhouse gas factor 2010 – 2020 25 30 40 50 Government on Global Change (WBGU): Welt im
(global warming potential) Wandel – Gesellschaftsvertrag für eine Große
2020 – 2030 20 25 35 45
CO2 equivalent [kg/m2a] Transformation. Berlin 2011, p. 122
2030 – 2040 10 15 20 30 [11] Meinshausen, Malte et al.: Greenhouse gas
emission targets for limiting global warming to
2040 – 2050 3 5 10 15
2 °C. In: Nature 458, 2009
2.35 [12] Meyer, Aubrey: Contraction and Convergence.
London 2000
Heat load [W/m2]
CO2 emissions [mil t/a]

300 reference climate protection 30 Low Energy House [13] Meinshausen, Malte: Emission & Concentration
climate protection + Passive House Implications of Long-Term Climate Targets,
250 25 Dissertation, Zurich 2006, p. 10
[14] Scientific Advisory Board of the German Federal
Government on Global Change (WBGU): Welt im
200 20 Wandel – Zukunftsfähige Bioenergie und nach-
haltige Landnutzung. Berlin 2009
[15] Vallentin, Rainer: Energieeffizienter Städtebau
mit Passivhäusern. Göttingen 2011, pp. II-53ff.
150 15
[16] ibid., pp. IV-117ff. and p. XII-8
[17] Vallentin, Rainer: Nachhaltige Energieversorgung:
Lösungsansätze für den Sektor der privaten Haus-
100 10 halte in Deutschland bis 2050. In: Protocol Vol-
ume No. 46, Research Group for Cost-efficient
Passive Houses, Darmstadt 2012, p. 50
50 5 [18] see note 15, pp. IV-6ff.
target corridor: 25 – 50 mil t/a
[19] see note 15, pp. V-18ff. and note 17, pp. 74ff.
[20] Sterner, Michael et al.: Energiewirtschaftliche
0 0 und ökologische Bewertung eines Windga-
1990 2010 2030 2050 J A S O N D J F M A M J sangebots. Online publication, Fraunhofer IWES/
Year Month Greenpeace Energy. Hamburg 2011
2.36 2.37
21
Passive House planning
Main principles and comparison with
other standards
The design of a Passive House requires
thorough and careful planning. This
means that the energy-related criteria of
the Passive House standard have to be
verified for the specific design with its
particular geometric, constructional and
technical features. This involves fine-
tuning the individual components of the
construction and the building services
installations regarding their function and
energy performance. The overall aim is to
achieve the Passive House targets with
as little effort as possible. It is an iterative
process that examines and weighs up
alternative solutions, for example in the
case of different design variations or in
order to make a comparison between dif-
ferent construction systems or products.
Compared to other standards (fig. 3.2 –
3.6), Passive House buildings stand out
for having very low consumption figures
in all important energy-related criteria.
Depending on the criterion considered,
the figures are 3 – 5 times lower than
those of comparable new builds today.
In order to draw a meaningful conclusion,
it is necessary to calculate the demand
values of comparable standards using
identical reference values, the same
methodological approach and valid com-
putation procedure. Because this is fre-
quently not the case, there are hosts of
misleading comparisons in publications.
Passive House criteria
According to the requirements of the Pas-
sive House Institute, the most important
criteria of a Passive House are as follows
(fig. 3.1) [1]:
• annual specific space heat demand
≤ 15 kWh/m2a
• if applicable, the cooling demand
≤ 15 kWh/m2a
22
• heat or cooling load ≤ 10 W/m2
(if the heating and cooling is only pro-
vided through supply air)
• primary energy demand ≤ 120 kWh/m2a
• airtightness n50 ≤ 0.6 h-1
• summer climate criterion h(≥ 25 °C)≤ 10 %
Space heat demand (qh ≤ 15 kWh/m2a)
The space heat demand takes a prime
position. It describes how much heat, by
way of calculation, has to be supplied to
the interior space during the heating
period in order to maintain what is consid-
ered a comfortable indoor climate with a
standard temperature of 20 °C. The space
heat demand represents the heat energy
performance of a building and is there-
fore a significant design parameter. It is
very much influenced by the architectural
and the constructional design features,
which in turn strongly affect the building
envelope and ventilation concept. Due to
the long useful life of these components,
the space heat demand always consti-
tutes a long-lasting factor, which, at a
later date, can only be corrected at great
expense and effort.
Cooling demand (qc ≤ 15 kWh/m2a)
Passive House buildings should be
planned so as not to require an active
cooling system in summer. Passive meas-
ures, such as temporary sun shading
devices and natural ventilation during the
night and the early hours of the day, usu-
ally suffice to prevent overheating.
However, in the case of non-residential
buildings, it is not always possible to rely
solely on passive cooling strategies. The
space cooling demand in Passive House
buildings should therefore not exceed
15 kWh/m2a. The primary energy criterion
is not altered in the case of active cooling,
which means that the additional cooling
demand must be compensated with other
means. Where active cooling measures
are necessary or planned, the space cool-
• Main principles and comparison with
other standards
• Passive House criteria
• Passive House Planning Package
(PHPP)
• Certified building components
• Certification of Passive House buildings
• Certified Passive House designers
• EnerPHit standard
• Minergie-P standard
• 2000-Watt Society – SIA D 216
• Net-zero energy standard
ing demand expresses the amount of
energy that has to be extracted from the
rooms for cooling purposes. In order to
meet the cooling criterion, a particularly
hard one to meet, the spatial, construc-
tional and technical concepts must be well
coordinated, which requires the early
involvement of specialist consultants in the
design process.
Average daily heat load (ph < 10 W/m2)
The heat load determines the maximum
average daily heat demand of a building
in the coldest months of the year.
Dynamic simulations have shown that the
day chosen to determine the heat load
should either be a clear day with very low
outdoor temperatures or a grey winter
day with slightly higher temperatures.
This Passive House criterion has, for
financial reasons, been chosen in such a
way that the heating system can either be
downsized considerably or even totally
omitted. The latter option can be taken if
the heating is exclusively provided
through supply air. This has the effect that
neither heating surfaces, for example
radiators, nor a separate distribution net-
work is required. One of the prerequisites
for no separate heating system is that the
maximum average daily heat load does
not exceed 10 W per square metre of
treated floor area (TFA). This is not the
only criterion that matters, but is some-
thing that will be considered in greater
detail later on. In the case of residential
buildings with a moderate proportion of
window surface area, the heat load corre-
sponds very well with the space heat
demand.
In other cases, for example those with a
greater proportion of windows, the heat
load of Passive House buildings is slightly
higher than 10 W/m2. So long as the
space heat demand criterion is met, the
heating system can be downsized and
only a very few radiators have to be
 Passive House criteria

installed. Due to the excellent insulation of Passive House requirements

the building envelope and windows, they Criterion Abbreviation Passive House requirement
can usually be fitted on interior walls annual specific space heat demand (or cooling demand) qh /qc ≤ 15 kWh/m2a
rather than below windows, which often average daily heat or cooling load Ph /ATFA ≤ 10 W/m2 (Pc/ATFA ≤ 10 W/m2)
requires greater effort and is not quite so primary energy factor (non-renewable primary energy)
appealing. heating, cooling, ventilation, domestic hot water, auxiliary qp ≤ 120 kWh/m2a
power and all other uses of electricity in the building
airtightness (blower door test, 50 pascals) n50 ≤ 0.6 h-1
Primary energy demand
frequency of overheating
(qP ≤ 120 kWh/m2a) (number of hours with temperatures over 25 °C)
h(≥ 25°C) ≤ 10 %
In Passive House buildings, all energy window U-value (installed) Uw,installed ≤ 0.85 W/m2K
services, including heating, ventilation,
energy criterion of glass
cooling, production of domestic hot Ug – 1.6 W/m2K • g ≤ 0
(relation between Ug and g-value)
water, auxiliary power as well as the effective heat output capacity of ventilation unit ηHR,eff ≥ 75 %
power consumed by all electrical appli- power efficiency of ventilation unit pv ≤ 0.45 W/m3h
ances, are included in the calculation of
3.1
the primary energy factor. This compre-

Average daily heat load [ W/m2]

Annual specific space heat demand [kWh(m2a]

180 max. min. 140 max. min.

hensive consideration of all services is a Ø Germany
unique feature of the Passive House 160
120
standard. The inclusion of the total power 140
demand, with all household appliances 100
120
(white goods), work equipment (e.g. com-
puter, monitor, printer) as well as the 100 80
lighting, is indispensable for the following
80
reasons: 60
• From the viewpoint of a superior effi- 60
ciency concept, it is not very convinc- 40
40
ing to arbitrarily exclude the power
demand of electrical devices, lighting 20 20

and other uses of electricity (e.g. eleva-

0 0
tor). In Passive House buildings, the Existing EnEV LEH PH ZHE Existing EnEV LEH PH ZHE
total value of these is often higher than 3.2 3.3
the primary energy demand for heating,
300 350
Final energy demand [kWh/m2a]

Primary energy demand (non-renewable) [kWh/m2a]

ventilation, the provision of domestic household electricity hot water househole electricity hot water
fan power heating 300 fan power heating
hot water and auxiliary power together. PV power
So, there are some considerable saving 250
250
potentials in this respect.
200
• The aim is to avoid the building being 200
heated indirectly through the waste 150
heat from inefficient electrical devices, 150 100
i.e. with electricity.
50
• The waste heat from electrical devices
100
and other power consumers can cause 0
considerable cooling loads in summer. -50
They naturally have a negative effect 50
-100
on comfort conditions and should there-
0
fore contribute as little as possible -150
Existing EnEV LEH PH ZHE ZE Existing EnEV LEH PH ZHE ZE
towards the build-up of heat in the inte-
3.4 3.5
rior space.
Primary energy demand (non-renewable) [kWh/m2a]

400 electricity 3.1 Overview of the criteria and requirements to

In the primary energy balance of a Pas- heating/hot water meet Passive House standard
350
sive House building, all the non-renewa- repair/maintenance 3.2 Comparison between the space heat demands
embodied energy of different energy standards
ble primary energy is taken into account, 300 Existing building stock: typical existing building
i.e. the amount of energy provided by fos- EnEV: Energieeinsparverordnung 2009 (German
sil and nuclear energy carriers. This is 250 Energy Performance Directive); LEH: Low Energy
House; ZHE: zero heating energy building;
performed by multiplying the final energy ZE: zero energy building; PH: Passive House
200
demand with the corresponding primary 3.3 Comparison between the average daily heat
loads of different energy standards
energy factors, which represent the pri- 150 3.4 Comparison between the final energy demands
mary energy input for each specific unit (heating, domestic hot water, electricity) in resi-
of final energy supplied. In the calculation 100 dential buildings of different energy standards
3.5 Comparison between the primary energy factors
of these factors, all upstream and down- (non-renewable) of different energy standards
50
stream energy chains (e.g. exploration, 3.6 Comparison between the cumulative energy in-
put including the production, maintenance and
production, transportation, processing, 0 replacement of the building structure and servic-
disposal, recycling of the generating Existing EnEV LEH PH ZHE ZE es for a life cycle of 80 years
3.6
23
Passive House planning
plant) have been considered. It is for this
reason that renewable energies also fea-
ture positive primary energy factors.
Because the processes concerning the
production and provision change over
time, it is foreseeable that the primary
energy factors will have to be adapted at
certain intervals. This especially applies
to the provision of electricity.
Airtightness (n50 ≤ 0.6 h-1)
An airtight building envelope is essential
to avoid damage to the building fabric
and has therefore been adopted in many
standards as a statutory requirement. A
Passive House building requires an air-
tightness factor of n50 ≤ 0.6 h-1 in order to
make full use of the energy-related
advantages achieved through the installa-
tion of a heat recovery system.
To ensure that the values prescribed are
met, a blower-door test is performed. The
readings that are taken at an over and
under-pressure of 50 Pascal are aver-
aged in this case. Spot check testing is
not adequate, which means that the
required airtightness has to be proven in
all building components, dwelling units or
functional zones. Any gaps identified dur-
ing the testing procedure have to be
sealed. These frequently occur at junc-
tions (e.g. roofs in timber constructions)
and in other components that are critical
in terms of building physics.
Summer comfort (h(≥ 25 °C) ≤ 10 %)
A Passive House should ensure a high
level of thermal comfort throughout the
year. This means considering the situa-
tion not only in winter but also in summer.
The criterion applied here is the number
of hours in which the room temperature
rises above 25 °C. This should not repre-
sent more than 10 % of the year. For even
better comfort conditions in summer, this
value is best limited to 5 – 6 %. The Pas-
sive House Planning Package (PHPP)
includes a simple verification procedure
which, alongside monthly balances, also
allows the individual months to be broken
down into shorter hot-weather periods. As
a consequence, it is possible to assess a
lot of factors relevant for summer comfort
in accordance with the design. The most
important parameters include the window
surface area and the orientation, shading
devices and the properties of the glass,
the air exchange rate, internal heat
sources, thermal insulation and the
absorption capacity of the opaque, insu-
lated surfaces, as well as the effective-
ness of thermal mass inside the building.
The procedure is adequate for standard
24
buildings and conditions. In some cases,
for example non-residential buildings with
special conditions, the PHPP verification
procedure should be supplemented by
dynamic simulations.
Further criteria
In addition to the main criteria described
above, further secondary conditions and
benchmarks have been set up for Passive
House buildings. The most important are
as follows:
• The power consumption (auxiliary
power, household appliances, lighting,
communication electronics etc.) in
residential buildings must be
≤ 18 kWh/m2a.
• The power consumption of the mechan-
ical ventilation system with heat recov-
ery unit may not exceed 0.45 W/m3h.
• So that south-facing Passive House
windows with little overshadowing also
provide a positive energy balance in
winter, the energy criterion of the glaz-
ing (fig. 3.1, p. 23) must be fulfilled.
• If a Passive House is to be heated by
using the supply air exclusively, further
conditions in addition to the heat load
factor (< 10 W/m2) must be fulfilled. At
first, it is necessary to analyse the
capability to heat the air, for example
by performing a risk assessment
according to the PHPP or separate cal-
culations. A further concern is whether
or not the air volume and/or the temper-
ature of the supply duct radiator suf-
fices to provide the calculated heat
load. Radiators are usually required
below large glazed areas, higher than
2.5 to 3 m, to counteract the cold air
drop at fully-glazed facades.
Passive House Planning Package
(PHPP)
The Passive House Planning Package
(PHPP) was developed by the Passive
House Institute as a design and verifica-
tion tool for Passive House buildings [2].
It is an accounting system based on the
International standard ISO 13 790 with
additional calculation tools, which ena-
bles planners to complete the verifica-
tion of the Passive House standard
according to a uniform and proven
method. The use of other verification
methods, in particular the national statu-
tory computation methods, is not recom-
mended, since these lead to mistakes
by not portraying accurately the critical
physical relations inherent to the Passive
House standard.
Verification
Despite the simplifications brought
about by a stationary procedure, the
definitions and calculations involved in
the PHPP are built closely on the under-
lying physical relationships and princi-
ples. Meticulous spadework was required
to set these up [3]. In the case of build-
ings with a very low energy demand,
the functional and climatic conditions, as
well as all factors influencing the design,
have to be determined accurately to
ensure an overall successful perfor-
mance of the verification. All calculation
procedures were carefully examined
by performing comprehensive compari-
sons between simulations and on-site
readings. To avoid miscalculations, the
approximations and estimations are
always on the safe side.
Boundaries and benchmarks
To perform the accounting, system
boundaries must be determined accu-
rately. In the case of a thermally condi-
tioned building, the boundary is formed
by the building envelope. It encloses all
rooms and zones in which a desired or
demanded indoor climate (target climate)
is to be maintained. In this case, it is
permitted to incorporate ancillary areas
in the system boundary so long as it
makes sense from a building practical,
constructional or functional viewpoint
(e.g. unheated staircase, adjoining jamb
wall areas or attic space, enclosed
porch). The determination of the system
boundary is an important step in the plan-
ning of a Passive House building, since it
is used as a basis to specify all values
that are related to space and considered
in the energy balance (fig. 3.9, p. 26).
In the PHPP, all envelope surfaces are
calculated by using the external dimen-
sions. Furthermore, the treated floor area
(TFA) is used as a reference value
throughout the verification process. It
includes all heated or cooled usable floor
or living areas. If a basement or staircase
is positioned inside the building enve-
lope, a share of 60 % can be considered
as treated floor area. Stair areas, on the
other hand, are not included in the bal-
ance [4].
Basic principles of the space heat balance
The energy calculations to determine the
space heat demand are based on the
fact that the internal energy of a building
does not change between the beginning
and the end of the heating or cooling
period. Thus, the heat input Qin (heat
gains Qg) into the system via the building

envelope is equal to the heat output Qout
(heat losses Ql) from the system:
Qin = Qout or Qg = Ql
Owing to the symmetrical condition, it is
fairly easy to determine the space heat
demand if all other items are familiar:
Qh = fni (Qt + Ql) – η(Qi + Qs)
The space heat demand Qh equals the
heat losses of the building envelope
through transmission Qt and ventilation Qv
less the usable gains through internal
heat gains Qi and solar radiation Qs. Figu-
ratively speaking, the heat that eventually
has to be supplied to the system is the
amount by which the heat losses exceed
the heat gains. The factor fni expresses
the reduction achieved by the night set-
back mode. This factor is only relevant in
non-residential buildings. The usage rate
η expresses that not all heat gains can be
made use of during the heating period
because they are either dissipated by
opening windows, for example in the
case of temporary extreme temperatures,
or may lead to greater losses.
The planning architect is responsible, in
particular, for checking the interaction of
items relevant to the space (e.g. building
envelope surfaces, air volumes, treated
floor air) and the (preliminary) determina-
tion of the main components’ energy per-
Start
recording of air change
climate data
project data in summer
list of
U-values U-values
areas
ground
window type
windows
shading
ventilation additional
target value ventilation
n50 unit
yes
calculation of
requirement
annual space heat load
met ?
heat demand
no
formance (opaque, insulated envelope
surface areas, windows, mechanical ven-
tilation unit). Once these values have
been multiplied by the validated usage
and climate parameters, all the informa-
tion needed to draw up an energy bal-
ance is at hand (fig. 3.10, p. 26).
Structure and input data
The PHPP is a spreadsheet programme.
It requires the input of various values
and is structured in several worksheets
(fig. 3.7):
• First of all, the treated floor area and all
surface areas of the thermal envelope,
such as exterior walls, roofs and base-
ment ceilings, are entered with their
exterior dimensions.
• Then the materials of all building enve-
lope components are entered in order
to determine their U-values.
Subsequently, the thermal bridges are
recorded with their lengths and psi-val-
ues (Ψ) or the verification is performed
ensuring that, using external dimen-
sions, all junctions are thermal-bridge-
free according to the specifications of
the Passive House Institute.
• Separate data (e.g. area and perimeter
length of the ground slab, the mean
depth of the basement, the thermal
conductivity and capacity of the
ground) is required to calculate the
heat loss through the base of the build-
ing. This information is entered in a
separate worksheet.
in case internal heat sources are not standard
shading
in summer
no
yes
summer requirement
met ?
yes
passive
cooling ?
no
cooling
cooling
system
cooling load
Non-residential building
Passive House Planning Package (PHPP)
• The windows are recorded in the next
step. Because of the significant impact
that heat losses and heat gains have on
the energy balance, each window must
be accounted for individually. The infor-
mation required includes the orientation
and inclination of the glazing, the width
of the frame, the U-value and g-value of
the glazing, the psi-value of the frame-
to-wall junction and the spacer.
• In the case of a post and rail facade,
the different system and the additional
heat loss through screws and glass
fixtures are considered by entering spe-
cial data.
• Because a lump-sum calculation of the
shading devices would be too inaccu-
rate, the shading of each glazed area is
recorded separately in a next step. A
difference is made between horizontal
and side-fixed elements and over-
hangs. In the case of complex situa-
tions, which cannot be specified by
using the PHPP, there is an additional
input field to enter shading factors that
are determined by performing external
simulations.
• The air exchange through the permea-
bility of the building fabric is recorded
in the ventilation worksheet. This is
where the results from the blower-door
3.7 Flow chart and calculation system used by the
Passive House Planning Package (PHPP) for
non-residential buildings. The branch “cooling -
cooling system- cooling load” is usually omitted
in residential buildings.
domestic hot water
and distribution
solar hot water
production
user profile
auxiliary non-residential
power internal
heat sources
compact non-residential
heating unit electricity
non residential
heat pump
combi
primary energy
factor
boiler
primary energy
district heat
requirement
met ? no
yes
Passive House
certificate
Building services
3.7
25
Passive House planning

pressure test are entered. A standard

Primary energy demand [kWh/m2a]

300
PHPP/EnEV
biomass budget approach value of n50 = 0.6 h-1 is assumed until
250 LEH Low Energy House the result of the pressure test is availa-
PH Passive House
200 HW-HP hot water heat pump ble.
HP (grd) ground source heat pump • Alongside the sizing of the mechanical
compact compact ventilation unit ventilation unit, the ventilation work-
150
gas CB gas condensing boiler
sheet also requires information for the
100 determination of the air volumes. The
volume of fresh air per person required
50 from the point of view of hygiene is
used to establish the supply air volume.
0
Depending on the usage of the build-
existing

existing
+ solar

LEH

LEH
+ solar
LEH
+ HW-HP

PH

PH + solar

PH
+ HW-HP

PH + HP (grd)

PH + WP (grd)
+ solar

PH + compact

PH + compact
+ solar

PH + gas CB

PH + gas CB
+ solar
ing, this volume ranges between 20 and
30 m3/h [5].
The waste air volumes at the extraction
points (e.g. bathroom, kitchen) are cal-
biomass heating systems other Passive House
(existing / Low Energy/Passive House) heating systems (comparison) culated in accordance with the rooms
3.8 concerned. This information is then
used to compare the supply and extract
air volumes, whereby the higher value
is selected for further use.
If a ground source heat exchanger is
used for frost protection purposes, its
parameters have to be determined
and entered. Furthermore, information
is required to identify the heat loss of
duct sections between the mechanical
ventilation unit and the thermal enve-
lope.
• The internal heat sources are a very sen-
sitive issue. In the case of standard
thermal envelope solar aperture shading devices air volumes treated floor area building functions, the PHPP provides
3.9 default values [6], which are well below
those used in national calculation proce-
Input data to calculate the annual energy use for space heating according to ISO 13 790 dures. For all other building uses, but
Physical input data Space reference Relation also in other special cases (e.g. low
occupancy rates), more accurate calcu-
transmission heat loss thermal envelope Qt = A • U • ft • Gt
lations should be made, for which the
ventilation heat loss air volume Ql = Va • na • c • Gt PHPP provides a separate worksheet.
internal heat gain heated useful (living) area Qi = thp • qi • ATFA • Concerning climate data, the PHPP has
solar heat gain solar aperture (window surface area) Qs = r • g • Aw • G created regional data sets; the relevant
space heat demand heated useful (living) area Qh = (Qt + Ql) - η(Qs + Qi) set should be used for each construc-
tion site. Corrections allowing for alti-
Qt transmission heat loss [kWh/a] na effective air exchange [h–1] tude can be made if necessary.
Ql ventilation heat loss [kWh/a] c specific heat capacity of air [0.33 Wh/m3K]
Qi internal heat sources [kWh/a] thp length of heating period [d/a]
Qs solar gain [kWh/a] qi specific availability of internal heat sources [W/m2] Annual specific space heat demand
Qh annual space heat demand [kWh/m2a] ATFA treated floor area [m2]
A thermal envelope [m2] r reduction factor for solar heat gain [–]
The above-mentioned input data is used
U U-value of the thermal envelope [W/m2K] g g-value of the glazing [–] to determine the annual space heat
ft transmission reduction factor Aw window surface area [m2] demand. The PHPP provides two
Gt heat degree hours [kKh/a] G global radiation during the heating period [kWh/m2wa]
Va effective air volume [m3] η utilisation factor of available heat [–] accounting systems to create either an
3.10 annual or a monthly balance sheet of the
heat demand. The monthly balance sheet
should be used if high solar heat gains
3.8 Primary energy assessment of different energy The simulation compares a single-storey single- are expected (ratio of free heat / losses
supply systems in existing building stock, Low family dwelling with a three-storey end terrace
Energy Houses and Passive House buildings house featuring different energy standards. Fur- > 0.7) or the annual space heat demand
with and without a budget approach concerning thermore, the coverage rate of a roof-mounted is assumed to be very low, for example
the classification of biomass photovoltaic array is included (south-facing; ar-
3.9 Illustration of the spatial elements relevant for ea = 50 % of the total roof area). The diagram
below 12 kWh/m2a.
the assessment of the annual energy use for the shows that, in buildings according to EnEV, the
space heat balance PV array is not suitable to improve the energy Average daily heat load
3.10 Overview of physical input data and their space performance during the “winter gap”; the situa-
reference values with the appropriate relations tion in the Passive House, on the other hand, is The PHPP calculates the heat load using
for assessing the annual energy use for space improved significantly. a procedure which was developed using
heating according to ISO 13 790 3.12 Energy balance of the buildings compared in
3.11 Future assessment of Passive House buildings fig. 3.11 including the remaining power demand
dynamic simulations. If the building is to
according to their seasonal energy demand. that has to be covered during the “winter gap” be heated by supply air only, the heat

26
 Passive House Planning Package (PHPP)

load must remain below 10 W/m2. This air, recirculated air, cooling panels or or target values has not yet been
requirement alone, however, does not dehumidification, can be implemented to decided.
suffice. The heat load worksheet is also cover the cooling demand. • To ensure greater transparency in all
used to identify whether, according to an ensuing assessments, the final energy
assessment concerning the ability to heat Heat supply and system values are to be designated in a disag-
single rooms as part of a zone, additional In the PHPP, the heat supply, including gregated form, i.e. separately accord-
heating is required or whether the ventila- the provision of domestic hot water with ing to their field of application (heating,
tion and heating system may have to be the necessary storage and distribution mechanical ventilation, production of
separated. If the heat load is higher than systems, is not accounted for using fixed domestic hot water, process heat,
10 W/m2, these measures are inevitable rates, but in greater detail. Heat pumps, power consumption) and according to
anyway. compact units, boilers with gas, oil or energy carriers.
wood burners, district or local heat, and • The output from renewable energy
Summer climate other alternative systems all qualify as systems on the property of the building
The PHPP includes a worksheet to assess heating systems. The primary energy or the housing estate must always be
the percentage of summertime overheat- demand and the carbon dioxide equiva- determined separately from the
ing. The additional information required in lent emissions are then determined using demand values. The yield cannot be
this case is the effective thermal mass the calculated final energy values. offset directly since this - as is always
(specific heat storage capacity of the the case for credit methods - leads to
building’s thermal mass) and the air Electricity balance misleading results.
change rate of window ventilation in sum- The PHPP includes special worksheets • Not the useful floor area, but the (imper-
mer. The latter of these two inputs is very for the determination of auxiliary energy meable) built surface area of the build-
much dependent on the occupant. It and all other forms of power consumption ing is to be used as the reference area
therefore makes sense to perform the cal- in the building. The worksheets are for the generated solar energy. This
culations with different assumptions. This designed to calculate the demand values change is designed to encourage and
procedure has not only proved success- in detail and according to the user profile. not punish space-saving constructions
ful in residential buildings, but also in in the context of net-zero energy
other building types, such as offices and Reassessment of Passive Houses (as of assessments.
schools. If, however, the heat loads vary 2014) • The primary energy factor is to be main-
too much, either from a time or layout As a consequence of the intensive tained as an indicator for resource effi-
point of view, the use of dynamic simula- debates concerning the energy turna- ciency and environmental damage. The
tions is indispensable. round, climate protection and energy- limited availability of biomass will be
related sustainability, Passive House rated higher by only recognising a lim-
Cooling buildings require a new and, in compari- ited amount (approx. 15 – 25 kWh/m2a)
If active cooling is required - as is fre- son to the former PHPP, more extensive as renewable (e.g. factor 0.1); the
quently the case with non-residential assessment methodology [7]. This remaining proportion will be rated with
buildings - the PHPP can be used to cal- requirement will be fulfilled in one of the the calorific value (factor 1.1) (fig. 3.8).
culate the sensible cooling demand and next editions of the PHPP. The basic prin- • The varying significance of demand
the cooling load. In this context, it is pos- ciples – as far as known – are introduced and supply during the course of a year
sible to consider night-time ventilation in here briefly: (excess supply in summer versus “win-
summer. • The limits of the space heat demand ter gap”, demand for stored energy) is
In addition, if so required, the net energy and heat load are to remain the same. to be assessed with the help of a sce-
demand for latent cooling, i.e. through • Concerning the power consumption in nario in which the energy turnaround
dehumidification, can also be estab- buildings, individual efficiency require- has been completed (100 % supply
lished. However, due to a lack of practical ments are to be introduced for different with renewable energy sources), for
experience, this calculation is currently building functions (e.g. residential, example by using variable seasonal pri-
only available as a test version. A variety administration, school). Whether these mary energy factors on a monthly basis
of systems, such as those using supply requirements will appear as guideline (fig. 3.11, 3.12).
Final energy (electricity) [kWh/m2a]

Final energy (electricity) [kWh/(m2a]

12 EnEV demand, single-storey Passive House demand, three-storey 40 EnEV, single-storey PH, three-storey without PV
EnEV demand, three-storey EnEV, three-storey PH, three-storey with PV
35
10
30
8
PV gain, single-storey 25

6 20

15
4
PV gain, three-storey 10

2 5

0
0 Residual power
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Energy balance demand, Oct– Mar
3.11 3.12
27
Passive House planning
Certified building components
The use of certified building components
for constructional and technical purposes
is considered extremely helpful when
designing Passive House buildings. The
Passive House Institute has developed
specific criteria and certification proce-
dures to check the suitability of building
components for Passive House standard.
Parameters that have been established
using other standardisation schemes are
often not sufficiently accurate. The relia-
bility of manufacturers data sheets is also
frequently limited. The Passive House
Institute has therefore set up a database
[8] listing certified products for the follow-
ing building components:
• wall and construction systems
• floor slab insulation systems
• roof parapet and balcony connections
• facade anchors
• window frames
• window connections
• front doors and sliding doors
• post and rail facades
• roof windows and skylights
• roller shutters and external blinds
• glazing
• mechanical ventilation systems
• compact heat pump units
• exhaust system
Special certification schemes for exterior
and interior insulation systems were intro-
3.13 Terrace house in London (GB) 2009, Prewett
Bizley Architects. The building dating from 1830
is part of a listed terrace. Its heat demand was
reduced from 228 to 27 kWh/m2a by using Pas-
sive House components, including interior insu-
lation.
3.14 Criteria of the EnerPHit standard
3.15 Primary school in Wolfurt (A) 2009, Gerhard
Zweier. The 35-year-old school building has
been refurbished to meet Passive House stand-
ard. This was achieved by creating a more com-
pact design, insulating the thermal envelope
and cladding it with wood shingles. The sun and
groundwater are the only heat and power sourc-
es used in the building.
3.13
28
duced in 2012 for the energy efficiency
refurbishment of existing building stock.
Based on typical junction details, the
insulation systems are examined accord-
ing to whether they are suitable, from a
building physics point of view, for improv-
ing or even eliminating thermal bridges.
Passive House certification
The certification of a Passive House by
the Passive House Institute or any of
its accredited building certifiers is
designed to ensure enhanced quality of
the concept, the design and construction
according to the four-eye principle.
The certification is based on the PHPP
calculations, all the necessary plans and
detail drawings, as well as reports of the
blower-door pressure test and a commis-
sioning certificate of the mechanical ven-
tilation system. Furthermore, documentary
evidence of the building components and
technical products used must be submit-
ted, as well as a declaration signed by
the site supervisor confirming that the
completed property and the installed
components correspond with the docu-
mented information.
It is recommended to hand in the above-
mentioned documentary evidence dur-
ing the design phase, i.e. before con-
struction begins. In the case of any inac-
curate or missing evidence, the appropri-
ate amendments can be made without
causing any significant harm.
The importance of the Passive House
certificate is increasing, since many plan-
ners, property developers and prefabri-
cated house suppliers purport to be plan-
ning or completing Passive House build-
ings, but do not adhere to the require-
ments of the Passive House concept. The
certificate ensures that the design and
quality features of a Passive House are
actually provided. The responsible plan-
ner can use it to document that all impor-
tant design aspects and documentary
evidence has been produced accurately.
The client, in return, receives the confir-
mation that comprehensive quality assur-
ance has been undertaken. This, among
other things, is designed to increase the
value of the property.
Certified Passive House designers
The certification of Passive House design-
ers now makes it possible for architects
and planners to confirm that they have
gathered extensive experience and are
qualified to use the Passive House con-
cept. Since there was previously little
opportunity, other than the successful
completion of a Passive House project,
to learn about the competencies of plan-
ners, the certification gives clients greater
choice in finding a truly qualified Passive
House planner. There are two ways of
becoming a certified Passive House
designer, which either involve [9]:
• a written exam or
• the completion of a Passive House
project that achieves certified status
and subsequent documentation of the
results.
There are a number of providers offering
multi-day courses that specifically pre-
pare planners to become a certified Pas-
sive House designer, using either one of
the possibilities mentioned above. The
corresponding dossier was developed in
a project sponsored by the European
Union and subsequently translated into
several languages.
EnerPHit standard
Due to numerous complications and
restrictions, it is not always possible to
achieve Passive House standard in
existing buildings at reasonable
expense. Nevertheless, it is precisely
the application of Passive House technol-
ogy which leads to a substantial improve-
ment in the areas of value maintenance,
prevention of structural damage, eco-
nomic efficiency, thermal comfort as
well as energy efficiency in buildings.
Furthermore, building conservation and
refurbishment contributes immensely
towards climate protection. It is for this
reason that the Passive House Institute
created the EnerPHit standard as a verifi-
cation procedure for the certification of
existing buildings that have undergone
an energy efficiency upgrade using
Passive House components. The most
fundamental requirements are illustrated
in figure 3.14 [10].
All in all, the EnerPHit standard is a more
flexible planning concept, which takes
account of the varied boundary condi-
tions and restrictions encountered in
energy efficiency refurbishments. In con-
trast to the Passive House standard for
new builds, the EnerPHit standard does
not specify general energy target values,
but sets out requirements concerning
individual components. However, it is
possible to ignore the limits for building
components if the building undercuts an

annual heat demand of 25 kWh/m2a. The
verification of the thermal requirements
has to then be performed, as is the case
for new builds too, by using the Passive
House Planning Package. The EnerPHit
standard is currently only available for
buildings located in cool-moderate cli-
mates (e.g. Central Europe).
The Passive House Institute has pub-
lished a planner’s manual [11] which
explains the certification procedure in
greater detail and elaborates on the
aspects that are important for an energy
efficiency refurbishment using Passive
House components.
Requirements and exceptions
The striving for “thermal bridge-free” con-
structions (with: ψa ≤ 0.01 W/mK), an
important aspect of Passive House new
builds, cannot always be accomplished in
energy efficiency retrofits at reasonable
expense. Nevertheless, the negative
effects of thermal bridging have to be
minimised to such a degree that it is still
economically acceptable or the require-
ments from a moisture management point
of view are met.
In the case of external walls, the individ-
ual component method according to
EnerPHit imposes different requirements
on external and internal insulation:
• The requirements imposed on individ-
ual building components are consid-
ered as mean values, which are aver-
aged over all relevant surfaces.
• External insulation, if acceptable, is
always the preferred solution from a
building physics point of view.
• If the existing building is subject to
restrictions for historical, architectural,
practical or any other reasons, which
make it impossible to use external insu-
lation, internal insulation may be
installed as an alternative. In this case,
it is very important that evidence is pre-
sented of moisture management, air-
tight construction and prevention of the
construction from being wind-washed.
Furthermore the exterior walls must be
treated with hydrophobic sealants to
prevent rainwater ingress.
From an energy and building physics
point of view, the EnerPHit standard
always prescribes the installation of a
highly efficient mechanical ventilation sys-
tem with heat recovery. The primary
energy factor may be a little bit higher in
the case of fully upgraded retrofits than is
the case for Passive House new builds. In
addition to the applicable threshold value
of 120 kWh/m2a, the proportion of space
heat demand, which, despite observing
the certification criteria, exceeds 15
kWh/m2a, is multiplied by a factor of 1.2
(for an average annual usage rate of the
heating system) when using the EnerPHit
standard and added on top. Exceptions
apply in the following situations:
• preservation orders
• exceptional conditions which do not
permit the financial execution of the
individual measures
• unacceptable impairment of the build-
ing’s use or the adjoining exterior sur-
faces
Criteria of the EnerPHit standard
EnerPHit criterion
annual specific space heat demand, alternative: require-
ments for individual building components (see below)
primary energy factor (non-renewable primary energy)
heating, cooling, mechanical ventilation, domestic
hot water and all other power consumed by electrical
appliances in the building
airtightness (blower door pressure test, 50 pascal)
Requirements for individual building components (as an alternative to the space heat demand):
opaque building envelope (roofs, walls, basement ceiling)
- components with exterior insulation
- components with interior insulation
window U-value (installed)
glazing
external doors (installed)
effective heat output capacity of the ventilation system
power efficiency of the ventilation system
Minimum thermal insulation (in case requirements above cannot be met) /
evidence of protection against moisture:
exterior walls
roof /uppermost ceiling
windows /exterior doors
floor above basement /outdoor air
protection against moisture
qh: annual specific space heat demand (kWh/m2a)
qP: annual specific primary energy demand (kWh/m2a)
ft: transmission reduction factor
U: U-value of the thermal envelope (W/m2K)
Uw: U-value of the window (W/m2K)
EnerPHit standard
• limited availability of components suita-
ble to meet the particular requirements
(e.g. fire protection)
• other important exclusion criteria
Additional requirements for minimum ther-
mal protection, which must be adhered to
for reasons of building physics and ther-
mal comfort, have been set up for these
exceptional cases and the general possi-
bility to undercut the target values in cer-
tain areas. Independent of these varia-
tions for verification and the permitted
exceptions, state-of-the-art proof of mois-
ture protection must be provided.
EnerPHit requirement
qh ≤ 25 kWh/m2a
qp ≤ 120 kWh/m2a + ((Qh–15 kWh/m2a) • 1.2)
n50 ≤ 1.0 h-1 (target value n50 ≤ 0.6 h-1)
ft • U ≤ 0.15 W/m2K
ft • U ≤ 0.35 W/m2K
Uw,installed ≤ 0.85 W/m2K
Ug – 1.6 W/m2K • g ≤ 0
ft • Ud,installed ≤ 0.80 W/m2K
ηHR,eff ≥ 75 %
≤ 0.45 Wh/m3
ft • Uwa ≤ 0.85 W/m2K
Uroof ≤ 0.35 W/m2K
target value: Uw/d,installed ≤ 0.85 W/m2K, this value
may be exceeded if suitable heating is provided to
compensate for possible low temperatures
interior surface temperature > 17 °C
evidence of moisture protection must be provided
in acc. with accepted technical standards, particu-
larly in the case of interior insulation systems
Ud: U-value of the exterior door (W/m2K)
Uwall: U-value of the exterior wall (W/m2K)
Uroof: U-value of the roof (W/m2K)
ηHR: effective heat output capacity of the
mechanical ventilation unit (–)
3.14
3.15
29
 Passive House planning

Criteria of the Minergie-P standard Minergie-P standard

Minergie-P criterion Minergie-P requirement
space heat demand (new build) Qh ≤ 0.6-times the SIA 380/1 threshold The Minergie-P standard is a registered
value quality label for the certification of build-
space heat demand (refurbishment) Qh ≤ 0.8-times the SIA 380/1 threshold ings according to Swiss standards [12].
value At a first glance, expressed by the letter
average daily heat load (only for warm air heating system) Ph ≤ 10 W/m2 P, it appears to be based on the Passive
weighted final energy demand for heating, cooling, ventilation, residential: ≤ 30 kWh/m2a House concept, however, it actually dif-
domestic hot water, auxiliary energy schools, offices: ≤ 25 kWh/m2a fers considerably in the requirements,
weighting factors according to Minergie (see fig. 3.19) for all others see: www.minergie.ch
systems and calculation methods. The
airtightness new build: ≤ 0.6 h-1
(blower door pressure test, 50 Pascal) refurbishment: ≤ 1.5 h-1 fact that the reference area AE is defined
differently to the treated floor area (TFA)
evidence of summer thermal comfort according to Minergie yes/no yes
in the PHPP is a fundamental aspect in
controlled fresh air supply yes
this respect. The requirements and the
evidence of energy-efficient appliances residential and non-residential buildings verification thereof are categorised
evidence of lighting and ventilation/climate only non-residential buildings
according to two main criteria:
3.16 • The required space heat demand is
SIA Energy Efficiency Path: primary energy demand (non-renewable) in kWh/m2a very much dependent on the thermal
Path A – residential Path B – residential compactness of the building and
new build (refurbishment) new build (refurbishment)
ranges between 15 and 52 kWh/m2a
(fig. 3.18). Due to the difference in
building material 33 (20) 33 (20)
defining the reference area AE, Passive
heating, ventilation 23 (36) 27 (40) House buildings certified according to
domestic hot water 13 (13) 17 (17) PHPP would achieve values of only
electricity use 43 (43) 56 (56) approx. 10 to 13.5 kWh/m2a when using
the Minergie-P criteria for the calcula-
mobility 33 (33) 47 (47)
tions. With regard to the energy perfor-
residential target value 145 (145) 180 (180)
mance of the building, the Minergie - P
residential target value 80 (92) 100 (113) standard is therefore slightly less strin-
(without building material
and mobility)
gent than the Passive House concept.
• The limits for the energy supplied for
3.17
heating, cooling, hot water production,
Annual specific space heat demand [kWh/m2a]

100
mechanical ventilation and other uses
of auxiliary power are fairly strict in the
case of the Minergie-P standard and
75
are set at 30 kWh/m2a for residential
buildings and, depending on the build-
009 ing use, between 15 and 40 kWh/m2a
80 / 1:2
IA 3 ent
50 S bishm for non-residential buildings. These
refur
ie-P
M inerg requirements can frequently only be
ie-P met by using renewable energies, par-
Minerg
25 ticularly when buildings are not quite so
compact. The weighting factors of the
Passive House according to PHPP final energy (fig. 3.19) are in this case a
mixture between a primary energy and
0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
energy-political assessment.
Compactness ratio [A/AN,E]
3.16 Criteria of the Minergie-P standard 3.18 Further criteria concern limiting the heat
3.17 Criteria for a 2000-Watt-compatible building load to below 10 W/m2 provided that more
according to the SIA Energy Efficiency Path
3.18 Space heat demand for Minergie-P buildings in than 50 % of the useful floor area is heated
accordance with the compactness ratio (Ath/AE). through supply air. In the case of refur-
For the purpose of comparison, the values for
Passive Houses according to PHPP have also
bishments, in contrast to the EnerPHit
Energy carrier/ Weighting factors
been stated. Due to the difference in assessing energy source acc. to Minergie standard, lower requirements are only
the reference area, the values of Passive House imposed on the annual space heat
buildings are between 10 and 13.5 kWh/m2a ac- sun 0.0
cording to the Minergie-P calculation method. demand and the airtightness.
3.19 Weighting factors according to Minergie for dif- environmental heat, 0.0
ferent energy factors. These are used to deter- geothermal energy
mine the weighted final energy demand and
Minergie-P-Eco
biomass 0.5
make comparisons with analogous primary ener- (wood, biogas, digester gas) Alongside the embodied energy, i.e. the
gy factors according to the Passive House Plan- energy required to produce the building,
ning Package (PHPP). fossil energy carriers 1.0
3.20 Nursing and care home for the elderly in Domat/ (oil, natural gas) the Minergie-P-Eco standard also
Ems (CH) 2004, Dietrich Schwarz Architekten.
electricity 2.0
includes a range of non-energy-related,
The Minergie-P building achieves an annual
space heat demand of only 9.5 kWh/m2a thanks
ecological criteria, such as daylight
to the high solar heat gains. 3.19 autonomy, noise protection, avoidance of

30

pollutants, allergens and radiation. Fur-
ther aspects considered are a long ser-
vice life, user flexibility and options for
deconstruction. In addition, criteria are
included that relate to aspects such as
room hygiene and building ecology. Spe-
cial tools are used for the verification of
the criteria, which are, wherever possible,
based on already existing SIA standards.
2000-Watt Society –
SIA Energy Efficiency Path (SIA D 216)
The vision of a 2000-Watt society was
developed in Switzerland and is a simple
system for the implementation of energy-
based sustainability. The basic idea is to
limit the permissible energy demand to
the currently average worldwide con-
sumption of energy per person. This
amount is expressed as a continuous out-
put in Watt per person. According to
these assumptions, the rate is 2000 W/p.
In comparison, the rate is currently
6300 W/p in Switzerland and 5600 W/p in
Germany. For reasons of climate protec-
tion, a further requirement is that in the
long term only a small proportion of
500 W/p may be covered by fossil fuels.
Based on the 2000-Watt Society, the SIA
Energy Efficiency Path [14] has estab-
lished primary energy factors for build-
ings which are easier for architects and
consultants to handle due to their relation
to the useful floor area. Alongside the
operational energy, this standard also
takes account of the embodied energy
and, on a pilot basis, also the energy con-
sumed by transportation. According to
figure 3.17, a difference is made between
two target values (paths):
• Target A stands for 2000-Watt-compati-
ble building. The threshold values are
strict, but can be achieved using avail-
able high-end components similar to
those used in Passive House buildings.
• Target B describes a standard accord-
ing to which the requirements of the
2000-Watt Society are not met until the
next refurbishment of the building is
imminent. The building is to be
designed in such a way that provisions
are made for the future,
i.e. energy-efficient products are cho-
sen for building components with a long
service life; building components and
technical equipment with short service
lives should be incorporated in such a
way that they are easy to access and
replace.
Net-zero energy standard
The Building Performance Institute
Europe (BPIE) [15] requests that all new
builds completed after 2018/2020 should
achieve a very low energy consumption.
Alongside Passive House buildings, a
range of so-called zero energy concepts
are being discussed to reach these tar-
gets [16]. In the case of these buildings,
a balance is created between the energy
consumed from the grid (demand) and
renewable energy fed into the grid (gen-
eration). These buildings are generally
very energy-efficient and feature large
energy generating facilities, usually pho-
tovoltaic modules.
As is the case for all credit systems, the
results achieved by offsetting the electric-
ity purchased from the grid with self-
power generation are very misleading
Net zero energy building
since they suggest that the energy
demand of zero energy buildings equals
zero, which is never really the case. The
main problem encountered when using
zero energy concepts is the spatially lim-
ited energy balance framework. Hence, in
the case of solar generation systems,
multi-storey buildings are always at a dis-
advantage. It is virtually impossible to per-
form a certification procedure for a build-
ing in the dense urban environment of a
city. The application field of the net-zero
energy standard is therefore limited
unnecessarily.
Notes
[1] Feist, Wolfgang: Bauen im Passivhausstandard.
In: Hestermann, Ulf; Rongen, Ludwig: Frick/Knöll
Baukonstruktionslehre 1. Wiesbaden 2010, p. 672
[2] Feist, Wolfgang et al.: Passive House Planning
Package, Version 7 (2012), self-publishing com-
pany, obtained from www.passiv.de, 2012
[3] Schnieders, Jürgen et al.: CEPHEUS – Wissen-
schaftliche Begleitung und Auswertung. Projek-
tinformation Nr. 22. Darmstadt 2001
[4] see note at 2, p. 47
[5] For residential use, e.g. 30 m3/h per person and
in office buildings 20 m3/h per person. Lower val-
ues are recommended for schools and children
day care centres (15 – 20 m3/h/person) and high-
er values in gymnasiums (60 m3/h/person).
see note at 2, p. 95
[6] see note at 2, p. 108
[7] This discussion is still underway. For further infor-
mation see Protocol Volume No. 46 from the Re-
search Group for Cost-effective Passive Houses
[8] for more detailed information see: www.passiv.de
[9] for more detailed information see:
www.passivhausplaner.com
[10] for the current certification criteria of the EnerPHit
standard see: www.passiv.de
[11] Wolfgang Feist (pub.): EnerPHit Planner Hand-
book. Darmstadt 2012
[12] www.minergie.ch
[13] www.2000watt.ch
[14] Swiss Engineer and Architect Association (SIA):
SIA Energy Efficiency Path. Zurich 2006
[15] Guideline 2010/2031/EU established by the
European Parliament and the Council on 19 May
2010
[16] Voss, Karsten; Musall, Eike: Nullenergiegebäude.
Munich 2011
3.20
31
Design and planning principles
General design issues
The urban, architectural and technical
design depends on a fine balance
between a subjective-intuitive and an
objective-analytical approach as well as
experience and science-based strate-
gies. In brief: a balance of building cul-
ture and science [1, 2] (fig. 4.1):
• Intuitive design takes a holistic
approach and works with associations
and experience. Building traditions,
particularly in the form of completed
and conceptual designs, form the
basis. The design process is often
spasmodic and lacking in structure,
and is therefore not always comprehen-
sible for persons who are less involved.
Due to the synthetic mind-set, the focus
is mainly on the design concept.
• Logical-analytical design is discursive
and theory-based, and works predomi-
nately with scientific methods. The
complexity of the design task is bro-
ken down into separate, rationally
manageable components. The design
process is structured and comprehen-
sible to all. A great deal of attention is
directed to the development of design
alternatives and their comparative
analyses. The generation and applica-
tion of general principles and design
guidelines is a further characteristic of
this strategy.
The greater part of the design process
takes place in a subconscious mind, in
the form of normal thinking patterns.
Especially in the case of design schemes
(still) without precedent, the use of a logi-
cal-analytical mind-set is absolutely
essential. In practice, a mixture of the
above-mentioned idealistic strategies is
applied, which generally complement
each other in a meaningful way:
• Neither of the extremes is applied in its
pure form in practice; every design
32
approach is therefore positioned some-
where between the two extremes.
• The intuitive approach is always
dependent on reflection and inspection
if the design concept includes criteria
that must be determined objectively, for
example the fulfilment of certain preset
targets, such as economic efficiency,
budget and time frame, and energy
performance values.
• At times when the application of objec-
tive-analytical principles is contradic-
tory or leads to conflicting goals, there
is a need for analysis, evaluation and
consideration, and this can seldom be
performed in an objective manner.
• In transitional phases, characterised by
rapid social and technological change,
previously acceptable solutions and
building traditions might, over time, be
called into question. Frequently, new
approaches to solutions have to then
be developed using the logical-analyti-
cal strategy. During the course of the
transformation process, new solutions
then gradually replace old paradigms
and traditions.
At a first glance, the Passive House con-
cept must definitely be categorised as
an objective-analytical thinking strategy
due to its scientific background. And that
was clearly the case in the initial phase.
The design principles of the Passive
House were still fairly rigid in Wolfgang
Feist’s dissertation [3] and the preliminary
research project [4] due to a lack of
know-how in design and construction.
It was not possible to fully explore the
available options and creative leeway
until more experience had been gath-
ered, i.e. the Passive House concept
had been tried and tested for new build-
ing types and design tasks, and all rele-
vant design parameters (e.g. [5, 6]) had
been systematically checked. A design
approach with mainly intuitive features
• General design issues
• Passive House design principles
• Solar building design in Passive Houses
• The importance of window placement
• Basic principles of Passive House
building services
• Design-based energy balance
• Impact of regional and urban climate
• Coordination of individual aspects
• Residential projects
therefore evolved at the same time. The
energy balance, using dynamic simula-
tions and the validated Passive House
Planning Package, has become estab-
lished as the key factor in the assessment
process in preference to the application
of the following long-established design
and planning principles. From a methodo-
logical design viewpoint, this insight is
fairly new and, with few exceptions [7],
has not yet been addressed in profes-
sional circles. As a consequence, the
function of principles in the design pro-
cess is being reassessed, taking into
account the conditional character of their
application.
Doubts about the optimization strategy
in the design
The word “optimization” is frequently used
in the context of energy-related design
issues. However, in most cases, this is a
consequence of unsatisfactory quality
(“average quality”) or vague energy tar-
gets that are used as a basis for competi-
tion designs or design presentations.
The real problem concerning the optimi-
zation strategy is in fact a very different
one and goes a lot deeper. In the case of
an architectural or urban design, there
are fewer specific problems, which can
easily be formulated in equations and
relations. In particular, the development
of the design concept and the overriding
spatial arrangement is considered a syn-
thetic process which cannot be broken
down analytically into separate subtasks.
It is therefore not really suited to the kind
of optimization processes usually applied
in engineering [8].
Furthermore, due to the precise target
values, it is not actually possible to “opti-
mise” a Passive House building from an
energy performance viewpoint. However,
in terms of the economic implementation,
there are always preliminary designs
which can be considered either very suit-
 General design issues

able, less suitable or even extremely Comparison of intuitive-synthetic and logical-analytical design
unsuitable. Naturally, the most suitable, Design strategy intuitive-synthetic logical-analytical
reasonable solutions are limited and not Mind-set subjective, associative, jumpy, objective, well-founded and comprehensi-
always easy to identify, whereas the num- idea-based ble, discursive, science-based
ber of unrewarding and absurd solutions Basis of know-how experience, approved, completed scientific research, theories,
is almost infinite [9]. and conceptual designs validation through metering
Use of know-how traditions, sample solutions, scientific texts, diagrams, design and
Conditional character of design principles typologies, anecdotes planning guidelines

Many design and planning principles are Design doctrine teacher-pupil relationship based on teacher-pupil relationship based on dia-
imitation, pictorial, associative, narrative logue and criticism, mediation of principles
expressed in association with an optimi-
zation approach. For example, the Design method use of sample solutions and typologies, development of design solutions based on
identification of a design idea the analysis of problems and the assess-
expression “energy-optimised design” ment of alternative solutions
[10, 11] often occurs in relation to maxi- Presentation design sketches, explanations, structural sketches and models, plans,
mizing the solar heat gain but also in presentation plans and models texts, diagrams, calculations, simulations
reference to the compactness of a build- 4.1
ing. However, technically speaking, this
presupposes that the energy demand of
a housing estate or a building is deter-
mined purely by a single design para-
meter. But this is undoubtedly not the
case. Why otherwise would one go to all
the trouble of establishing a complete
energy balance for a single building? The
aim of design and planning principles is
far more to illustrate the interdependen-
cies and provide assistance when it
comes to making decisions in the design
process by differentiating between impor-
tant and slightly less important factors of
influence [12].
Clearly, there are several design princi-
ples which coexist and of which not a a
single one demands exclusive status.
Thus, neither the design and planning
principles for solar building nor those for
compactness are absolutely essential
when considered separately. They tend
to be interdependent and complement
one another. Furthermore, the fact is that
all spatial design principles are depend-
ent on the energy performance of the
construction and technical systems
(e.g. as a whole in accordance with the
energy efficiency of the building) as well
as the climatic and urban conditions of
the project [13].

4.1 Intuitive-synthetic and objective-analytical ap-

proach, two different thinking strategies for pre-
paring a building design
4.2 Multi-family dwelling in Vienna (A) 2011,
querkraft architekten. Passive House buildings
can also be built on inner city plots (unfavoura-
ble orientation; shading) if they are sufficiently
compact.
a floor plan and section, scale 1:750
b west elevation
b 4.2
33
 Design and planning principles
Required Um,opaque [W/m2K]

1.0 Passive House design principles
0.9
The most fundamental task of the archi-
0.8 tect in planning a Passive House is the
0.7
coordination of energy-related compo-
nents to form an overall spatial concept.
0.6 Most of the principles are designed to
achieve an economic implementation of
0.5
the energy targets. They can be divided
0.4 into six main categories:
• reduction of the effort that is put into the
0.3 geometric building envelope (compact
0.2 design, simple geometries, limitation of
structural junctions)
0.1 • fulfilment of all requirements regarding
the quality and construction of the
0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5
opaque, insulated building envelope
Form factor Aweighted /TFA [-] using cost-efficient systems
EnEV 2009 Low Energy House • positioning and constructional incorpo-
Passive House ration of solar systems (windows, other
a
glazed areas, collectors, photovoltaics)
in the building envelope, in particular in
Frequency of overheating [%]
Space heat demand [kWh/m2a] and heat load [W/m2]
erected independently from the envelope
construction. In areas where this cannot
be achieved, for example due to struc-
tural complications, the junctions at the
meeting points with the building envelope
need to be considered carefully with
regard to potential thermal bridges and
airtightness. The aim of far-sighted plan-
ning is to avoid these junctions at an early
design stage or at least limit them to an
absolute minimum.
Due to the excellent insulation of the
building envelope, buffer rooms are, from
an energy efficiency point of view, almost
ineffective in Passive Houses. Their incor-
poration in the utilisation concept, in
terms of building physics, is always a
challenge and therefore usually too com-
plicated and expensive to consider [15].
Form factor
The area-specific costs of the building

25 15
consideration of the urban situation envelope are generally much higher than
concerning insolation those for interior building components.
20 12 • development of a mechanical ventila- They are further increased by the Passive
tion and heating concept appropriate House requirements with regard to ther-
for the design mal protection and airtightness, making
15 9 • positioning of plant rooms within or the cost difference appear even greater.
close to the thermal envelope ensuring Finally, the Passive House requirements
short runs for all building services sys- are also directly related to the surface
10 6
tems area of the thermal envelope: the larger
• development of an appropriate concept the envelope surface area is in relation to
to ensure power efficiency and good the useful floor area, the higher the insula-
5 3
summer climate conditions tion requirements for roofs, facades,
basement ceilings or building compo-
0 0 nents that are in contact with the ground.
1.7 1.9 2.1 2.3 2.5 2.7 2.9 3.1 Principle of thermal envelope The form factor is used to simplify this
Form factor Aweighted /TFA [-] and form factor relation: the smaller the total sum of enve-
heat demand, south heat demand, west lope area is in relation to the building vol-
heat load, south heat load, west The principle of the thermal envelope ume or the useful floor area, the lower the
overheating, south overheating, west requires designers to provide an exact heat loss of the building based on the
b definition of the building envelope’s assumption that the insulation plane of
geometry so that the latter can be exe- the building envelope is consistent
Space heat demand [kWh/m2a] and heat load [W/m2 ]

Frequency of overheating [%]

30 24
cuted as concisely and accurately as throughout. Furthermore, the degree of
25 20
possible. In order to minimize heat losses compactness has a significant, possibly
through transmission and air leakage, it is the most significant, impact on the build-
at first necessary to determine precisely ing’s embodied energy.
20 16 the insulation and airtightness layers sur- There are a variety of definitions to
rounding the conditioned volume. The express the degree of compactness:
15 12 junctions to unheated space, such as • The A / V ratio describes the relationship
attics and basements, as well as between the envelope surface area A
entrances and exits to underground car and the enclosed volume V. This factor
10 8
parks and other ancillary rooms that are is fairly imprecise since it also includes
located outside the thermal envelope, are large spaces that are hidden within the
5 4 particularly difficult to master. In many volume and not used, such as jamb
cases, it is worth thinking about whether it wall areas or voids.
might be easier and cheaper to include • The A / TFA ratio expresses the relation
0 0
these in the thermal envelope [14]. between the envelope surface area and
1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6
Form factor Aweighted /TFA [-]
Unconditioned space (e.g. balconies, the treated floor area TFA.
covered access corridors, unheated • The Aweighted /TFA ratio is based on the
heat demand, south heat demand, west
heat load, south heat load, west buffer rooms, staircases, basements and weighted envelope surface area Aweighted
overheating, south overheating, west underground car parks) should be geo- which uses a default value of 0.5 to
c 4.3 metrically separated and, if possible, express that the heat loss of areas in

34
 Principle of thermal envelope and form factor

contact with the basement or the 1.2

1 .0
ground is lower than that of other sur- 0.9
faces. The areas in total are then put in 0.8
-1 ] 0.7
relation with the treated floor area [m
io 0.6
rat
(TFA). This ratio is directly proportional A/
V
0.5 4.5
to the heat loss of the thermal envelope 4.0
0.4 3.5
and expresses the impact the building’s 3.0
form or degree of compactness has on 0.3 2.5
the resulting transmission heat loss.
2.0 [–]
This is the value that has therefore been atio
0.2 Ar
chosen for the following observations. 1.5 /TF
d
hte
Figure 4.4 illustrates the form factors of A we
ig

various building types in residential 1.0

building. The difference of effort that
has to be put into the thermal envelope 0.7
4.4
of a spaciously laid out bungalow and a
very compact block development
equals a factor of approximately five.

Based on the assumption that the insula-

tion plane is consistent throughout the
building, there is an almost linear relation-
ship between the annual space heat
demand (or the heat load) and the
Aweighted /TFA ratio of buildings. The influ- Loggias, central position Loggias, corner position Balconies, set in front of facade
ence of the form factor is very pro- thermal bridges: 40 m thermal bridges: 30 m thermal bridges: 20 m
nounced in all energy standards of build- A weighted /TFA = 1.54 A weighted /TFA = 1.39 A weighted /TFA = 1.28
ings; in the case of Passive House build-
reduction factor reduction factor reduction factor
ings, however, it is greater than in build- for overshadowing: 0.51 for overshadowing: 0.55 for overshadowing: 0.70
ings designed according to EnEV. This is
due to the fact that the use of a mechani- space heat space heat space heat
demand: 17.0 kWh/m2a demand: 14.7 kWh/m2a demand: 10.2 kWh/m2a
cal ventilation system with heat recovery
4.5
clearly reduces the specific ventilation
heat loss in comparison to buildings that 4.3 Energy performance values of residential build- 4.5 Comparison of different ways of incorporating
only use window ventilation or extractor ings with different form factors in relation to their loggias and balconies. On the assumption that
energy standard the insulation of the thermal envelope is continu-
fans. As a result, the relative significance a required mean U-value of the opaque enve- ous throughout, there are significant differences
of transmission heat loss through the ther- lope components to achieve a preset space between the form factors, the junction lengths
mal envelope increases even more dra- heat demand, which is: affected by thermal bridges (green) and the re-
80 kWh/m2a for buildings planned acc. to sulting space heat demands.
matically (fig. 6.4, p. 69). EnEV, 4.6 Building with staggered loggias on the ground
In order to illustrate the impact of the form 60 kWh/m2a for low-energy buildings and and first floor. This arrangement leads to a dete-
15 kWh/m2a for Passive House buildings rioration of the form factor, overshadowing of the
factor, it is firstly necessary to apply a b Impact of form factor on the annual specific main windows and lots of junctions affected by
consistent quality of thermal insulation. space heat demand, the daily average maxi- thermal bridges. A lot of extra effort would have
However, as already explained, Passive mum heat load and the frequency of over- been required to meet Passive House standard.
heating h (ϑ > 25 °C) in the case of a single- 4.7 Multi-family dwelling in Vienna (A) 2012, Adolf
House buildings are for the most part family dwelling built according to Passive Krischanitz. The loggias in this case were built
designed according to soundly based House standard using bracket-mounted, thermally separated
c like b, but for a multi-family dwelling concrete elements. The form factor of the ther-
target values. The requirements must 4.4 Typical form factors for different types of resi- mal envelope is not affected by this arrange-
therefore be fulfilled independent of the dential building ment; the lengths of the fixtures are short.
form factor. This, among other things,
has the effect that building types that are
less compact, such as detached single-
family dwellings, are not privileged as is
frequently the case when using other
standards. And this has a considerable
impact on the design approach. What is
of interest here is the constructional and
technical input which is required to (only
just) meet the target values. In very sim-
ple terms, this would mean applying the
necessary insulation quality to the thermal
envelope. All other energy-related para-
meters, e.g. U-value and g-value of the
windows, window area and orientation,
heat generation rate of the mechanical
4.6 4.7
35
Design and planning principles
Form factor A(weighted) /TFA [-]

4.0
building depth [m] ventilation unit etc. remain constant. In then determined in the architectural
6 7.5 order to make a meaningful comparison, design – naturally, this is not the only
3.5
9 12
15 target values are also determined for aspect that defines the shape, since it is
3.0 buildings certified according to EnEV and also dependent on the internal structure
Low Energy Houses [16] (fig. 4.3 a, p. 34). of the building. The details can often not
2.5 According to these conditions, the fact be perceived until the floor plans and
for all standards is that the requirements sections have been completed.
2.0 concerning the energy performance There are endless opportunities, brought
of the constructional and technical about by architectural and spatial deci-
1.5 components increase as the building sions, to change a potentially compact
becomes less compact. Naturally, the building into a building that is less com-
1.0
requirements of Passive House buildings pact from an energy efficiency point of
are much higher than those of other view. Among these are loggias or inte-
0.5
I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX
standards. Whereas the average grated balconies, open, but incorporated
Number of storeys U-values of opaque building compo- staircases and passageways, systematic
a nents in a very compact Passive House elements in the facade either set back or
are classified as a typical low-energy protruding, as well as a variety of cutouts
Form factor A(weighted) /TFA [-]

4.0
number of storeys
I II construction (with U > 0.18 W/m2K), the that can be made in the roof zone. These
3.5 III IV requirements for buildings with a very intrusions are a problem when they are
VI VIII
unfavourable form factor are very high used merely as a design feature and do
3.0
(with U < 0.08 W/m2K). In practice, the not bring about substantial advantages in
2.5
majority of buildings stand between these any other respect, for example in terms of
two extremes (fig. 6.9, p. 72). layout (fig. 4.5, p. 35).
2.0 Nevertheless, it is indisputable that there
Guidelines for a compact design are very few possibilities for compensation
1.5 On an urban level, the prerequisites for a in the architectural design unless the pre-
structure’s degree of compactness are de- requisites for a compact structure have
1.0 termined by the choice of building type already been laid down in the urban
and construction method (fig. 4.4, p. 35). design.
0.5 The most important design parameters for
6.0 7.5 9.0 10.5 12.0 13.5 15.0 residential building are (fig. 4.8):
Building depth [m]
b • the total volume of the structure Principle of homogeneity
• the number of storeys (single-storey
Form factor A(weighted) /TFA [-]

5.0 buildings are generally always at a dis-
number of storeys
4.5 I II advantage; buildings with more than
III IV four storeys achieve hardly any further
4.0 VI VIII
improvement)
3.5 • the depth of the building (depths below
7 m not feasible; buildings deeper than
3.0
12 to 15 m lead to interior zones that
2.5 can hardly be used without artificial
light)
2.0
• the length of the building (single-family
1.5 dwellings and blocks are unfavourable;
1.0
linear buildings exceeding lengths of 40
to 60 m do not lead to further advan-
0.5 tages)
5 10 20 40 80 160 320
Building length [m]
• roof design
c 4.8
The interdependence of these aspects
also applies to non-residential buildings.
4.8 Impact of different design parameters on the
However, the threshold values differ
form factor of a building according to the type of building and the
a number of storeys interior layout of space. Due to their sheer
b building depth
c building length size, non-residential buildings are often
4.9 Application of the principle of homogeneity and more compact than residential buildings.
the corresponding rules concerning thermal-
bridge-free and air/wind-tight constructions at
The requirements concerning the energy
the base of the building performance of the thermal envelope are
a base detail of a solid construction then simply not quite as high.
b base detail of a light timber construction
1 bottom brick course made of porous concrete The urban design can only provide the
2 casing bead, thermally separated conditions for a compact structure of
3 waterproof membrane, 30 cm above ground
4 perimeter insulation
buildings. The shape of the building and
5 sill plate, clearance to ground at least 5 cm the geometry of the thermal envelope is
Whereas the principle concerning the
thermal envelope and form factor is
intended to provide a clear geometry of
the thermal envelope and its surface effi-
ciency, the principle of thermal homoge-
neity focuses on a consistent quality of
the thermal envelope and junctions in
terms of energy performance [17]. This
means producing a homogenous quality
of insulation and airtightness throughout
all envelope surfaces and making sure
that the detail solutions at all junctions are
executed according to the principles and
without interruptions and offsets in the
exterior layers of the building. The aim is
to ensure the same high quality of the sur-
face areas at junctions. Closer attention
should, in this case, be paid to all installa-
tions, such as windows and doors, and
penetrations of load-bearing components
through the insulation. The following rules
are generally applicable [18]:
Prevention rule
Fittings and penetrations that are identi-
fied as possible thermal bridges or
sources of air leakage at the design and
planning stage should be eliminated or at
least reduced to a minimum of solvable
points.

36

Junction rule
The layer of insulation must be continued
at all junctions without gaps and in the
same thickness. The same applies to all
layers providing airtightness. All construc-
tional elements, such as windows, are to
be placed in the same layer as the insula-
tion. It is also beneficial to install these
elements in such a way that the insulation
can be continued over the top (e.g. win-
dow frame) or added to the rear (e.g.
shutter box).
Penetrations
In the case of inevitable interruptions to
the insulation plane (e.g. wall-to-floor
junctions, structural connection points for
exterior wall cladding), high performance
materials with low thermal conductivity
should be used, such as aerated con-
crete, foam glass, wood, stainless steel
or PVC. In the case of very heavy loads,
it may be beneficial to change a linear
thermal bridge into several point thermal
bridges. Building components that pene-
trate the air and wind-tight layer must be
sealed using suitable materials (e.g. air-
tight grommets).
Insulation concept
Based on the course of the insulation
plane, it is first of all necessary, when
developing the insulation concept, to
determine the structure of the building
envelope in terms of building method,
type of construction, insulation material
and the most fundamental standard
details. Then all the junction details have
to be prepared and illustrated in drawing.
In doing so, it is important to consider the
practicability of the work processes and
the sequencing of trades.
In a next step, the various insulation
systems have to be assigned to the
appropriate trade and put into a compre-
hensible text for tendering. During the
construction supervision phase, careful
attention must be paid to the correct
installation of insulation material; joints, for
example, should not exceed 2 to 4 mm.
All work activities must be documented,
and assurance must be given that the
materials specified are actually installed
on site.
Thermal bridge-free construction
In order to relieve the planner of the build-
ing envelope from having to prepare
elaborate calculations, the Passive House
Institute has developed a pragmatic defi-
nition: a construction is declared to be
thermal bridge-free if the external psi-
value (thermal bridge loss coefficient, ψe)
1 3
2 5
3
4
a b
measured at all junctions and all other
areas lacking homogeneity in the build-
ing envelope equals or is lower than
0.01 W/mK. The junctions concerned can
nevertheless still end up with positive val-
ues, however, they should be negligibly
small on condition that the heat loss of the
building envelope is calculated using
external dimensions. The only thermal
bridges which then need to be taken into
account are those with ψe > 0.01 W/mK.
A range of recent publications about typi-
cal thermal bridges in Passive House
constructions represent an important
planning tool [19]. In some cases, it
makes sense and is economically inter-
esting to make the extra effort involved in
calculating all thermal bridges individu-
ally. The result is that both positive and
negative psi-values are possible, which
are then offset against each other. As a
consequence, the insulation requirements
of surface areas are frequently lower.
Air and wind-tightness concept
This concept should be developed in the
same way as the insulation concept. It is
designed to ensure a good working order
of the air and wind-tight layer in the sur-
face as well as at all junctions and pene-
trations. The assignment of the work
activity to the appropriate trade is even
more important in this case since sealing
work is frequently regarded as a burden
by the various trades people. Alongside
defining the air and wind-tightness sys-
tems, it is necessary to clarify the mutual
compatibility of materials and the suitabil-
ity of the base material, which might pos-
sibly require preliminary treatment.
Suggestions for the design and construc-
tion stage
Special attention should always be paid
to the implementation of the air and wind-
tightness concept - during the design
stage as well as on site:
Principle of homogeneity
4
4.9
• The work schedule must be organised
to accommodate the blower door pres-
sure test. This should be carried out at
a time when, on the one hand, all fix-
tures and airtight membranes are fully
installed; on the other hand, the airtight
layer must still be exposed so that any
remedial action can be taken.
• On the day of the blower door test, the
planner should not simply be satisfied
with good test results, but should sys-
tematically look for air leakages at junc-
tions that are critical in terms of building
physics (e.g. roof-to-wall junctions in
timber frame constructions). Any gaps
identified can then be remedied prior to
covering up the airtightness layer.
• Building components which are hidden
once the building has been completed
(e.g. around the screed, behind instal-
lations, flights of stairs and wall fixtures)
are easily forgotten during the course of
sealing work. Sometimes it is necessary
to install a parge coat or airtight tape in
these places.
• Any penetrations through the airtight
membrane caused by installations
(e.g. basement ceiling, roof) must be
planned and executed with utmost
care.
• Airtightness must also be ensured
between the building envelope and the
staircase, or any other areas that are
not heated.
• For noise protection purposes, airtight-
ness must also be ensured between
apartments and any other units (e.g.
classrooms, offices).
• Because the blower door pressure test
does not ensure wind-tightness in the
same way, additional site inspections
are absolutely necessary. In particular,
the importance of installing the wind-
tight membrane accurately makes on
site supervision mandatory, especially
if the areas concerned are to be cov-
ered up.
37
 Design and planning principles
Annual specific space heat demand [kWh/m2a]

20
Solar building design in Passive ing system (Uw-value, g-value), has a
18
Houses significant impact on the amount of heat
16 gain, but also the amount of heat loss.
14 Passive Houses are almost always sub-
ject to high solar heat gains, and this Initially, the most fundamental aspect is
12
does not necessarily mean that they have the quality of the window pane (fig. 4.10).
10 large proportions of glass. As is always Double glazing does not suffice to meet
8 the case with the energy balance, it is all Passive House standards. Large glazed
double IG, standard (Ug = 1.3; g = 0.6) about the relationship between heat gain areas can lead to a reduction of the heat
6
triple IG, standard (Ug = 0.7; g = 0.5) and heat loss. demand only if the glazing is high-quality,
triple IG, solar (Ug = 0.6; g = 0.6)
4 In the first instance, it is most important to south-oriented and subject to very little
quadruple IG (Ug = 0.45; g = 0.58)
2 reduce the heat loss – otherwise this overshadowing. Nevertheless, on closer
would mean that the motto “easy come, examination, there is also considerable
0
10 % 20 % 30 % 40 % 50% 60% 70% easy go” had been adopted. The inten- leeway for other solutions so long as com-
Proportion of south-facing windows (in relation to facade) tion of the next step is to secure the pensation (e.g. better thermal insulation)
4.10 achievable and usable solar heat gain is made in other areas. Passive House
Frequency of overheating [%]

16 16
Space heat demand [kWh/m2a] and heat load [W/m2]

according to its availability. This, in turn, buildings can thus be completed with a
14 14 is determined by the urban situation very little, but also a very large amount of
regarding solar radiation and by the solar aperture (fig. 4.10). The effect a var-
12 12
design of the building. iation of the quality and quantity of the
10 10 glazing units has on the energy perfor-
Quantity and quality of glass mance of the building can only be
8 8 Depending on the design of the building, assessed by taking full consideration of
6 6
the proportion of windows differs signifi- the design and the energy balance. As is
cantly. The effects of varying the window the case in the PHPP, it is therefore nec-
4 4 sizes and the energy performance of the essary to determine all matters concern-
heat load glazing system are manifold: ing the aperture in great detail, including
2 space heat demand 2
overheating
• On the one hand, the glazed areas are the window pane, the window frame, its
0 0 the surface components with the high- installation and the conditions related to
0 45 90 135 180 225 270 315 360 est specific heat loss. Increasing the the geographical and solar parameters,
north west south east north size of the windows, raises the heat loss such as orientation and overshadowing.
4.11 through transmission.
Frequency of overheating [%]

18 18
Space heat demand [kWh/m2a] and heat load [W/m2]

• On the other hand, the passive solar Impact of orientation

16 16 heat gain achieved through windows The solar heat gain that can be achieved
14 14 should not be underestimated. This too at south-facing windows in winter is much
increases in proportion to the size. greater than at windows facing east, west
12 12 • In a first approximation, the usability of or north. In summer, on the other hand,
10 10 solar heat gain is dependent on the re- the undesired solar heat gain at east and
lationship between free heat (internal west-facing windows is a lot higher than
8 8
and solar heat gain) and the total heat at windows facing south. Thermal solar
6 6 loss of the building. An increase in solar collectors and photovoltaics achieve the
heat gain means that the proportion of greatest gains when they are south-facing
4 4
heat which cannot be used to substitute and mounted at an angle of between 15
heat load
2 space heat demand 2 the thermal requirements of the building and 60 degrees.
overheating becomes larger. From an energy point of view, preference
0 0
• The energy performance of the window should therefore be given to a south ori-
0 2.5 5 7.5 10 12.5 15 17.5 20
D/H ratio [-] pane and the frame, or the framed glaz- entation of windows and active solar sys-
4.12

4.10 Study concerning the quality and quantity of

glazing in a south-oriented Passive House. The
quality of the glazing unit and the proportion of
windows in the south-facing facade are varied.
Increasing the window surface area only leads
to a lower heat demand in the case of high-
performance, triple-glazed windows (WSV –
Wärmeschutzverordnung = German Thermal
Insulation Regulation)
4.11 Dependencies between the annual space heat
demand, the heat load and the frequency of
overheating (> 25 °C) on the orientation of the
building’s principal facade (terrace house built
according to Passive House standard)
4.12 Impact of overshadowing caused by neighbour-
ing buildings on the space heat demand, the
heat load and the frequency of overheating. The
D/H-ratio (distance to height) of a linear building
placed parallel to the main facade is varied.
4.13 4.14
38
 Solar building design in Passive Houses

tems. Simulations show that Passive
Houses react more sensitively to this
design aspect than low energy houses or
existing buildings. Through the position-
ing and shaping of the building, important
decisions concerning the orientation and
distribution of windows are already made
at a very early design stage.
Nevertheless, most buildings usually have
windows facing in several different direc-
tions. Hence, the building orientation
always has an influence on the spatial
distribution of windows in all facades and
possibly also the roof surfaces. Roof
lights can really only be determined in
accordance with the design and in close
coordination with the room usage and the
internal layout of the building (floor plans,
sections).
The impact of the orientation of windows
on the energy balance is very pro-
nounced when only considering a single
window or a linear building in which the
windows are concentrated in the main
facade (fig. 4.11). The influence on the
energy balance is less obvious in the
case of buildings with an undirected form
(e.g. cube-shaped houses, perimeter
block developments). The orientation of
the building is totally irrelevant in undi-
rected schemes with an even distribution
of windows throughout all facades. [20]
ated by trees is usually a desirable fea-
ture for exterior as well as interior space.
Thus, for Passive House buildings, broad-
leaf trees are a very suitable design ele-
ment for improving the thermal conditions
of space, both inside and outside, as well
as the micro and macro climate of the
site. [21]
Solar concept
It makes sense in the design of every
Passive House building to determine the
position and size of the solar apertures
(windows, solar facades, transparent
thermal insulation systems, solar collec-
tors, photovoltaic modules) in a creative
and iterative process. The climatic and
urban conditions always have a key func-
tion in this context. Among other things,
they determine whether the focus of the
solar concept is to be directed towards a
winter or summer situation. Due to the
high costs of transparent or translucent
surfaces and the expense and effort
involved with sun shading devices and
cooling systems, it is usually better not to
enlarge the window area too much. From
a strategic point of view, it is important to
understand that, in the case of sufficiently
compact Passive House buildings, unfa-
vourable conditions of solar radiation can
be offset by a clever distribution of win-
dows and/or a moderate improvement of
the thermal insulation.
And, last but not least, it is important to
consider the way in which solar systems
characterise the appearance of contem-
porary architecture. Their creative use
applies not only to windows and other
glazing units but increasingly to facade
and roof integrated solar thermal collec-
tors and photovoltaic systems. In some
cases, these have already attained the
status of design-dominating features
(fig. 4.13 – 4.15).
4.13 Plus-energy multi-family dwelling in Bennau
(CH) 2009, grab architekten.
Full-storey solar collectors in the south facade
covering a total area of 150 m2 together with a
25 m3 large seasonal heat store have been in-
stalled to make active use of solar radiation. The
entire south-facing roof surface is covered with
260 m2 of thin-film photovoltaic modules.
4.14 Office building in Winterthur (CH) 2007, Beat
Kämpfen.
Salt hydrate latent heat storage panels and full-
storey triple glazing units have been integrated
in the south facade to make passive use of solar
energy. 485 m2 of roof-integrated photovoltaic
modules generate more electricity throughout
the year than is consumed by building services
and occupants.
4.15 Community centre in Ludesch (A) 2006, Her-
mann Kaufmann.
The canopy roof is made up of 350 m2 of
translucent photovoltaic modules (18 kWp;
yield: 16,000 kWh/a)

Impact of overshadowing
Windows can be overshadowed by the
topography (mountain or hill ranges, the
edge of a forest), neighbouring buildings
or objects related to the building itself,
such as cantilevered parts, elements
either set back or protruding, as well as
the window reveal itself. All these aspects
lead to a reduction in solar heat gain
(fig. 4.12). Whereas this kind of over-
shadowing is not desirable in winter,
since it prevents solar radiation from
entering the interior space and causes
the heat demand and heat load to rise, it
helps to protect rooms from overheating
in summer.
Trees and other plants are considered
as semi-transparent shading elements.
Their transparency for solar radiation is
between 70 and 90 % in winter (broadleaf
trees without foliage) and between 5 and
40 % in summer (broadleaf trees with
foliage). These values vary depending on
the season and the type of tree. In the
case of Passive House buildings, the
shading provided through broadleaf trees
is fairly straightforward, since only the
tree without foliage has to be accounted
for due to the shorter heating period. In
summer, on the other hand, shade cre-
4.15
39
Design and planning principles

Solid construction with composite thermal insulation system

20°C The importance of window placement

The development of detail solutions for

–10°C
windows and other glazed openings has
a significant impact not only on the
appearance of the building. The way in
which they are fitted also affects aspects
of construction and building physics.
Unfavourable window position Favourable window position
psi-value of installation (Ψ): 0.104 W/mK psi-value of installation (Ψ): – 0.007 W/mK Choice of window frame
Uw-value (installed): 1.074 W/m2K Uw-value (installed): 0.755 W/m2K
surface temperature frame/ wall: 17.1 °C surface temperature frame/ wall: 18.6 °C Due to the large variety of window prod-
Space heat demand for standard building with Space heat demand for standard building with ucts and other glazing systems (e.g.
Passive House insulation and energy-efficient Passive House insulation and energy-efficient
ventilation unit:
framed glazing), the initial step in the
ventilation unit:
single-family home: 18.6 kWh/m2a single-family home: 12.8 kWh/m2a detailing of openings should include
multi-family home: 16.1 kWh/m2a multi-family home: 12.4 kWh/m2a which kind of frame and, more precisely,
which product is best suited to the task.
Brettstapel wall with lightweight, insulated cladding 20°C
The depth and the width of the frame,
including the profile, are fundamental
–10°C aspects that determine the overall
appearance of the window in its opening.
The amount of solar gain is also depend-
ent on the frame. Furthermore, the design
of the frame determines the extent as to
which the window can be wrapped in
Unfavourable window position Favourable window position insulation (either on the rear side or on
psi-value of installation (Ψ): 0.062 W/mK psi-value of installation (Ψ): 0.002 W/mK the top of the frame). In terms of creative,
Uw-value (installed): 0.935 W/m2K Uw-value (installed): 0.778 W/m2K
surface temperature frame/ wall: 17.5 °C surface temperature frame/ wall: 17.5 °C ecological and technical viewpoints, the
Space heat demand for standard building with Space heat demand for standard building with frame material and surface finish are also
Passive House insulation and energy-efficient Passive House insulation and energy-efficient
ventilation unit: ventilation unit:
important aspects.
single-family home: 17.6 kWh/m2a single-family home: 13.9 kWh/m2a The energy performance values are also
multi-family home: 15.1 kWh/m2a multi-family home: 13.0 kWh/m2a of great importance when choosing the
4.16 window product since they have a con-
siderable impact on the energy balance.
These include the U-value of the frame
and the glazing, the g-value of the glass
and the psi-value of the spacer.

Window position
According to the principle of homogene-
ity, the windows in Passive House build-
ings should always sit in the same layer
as the insulation, since this is the only way
to ensure a good continuation of the insu-
lation plane. The ideal position in the mid-
dle of the wall insulation is however fairly
difficult to accomplish due to the window
brackets. In the case of solid masonry
a b 4.17 walls, a solution, now established as com-
mon practice in Passive House buildings,
is to fit the window immediately in front of
the exterior wall. This involves structurally
supporting the window either with steel
angles and/or a bottom bracket using
either a timber batten or high strength
insulation board, which can function as a
fixing base. The heat loss rises considera-
bly if the window is positioned in the same
plane as the masonry wall (fig. 4.16).
The same applies to timber constructions;
however, in this case, the position of the
window can be determined more freely
since the actual fixing is not limited to a
single position. The detailing of the
a b 4.18
40

wooden jamb, header and subsill
(I-shaped, glulam or composite insulated
beams), determine which position is best
for fixing the window and connecting up
to the insulation plane.
Nevertheless, depending on the intention
of the design, it is also possible to set the
window on the inside of the wall (e.g.
within the installation plane of a timber
frame wall) or very far on the outside, even
flush with exterior wall surfaces (fig. 4.17).
In all of these cases, it is necessary to
determine the thermal bridge value at the
window edges and enter it into the PHPP
window worksheet. When the windows
are set flush with the exterior wall surface,
protection against driving rain has to be
considered.
The position of the window in the wall is
closely related to the amount of shade cre-
ated by the reveal. Setting the window
deep into the reveal leads to a considera-
ble reduction of solar gain - this may how-
ever be desirable in summer. The opposite
occurs if an exterior position is chosen.
However, the reduced depth may be
cause for a creative conflict if the neces-
sary shading device is to be integrated
into the wall. The space for a suitable con-
nection of the insulation is simply not avail-
able in these circumstances.
a b
a b
Window reveal design
In order to ensure a continuous layer of
insulation around the building, the out-
side of the window frame should be
wrapped with insulation. In refurbishment
projects this detail solution changes the
position and appearance of the reveal
considerably. If the openings are set out
on a grid, displacements occur in the
facade layout, which are frequently diffi-
cult to put right.
Angled window reveals on the inside and
outside can improve the solar gain and
daylight conditions. There is great leeway
in this regard since the isothermal lines
are diverted towards the window here
anyway (fig. 4.19 b). The systematic use
of this strategy provides new opportuni-
ties for the facade design (fig. 4.19 a).
Integration of solar shading systems
The development of the window details
should also include the constructional
and creative integration of shading
devices. There is a range of ready-made
system solutions for some situations.
In some of these, the position of the
shading device forms the basis for the
further development of independent
design elements, such as the window
frame (fig. 4.20).
The importance of window placement
4.16 Comparison between an unfavourable (left side)
and a favourable (right side) position of a Pas-
sive House window in a solid construction (top)
and a lightweight timber construction (bottom)
4.17 Refurbishment of a single-family dwelling in
Kolding (DK) 2010, Sofie Thorning. The building,
including the roof, has been wrapped in a new
skin made of glass fibre reinforced PVC panels.
The same material has been used for the frames
that are set flush with the exterior walls; fixed
glass is used in all other transparent surface
areas.
a elevation
b detail section, scale 1:20
4.18 Multi-family dwelling in Wolfurt (A) 2001, Ger-
hard Zweier. Solid construction with facades
made of prefabricated timber frame elements;
the windows are placed in the installation zone,
flush with the interior surface. The window
frames are made of wood; the casement has a
core insulation of PUR recyclate.
a elevation
b detail section, scale 1:20
4.19 Refurbishment of an office building in Bozen (I)
2006, Michael Tribus Architecture.
The angled window reveals are a creative meas-
ure to improve the light conditions inside. The
windows are installed in the insulation plane.
The thermal bridge at the window-to-wall junc-
tion is minor despite the reduction of the insula-
tion thickness.
a elevation of the facade
b detail section
c illustration of isotherms
4.20 Town terrace houses in Munich (D) 2006, Rainer
Vallentin. The window frames protruding from
the facade are not only a special feature, they
are also designed to incorporate a roller blind
without reducing the thickness of the thermal
insulation. There are no thermal bridges at the
windows.
a elevation of the facade
b detail section
c illustration of isotherms
20°C
-10°C
c 4.19
c 4.20
41
Design and planning principles
Basic principles of
Passive House building services
The spatial arrangement of building ser-
vices systems, such as the location of
plant rooms and the layout of vertical and
horizontal distribution systems, is primar-
ily the architect‘s task. The spatial integra-
tion of building services requires the
development of a system similar to that of
the construction or the internal circulation
of the building. The actual technical
a design, on the other hand, should be
prepared by specialist planners.
1
Location of the plant rooms within
or close to the thermal envelope
The location of the building services is
closely related to the principle of the ther-
mal envelope. A general decision has to
be made as to whether the technical sys-
tems (e.g. mechanical ventilation unit,
heat generator, cooling system) are to be
2 placed inside or outside the building
envelope. In a Passive House, it makes
3
sense to install the technical equipment
inside the thermal envelope, for example
1 roof top load-bearing structure in an insulated basement room (fig. 4.21
2 extension thermal envelope
3 basement plant room, shafts and 4.24):
and ducts
air supply ducts • The airtightness concept is fairly simple
b 4.21 because only a few penetrations need
to be made airtight, such as those for
the services connections, the fresh air
and waste air ducts and possibly brine
pipes. Complicated penetrations for
cables can also be avoided.
• The heat loss through heat generation,
storage and distribution is much lower
when the heating system is placed
inside the thermal envelope.
• If the plant room is located close to a
vertical shaft the lengths of the horizon-
tal runs can be reduced considerably.
If the conditions above cannot be met,
the plant room should at least be posi-
extract zone supply air zone transfer zone
tioned close to openings in a vertical
4.22 shaft in order to minimise the lengths of
horizontal runs outside the thermal enve-
lope. Plant rooms that are not inside the
thermal envelope can either be placed in
the basement, next to the building as a
kind of extension or on the roof as a
superstructure.
a simpler and more low-tech in recent years.
Principle of short runs
In Passive House buildings, it is usually
not necessary to place radiators beneath
windows. The ventilation valves do also
not necessarily have to be fitted close to
the facade. As a consequence, all vertical
and horizontal distribution runs for the
b heating and ventilation units can be
4.23
42
placed in the core of the building. The
short runs of the distribution lines and
ducts resulting from this arrangement are
beneficial not only with regard to costs
and space but also energy loss and the
requirement for auxiliary power. Because
the PHPP does not allow default values
for pipe runs and heat loss through distri-
bution, these potentials for improvement
are easily perceived in the energy bal-
ance. This is a fairly significant aspect of
the Passive House standard. If this were
not the case, the high energy efficiency of
the thermal envelope and the primary
building services would be hampered by
the secondary services involving the sup-
ply of heat, i.e. storage, distribution and
transfer.
Air zones
Initially, the separation of the building into
air zones is a sorting procedure which is
very much dependent on the user and the
layout of space:
• All rooms that require a direct supply of
fresh air are assigned to the supply air
zone. In a residential building, these
should include all living and dining
rooms, recreation space and bed-
rooms.
• The extract zone includes all rooms
where there is a need to remove mois-
ture and smells, such as kitchens, bath-
rooms, toilets, shower and utility rooms.
• The intermediate or transfer zones are
the areas or rooms through which the
air is drawn, i.e. between the supply air
zone and the extract zone. There are no
special requirements for these rooms.
The air flow is achieved through transfer
paths, such as gaps beneath doors, at
the door head or through overflow
valves.
The aim is to ensure an even supply of
fresh air throughout all rooms and at the
same time remove smells and moisture
close to where they occur most. The
layout of air zones forms the basis for
designing the air duct system (fig. 4.22).
Cascade ventilation system
The ventilation concepts tried and tested
in Passive House buildings have become
Supply air is now, for example, only sup-
plied to individual rooms and bedrooms,
whereas the living and dining rooms are
considered as extended transfer zones.
As a consequence, it has been possible to
reduce the duct runs, the air volume and
the power consumed by fans without
changing the indoor air quality. However,
 Design principles for Passive House building services

this concept requires a separation of the Or, is it necessary or possibly prefera- very much dependent on the number of
building’s heating and ventilation system, ble to completely separate the two sys- internal heat sources. The consumption
which is, in actual fact, recommended tems, ventilation and heating? of electricity has a great impact in this
anyway. • Which criteria are most important in regard, since a large proportion of the
regard of the building services concept, power consumed is dissipated into the
Served and servant rooms such as preferred energy carrier, avail- rooms as waste heat. The concept of
The bundling of building services in the able reserve capacities, low investment, power efficiency is therefore a prerequi-
floor plan affects the spatial principle of operation or maintenance costs? site for all passive cooling strategies.
served and servant rooms. The objective This is even more pronounced when an
is to free all of the main rooms (served Concept of power efficiency energy-efficient active cooling system
rooms) from technical equipment. This In Passive House buildings, clients, archi- is required, as is frequently the case in
design principle can be implemented by tects and specialist planners are jointly non-residential buildings.
making use of different zones or servant responsible for the successful implemen- • On the other hand, the internal heat
elements, such as independent room tation of the power efficiency concept. It gains of a Passive House contribute
segments (e.g. sanitary cells, shafts), includes fitting out the building with low- immensely towards heating the building
which function as a kind of anchor in the power electrical appliances, cookers, in winter. The heat load of Passive
floor plan (fig. 4.23). work equipment (e.g. computers, servers, House buildings will presumably rise, in
monitors, printers), lighting, cooling sys- particular due to the more efficient use
Ventilation and heating concept tems and all building services systems of electricity. This means that, in future,
The development of a ventilation and (e.g. pumps, fans, automatic control). it will be necessary to provide the cor-
heating concept in coordination with cli- By choosing suitable components, it is responding reserve capacities.
ents, architects and specialist planners is usually possible to reduce the power • A high degree of power efficiency is
a requirement for every Passive House demand, in comparison to the average required to cover the high self-cover-
building. The following issues need to be level today, by a factor of 1.5 – 5. Along- age rate and future in-house storage
considered in this regard: side the immediate impact on the primary facilities when striving for a zero-energy
• Which rooms are to be assigned to energy demand, the effects of power concept.
which air zone and how are the air vol- consumption on the thermal conditions • In particular situations, it is possible to
umes to be balanced efficiently? of the building in summer and winter achieve synergy by using the waste
• Is the building to be heated by the sup- demand that preliminary investigations heat from spatially concentrated appli-
ply air exclusively or should radiators be made (fig. 4.25): ances with a high power demand (e.g.
be added for an extra supply of heat? • The summer climate of the building is server rooms, refrigerated counters).
Specific heat loss [kWh/(m2TFA·a)]

24h average in summer [W/m2]

14 6
EnEV 2002/2009 appliances
Passive House lighting
12 Passive House + solar collector plant persons
(50–60 % heating of DHW) evaporation
4
10

2
6

4
0
2

0
courtyard detached terrace house terrace house block bar-shaped -2
house house end middle 4 units per floor house conventional improved efficient
a 4.25
Specific heat loss [kWh/(m2TFA·a)]

14
EnEV 2002/2009 Passive House + compact ventilation unit
Passive House Passive House + compact ventilation unit
12 + solar collector plant 4.21 Location of the plant room in relation to the
Passive House + solar collector plant
thermal envelope
(50–60% heating of DHW)
a inside
10 b outside, as close as possible to the vertical
shaft
8 4.22 Comparison of traditional air zone layout (left
apartment) and simplified, so-called cascade
ventilation system, on the right. Fresh air is only
6 supplied to the bedrooms.
4.23 Principle of served and servant rooms
a building services zone/main room zone
4 b sanitary unit
4.24 Distribution and storage heat loss from:
2 a positioning the plant room outside the thermal
envelope
b positioning the plant room inside the thermal
0 envelope
courtyard detached terrace house terrace house block bar-shaped 4.25 Amount of internal heat gain in accordance with
house house end middle 4 units per floor house the efficiency of electrical appliances
b 4.24

43
 Design and planning principles
Required Um,opaque [W/m2K]

0.4
Design-based energy balance
The first steps in designing a building
0.3
characterise not only the development of
the architectural proposal but also that of
the energy concept. Nevertheless, experi-
0.2 ence has shown that using the Passive
House Planning Package (PHPP) at an
early design stage usually involves too
0.12
0.1 much effort and consequently this is
rarely done. Moreover, much of the infor-
mation that is necessary to complete a
comprehensive energy balance is not yet
0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 available at this point in time [22].
Form factor A/TFA [–] It therefore makes more sense to use a
4.26 graded system of design tools and calcu-
lation methods, which adapt to the
Space heat demand [kWh/m2a]
the mechanical ventilation unit and the
windows, including their distribution.
Preliminary design – first energy balance
The main emphasis of this design phase
is on the development of an abstract lay-
out of space. The overlapping of zones,
which also involves the exterior space
and elements set outside the thermal
envelope (porch, balcony, terrace), is
considered a special feature of this
design (fig. 4.33). First of all, using the
preliminary energy balance tool, the infor-
mation was used to calculate the space
heat demand for one basic unit. Then
some of the more important design
parameters were varied systematically

20
greater detail of information during the
course of the design process.
15.0
15 14.7 For this purpose, the author of this book
13.4 13.0 has developed not only a basic design
12.4 12.2
11.2 tool but also a brief Excel spreadsheet,
which can be used to prepare simple
10
annual energy balances, even if some of
the design parameters have not yet been
determined [23]. The time required to
5 enter the data is negligible (a maximum of
five to ten minutes per design), and there
is no need to make any presettings. All
energy-relevant parameters are entered
0
a b c d e f g by the user. This method is designed to
4.27 encourage a greater understanding of
Reduction factor for overshadowing
(fig. 4.27):
• size of north-facing windows
• window frame covered with
insulation yes/no
• no overshadowing through balconies
• annex buildings at both ends of the
terrace yes/no
• basement and plant rooms outside the
thermal envelope
• heating and ventilation system
(separate heat pumps instead of
compact unit)
This process identified the extent to
which these parameters affect the space

1 south
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 1
4.26 Required average U-value of the opaque, insu-
lated surfaces (roof, exterior wall, basement
ceiling) to meet Passive House standard (space
heat demand = 15 kWh/m2a). First figures for
the main volume of the town terrace houses in
Munich (see pp. 56ff.)
4.27 Comparison between different designs for the
town terrace houses project in Munich using the
preliminary PHPP tool
a as built
b north-facing window surface area halved
c without insulation-wrapped window frames
d no overshadowing through balcony
e without annexes at end terrace houses
f basement and plant room outside thermal
envelope
g better ventilation unit (separate heat pump)
4.28 Calculation of the overshadowing factors of
shading devices consisting of horizontal battens
in accordance with the D/H ratio (depth/height)
of the gap and their orientation
east/west north energy balances and promote the signifi-
cance of important design features. The
process of using the design-based
energy balance is illustrated here by the
town terrace houses in Munich, which are
presented in this book on page 56:
Preliminary design – initial dimensions
The plot specified on the fairly small site
in the development plan was for a south-
oriented, three-storey terrace measuring
10.5 m in depth and 44 m in length. Due
to the small distance between this terrace
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
and the neighbouring ones, a floor space
Proportion D/H index (FSI) of 1.0 is achieved – a high
4.28 density for terrace houses. With a dis-
tance to height ratio of 1.6, the overshad-
owing of the main south-facing facade by
the neighbouring building is quite signifi-
cant. Initial calculations for the Passive
House envelope were made based on
these given facts (volume, orientation and
overshadowing) (fig. 4.26 and 6.9, p. 72).
The form factor for the terrace is
A weighted / TFA = 1.6. The necessary mean
U-value of the opaque, insulated surfaces
identified in the diagram for the case
“south, overshadowed” is approximately
0.12 W / m2K. Only a few assumptions, in
line with those used as a basis for the dia-
grams, are made for the energy factors of
heat demand and the heat load. In many
cases, there was reason not to choose
the most energy-efficient solution. For
example, the north-facing windows on
the upper floors are the same size as
the south-facing windows simply to
ensure sufficient daylight inside. Given
that much of the garden is communal, the
overshadowing created by balconies and
trellises was deemed acceptable as they
provide a semi-private area close to the
house. And the request of the families
moving into the end terrace houses to
build an annex was granted. All of these
concessions needed to be balanced in
another way, for example by improving
the quality of the roof insulation. The
incorporation of the basement and the
plant room into the thermal envelope is
especially beneficial for the primary
energy balance due to the low distribution
and storage heat loss.
Final design – planning with the PHPP
Not until the design was almost complete,
was the PHPP incorporated in the plan-
ning process. Most of the data could be
entered fairly swiftly since a lot of the
parameters could simply be adopted or
adjusted from comparable reference pro-
jects. However, calculating the impact of

44
 Design-based energy balance

the overshadowing on the energy perfor-

mance, created by elements set in front
of the facades, such as the balcony, trel-
lises and porch (fig. 4.28 – 4.30), was
fairly complicated.
After intensive research on building ser-
vices, a compact ventilation unit with a
small integrated heat pump was chosen,
which enables the inclusion of solar col-
lectors, but also the separation of a hot
water circuit. The data concerning the
technical aspects of the PHPP were
entered by the specialist planner based
on the building services plans. The manu-
facturer of the compact ventilation unit
provided the parameters required for the 4.29 4.30
building services household appliances generated PV power gas (cooking)
technical worksheet once they had been
Power consumption (meter) [kWh/(m2·month)]

Primary energy (non-renewable) [kWh/m2a]

5.0 100
cleared with the certification institute and PHPP calculation: 83 kWh/m2a
4.5 90
adjusted accordingly.
4.0 80
Construction phase 3.5 70
Based on the various concepts for the 3.0 60
insulation, air and wind-tightness of the
2.5 50
building, the production information
2.0 40
included the development of all neces-
sary construction details for the thermal 1.5 30
envelope. Thermal bridges were identi- 1.0 20
fied at the junction between the interior 0.5 10
basement walls and the ground slab and
0 0
at the base of the building. Some of the 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
-10
energy parameters (e.g. the windows) Month 2006 2007 2008
could not be fully determined until the 4.31 4.32
tenders had been returned and the con-
tracts with the contractors signed. It was footpath
not until even later – after the blower door
pressure test had been carried out – that porch
terrace
the air leakage rate could be calculated
in the PHPP. Due to the excellent n50-
value of 0.36 h-1, compared to the aver-
age value of 0.60 h-1, the space heat
demand could be reduced by approxi- shaft
bedroom
mately 1.2 kWh/m2a.

Use phase – monitoring

On completion of the building, the con-
sumption figures were read once a month
in all eight terrace houses. By comparing
the readings, it was possible to detect
faults in technical components, for
example faulty gravity breaks in the solar
thermal collector plant or accidentally
changed settings on the compact unit.
Experience has shown that this aftercare
is indispensable, particularly as regards
building services. Due to the low reserve
capacities, it is much easier to detect
faults or system problems in a Passive
House than in a conventional building.
All in all, the technical devices work well
and are reliable in all houses. This is con-
firmed by the low consumption figures,
which are well in line with the values cal-
culated in the PHPP.
stairs
bedroom
4.34
4.29 South facade of the terrace houses in Munich;
the facade is overshadowed by the balcony,
balcony
trellises and the deep window reveals.
terrace 4.30 North facade overshadowed by porch and
deep window reveals
4.31 Terrace houses in Munich: monthly power con-
sumption (separated according to building ser-
vegetable vices and household appliances) in 2006
patch 4.32 Town terrace houses in Munich: primary energy
consumption for the years 2006 to 2009 and
comparison to the PHPP-calculated value. The
measured and calculated values coincide.
communal 4.33 Functional diagram of one town terrace house
garden with the different zones, the elements set out-
side the thermal envelope, the main window ar-
bench eas and the central shaft, the so-called “an-
chor”, in the floor plan
raised bed 4.34 Axonometric view of the south facade including
the elements that are responsible for overshad-
owing
4.33
45
Design and planning principles
Impact of regional and urban climate
The regional and urban climate is a fun-
damental parameter for energy-efficient
design. The significance of solar radia-
tion, outside air temperature, sky temper-
ature and other climate conditions for the
preparation of the energy balance high-
lights the importance of using accurate
climate data. Much of this information is
available in the PHPP for a range of Ger-
man and international locations. The
PHPP also includes specially prepared
data sets for the heat load calculation. A
high temporal resolution of the climate
data is required if dynamic building simu-
lations are to be carried out (e.g. test ref-
erence years).
The climate zone and the regional climate
have a considerable impact on the
design of a Passive House building. On
the one hand, they affect the thermal
insulation requirements (e.g. average
U-value of the opaque building compo-
nents) and the performance of the win-
dow frame and glass (target-oriented
combination of the Uw and g-values). On
the other hand, the layout of rooms as
well as the size and arrangement of win-
dows, which are clearly dependent on the
4.35 Space heat demand, heat load and the frequen-
cy of overheating in summer (> 25 °C) for Pas-
sive Houses in different locations of Germany
4.36 Space heat demand for economically optimised
Passive Houses in different locations in Europe
4.37 Schiestlhaus on Mount Hochschwab (A) 2005,
Treberspurg Architekten, pos architekten. Pas-
sive House in an extreme climate: even without
an active heating system, the indoor tempera-
ture remains above 5 °C during the winter sea-
son when the building is not inhabited.
4.38 Design concept for Passive Houses (overview)
4.39 Residential estate in Allschwil (CH) 2004, amrein
giger architekten. Apartment buildings with an
interior courtyard, which, thanks to a roof that
can be opened, becomes part of the heated
volume.
4.40 Retrofit of a farmhouse in the Ahrntal Valley (I)
2004, Stefan Hitthaler. Energy efficiency refur-
bishment with Passive House components;
partial integration in a new build
Default values for Passive Houses in different
locations
Location Space heat demand/heat load/
frequency of overheating in
summer
kWh/m2a W/m2 %
Standard (PHPP) 13.7 10.0 0.6
Hamburg 14.1 9.9 0.0
Potsdam 14.9 10.7 2.6
Frankfurt 11.6 9.1 8.2
Dresden 14.4 10.6 2.7
Freiburg 8.2 9.9 12.9
Munich 13.8 10.9 0.8
Garmisch 10.0 12.0 0.0
4.35
46
orientation (key words: passive solar
energy; design of the indoor/outdoor rela-
tionship), can only be determined in a
meaningful way by taking account of the
climate conditions. In this context, it must
be decided whether the winter or summer
period is more critical in terms of comfort
conditions, and how then best to respond
with regard to design and constructional
aspects (fig. 4.35 – 4.36).
The regional climate is extremely distinct
in the densely built-up areas of cities. The
urban climate has its greatest impact on
the thermal comfort in buildings and exte-
rior spaces in summer – in particular dur-
ing heat waves. Cross ventilation strate-
gies that are generally quite efficient in
less densely populated areas are simply
not as effective in built-up areas due to
the delayed cool down of the outside air.
As a consequence, it may be necessary
to consider adapted ventilation or cooling
concepts.
Coordination of individual aspects
The design process is all about bringing
together the many different individual
aspects and at times conflicting require-
ments to form a synthesis and “translat-
ing” them into a meaningful design. Com-
pared to the target conflicts and consid-
erations, with their sometimes negative
connotations, the superordinate spatial
concept has a positive, integrative and
creative function. Ideally it should help to
overcome conflicts arising from design
operations.
Instead of demanding strict adherence to
the design principles, it makes more
sense in this case to develop design con-
cepts for all Passive House-relevant
design features. The coordination of
these is then improved throughout the
course of the design. The aim of this strat-
egy is to make the design process more
> 16 kWh/(m2a)
16 – 19 kWh/(m2a)
13 – 16 kWh/(m2a)
7 –10 kWh/(m2a)
4 – 7 kWh/(m2a)
1 – 4 kWh/(m2a)
< 1 kWh/(m2a)
4.36
transparent and easier to comprehend
(fig. 4.38). If this process is applied, the
design and planning principles explained
can be regarded as important tools and
explanatory frameworks.
The consistent application of the tools is
fundamental if economic implementation
of the Passive House concept is aimed
at. Whenever there are good reasons
against an improved standard, it is better,
to a certain degree, to depart from this
course. Naturally this means that a
balance will have to be secured in
another way or place (e.g. thicker roof
insulation). Nevertheless, to ensure an
open design process, a certain degree
of flexibility is indispensable. The depar-
ture from the ultimate solution should
be sought not only for energy-related
aspects but also for matters concerning,
for example, the integration in the urban
context, the development of user con-
cepts, including the potential for future
change of use, the harmonious appear-
ance of the building’s exterior and interior
space in terms of shape, proportions and
materials.
Residential projects
Five residential buildings developed
according to Passive House or Minergie-
P standard are illustrated on the following
pages. They differ in size and form factor,
in construction type and method, as well
as in their concepts for building services
and energy supply. These specific
designs and the way they are built are
intended to illustrate the fundamental
principles of a Passive House building.
The reference projects show that the
range of possible solutions is wide and
that the Passive House concept neither
specifies a particular architectural idea
nor does is predetermine certain materi-
als or construction methods.
4.37
 Residential projects

Overview of the design concepts and principles for Passive Houses

Design concept Architect‘s responsibility
Insulation • determination of thermal envelope (boundary surfaces
between heated and unheated volume)
• definition of insulation plane within the thermal envelope
• selection of envelope structures with regard to their insulating function
• development of thermal-bridge-free or low-thermal-bridge constructions
Air and wind-tightness • definition of air and wind-tightness layer in the thermal envelope
• selection of suitable systems to provide air and wind-tightness
• development of air and wind-tight junctions
Solar energy • determination of solar aperture (glazed openings) in terms of
size and orientation
• definition of energy performance factors for the glazing systems, including
window frame, window spacer and installation within the wall construction
• selection of solar shading systems
• assessment of the impact of windows in winter (space
heat demand and heat load) and summer (frequency of overheating)
Summer climate and cooling • limitation of window surface area, so long as sufficient natural light is
provided
• reduction of internal heat loads (power efficiency)
• availability of accessible storage mass
• development of passive cooling strategy (natural ventilation, shading
devices, possibly dehumidification by using a moisture recovery system)
• active cooling exclusively by using efficient systems
(e.g. thermo-active building systems)
Ventilation and heating • assignment of space according to supply air, transfer and extract zones
• assessment of suitability for cascade ventilation system
• determination of heating concept (supply air heating, mixed system,
separation of ventilation and heating)
Building services • location of plant room in relation to supply terminals and
thermal envelope
• determination of vertical and horizontal ducts and service runs
(ventilation, heating, domestic hot water, cooling)
Power efficiency • selection of power-efficient household appliances, lighting, building services reduced energy concept
components, etc. (all power-consuming devices in and on the building)
• determination of internal heat sources according to the electrical appliances
and in view of all consequences in terms of summer climate conditions/cool-
ing/heat demand
Notes [11] Ehm, Herbert; Erhorn, Hans et al.: Bedeutung
[1] Vallentin, Rainer: Energieeffizienter Städtebau der Energieeinsparung im Gebäudebereich. In:
mit Passivhäusern. Göttingen 2011, p. VI –6f. Eickenhorst, Heinz; Jost, Lajos (pub.): Energie-
[2] Schnier, Jörg: Entwurfsstile und Unterrichtsziele; einsparung in Gebäuden. Essen 1998, pp. 36ff.
In: Ralph, Johannes (pub.): Entwerfen. Hamburg [12] see note 1, p. VII–16
2009, pp. 83ff. [13] ibid., p. VI–47 and XII–18f.
[3] Feist, Wolfgang: Passivhäuser in Mitteleuropa, [14] In PHPP calculations, up to 60 % of the useful
dissertation, 1992 floor area in basements can be taken into ac-
[4] Feist, Wolfgang (pub.): Bauvorbereitendes count. This is offset by increasing the size of the
Forschungsprojekt Passivhaus Darmstadt- thermal envelope. In this case, however, the
Kranichstein. Darmstadt 1992 basement rooms have to be incorporated in the
[5] Economical Passive House Working ventilation concept.
Group (pub.): Protocol volume No. 19. Darmstadt [15] The temperature in buffer rooms of Passive
2000, p. 17 –104 and p. 121–152 Houses is very low in winter, close to the outside
[6] see note 1, pp. XI –1ff. temperature. If large volumes of air are drawn
[7] ibid., p. VII –16 and VIII – 8f. from the interior space into these buffer rooms,
[8] ibid., p. X – 33 the moisture contained in the air will condense
[9] Friedell, Egon: Kulturgeschichte der Neuzeit, on the cool surfaces. This is avoided by provid-
Vol. 1. Munich 1986, p. 55 ing deliberate leaks and insulation similar to that
[10] Pokorny, Walter: Die Entwurfsgütezahl von of typical low-energy components. See project
Solarhäusern. In: Energie 80, Year 3, Volume 3 description: Terrace houses in Munich, pp. 56ff.
Design principle
principle of thermal envelope
principle of homogeneity
thermal bridge-free construction
principle of thermal envelope
air and wind-tight construction
south-orientation of main windows
limitation of overshadowing (as far as this is possible
from a town planning point of view)
balance between good use of passive solar energy,
daylight and comfort conditions
balance between solar aperture and daylight auton-
omy
forced ventilation by means of windows, chimneys,
motorised flaps etc. (in the early morning and at
night)
air zones
supply air heating (critical assessment of all
criteria for each individual case)
location of building services components either
within or close to the thermal envelope
principle of short runs (layout with core zone)
“served and servant spaces”
4.38
[16] see note 1, pp. VIII–35ff.
[17] ibid., pp. VIII–3ff.
[18] Research Group for Cost-effective Passive
Houses (pub.): Protocol Volume No. 16.
Darmstadt 1999, p. 2.
[19] e.g. Energy Institute Vorarlberg (pub.): Wärme-
brückenkatalog Fenstereinbau, Version 1.0
(download at www.energieinstitut.at)
[20] see note 1, pp. VII–31ff. and fig. 6.3, p. 69
[21] ibid., pp. VII–72ff. and fig. 6.5, p. 69
[22] The Passive House Institute offers the Prelimi-
nary Passive House Planning Package (PHVP)
for the preliminary design phase for free. It can
be downloaded at www.passiv.de. It already re-
quires fairly detailed information (e.g. concern-
ing the construction), but a lot of design-relevant
aspects are preset (windows, shading devices).
[23] PHPP preliminary design tool (PHPP-Entwurf);
see Vallentin, Rainer: Entwurfsbegleitende Ener-
giebilanzierung (publication planned for 2014 at
www.klimaschutzstandard.de)

4.39 4.40
47
Reference buildings – residential
Single-family home
Dorfen, D 2010
Client:
Family Gührs, Dorfen
Architect:
Architekturwerkstatt Vallentin, Dorfen
Building services:
Ingenieurbüro Güttinger, Kempten
Opinions on the building of single family
homes differ fundamentally. Some simply
refuse to plan and construct them
because they are neither ecological nor
sustainable due to their high demand for
space and mobility; others try to meet the
majority‘s desire for an individual habitat
with greater independence from neigh-
bours and other disturbances for more or
less pragmatic reasons and, in the best
case, to enrich it with new features and
qualities.
The fact is, however, that the development
of residential buildings, except possibly in
large cities, is drifting away from multi-sto-
48
rey buildings, despite the criticism voiced
by architects, town and regional planners
against urban sprawl.
The project presented here is in numer-
ous ways trend-setting since it was
undertaken with the objective of building
a free-standing, compact Passive House
that would be very economic in terms of
investment, resources and energy. The
house is located in a new development
area of a small town within walking dis-
tance of the station. It is a clearly
defined structure with a saddle roof,
which is distinguished by the sloped
angle of the ridge and the eaves. The
5.1
openings – one each per facade and
storey – are individualised and provided
with colour-contrasting, angled reveals.
The same design methodology has been
applied to the covered terrace.
The skin features a mixture of larch
cladding, red facade panels and corru-
gated aluminium sheet in the roof zone.
Not until the relationship between the
open-plan layout and the use of space
has been fully grasped is it possible
to appreciate the composition of vol-
umes, openings and interior fit-out as
an intelligent play of freely placed ele-
ments.
5.2
 Single-family home in Dorfen

5.3

5.4
5.1 North elevation with carport
5.2 South elevation
5.3 Section a – a, scale 1:200
5.4 Site plan, scale 1:1000
5.5 1st floor floor plan, scale 1:200
5.6 Ground floor plan, scale 1:200
1 entrance
2 bathroom
a 3 plant room
4 kitchen
3 5 dining / living
6 terrace
7 carport
8 infiltration trench
2 9 living /bedroom
5.7 Interior spaces

a
5.5

3
2
1
4

5.6 5.7
49
Reference buildings – residential

5.8 South elevation before installing the windows 1

and fixing the exterior cladding
5.9 Vertical section north facade, scale 1:20
1 roof:
18 mm corrugated aluminium sheet
60 mm battens
30 mm counter-battens
waterproofing membrane
15 mm wood fibreboard, open to diffusion
400 mm cellulose fibre insulation/timber
web joists
22 mm OSB board, interior finish 2
2 2≈ 40 mm laminated timber, screwed
3 window:
triple glazing in wood frame
4 reveal sheathed with veneer plywood, painted
5 facade:
25 mm larch timber cladding 4
40 mm counter-battens
20 mm battens 3
fabric membrane, protection against
driving rain
15 mm wood fibreboard, open to diffusion
60/270 mm perimeter beam, laminated
timber (BS 11)
400 mm cellulose fibre insulation
60/270 mm perimeter beam, laminated
timber (BS 11)
22 mm OSB board, interior finish
6 first floor floor slab:
15 mm OSB board, floor covering
60 mm screed
20 mm impact sound insulation
30 mm thermal insulation
140 mm Brettstapel floor panel
7 ground floor slab:
15 mm OSB board, floor covering
60 mm screed
20 mm impact sound insulation
160 mm PUR insulation board
10 mm waterproofing membrane
250 mm reinforced concrete slab
2≈ 120 mm XPS perimeter insulation
60 mm blinding layer
560 mm frost protection layer, gravel 6
5.10 Section with energy and building services
concept, scale 1:150
5.11 Floor plans with energy and building services
concept, scale 1:150
a ground floor
b first floor (section)
5.12 Building data

5.8 5.9
50
 Single-family home in Dorfen

Construction
Due to their low degree of compactness, 4
free-standing single-family homes place
high demands on the energy perfor-
mance of constructional and technical
components. The U-values of the thermal
3
envelope must be around 0.1 W/m2K, or
sometimes even lower. In this project,
5
these demands have been fulfilled at very
low cost and in combination with a very
simple standard in the fit-out. 2
A reinforced concrete ground slab with
load-bearing perimeter insulation below 5 1
forms the base of the building. All other
structural elements were built as a light-
weight timber construction. Since a deci- 6
sion was made to construct the exterior
5.10
walls without an installation cavity, the
wood frame elements were very inexpen-
sive owing to the small number of layers. 3 6
Instead, the electrical installations have
1 2
been incorporated in the insulation plane.
To meet the high requirements concern- 5
ing airtightness, the wall elements were
equipped with airtight sockets and instal-
lation pockets before arriving on site. 5
These work processes required a great
deal of experience and accuracy, as it 5

would have been extremely difficult to

remedy any leakages determined during
the blower-door pressure test after having
erected the walls. 5 5
The floor is a Brettstapel panel with a con-
ventional screed finish. For cost reasons
OSB panels, which would have been
required anyway for stiffening purposes,
have been used for the interior fit-out. a b
Because the same material has been 1 gas boiler 4 solar collectors for the provision — outside air
used for the flooring, the appearance of 2 500 l buffer heat store of hot water and heating — supply air
the interior is extremely uniform and only 3 comfort ventilation unit 5 radiators — extract air
with heat recovery 6 brine heat exchanger — exhaust air
interrupted by the door and window — heating
openings. 5.11
Building data
Building services Use
The building services are located inside
residential
the thermal envelope in two small plant
Areas
rooms stacked on top of each other in the
gross floor area (GFA) 161 m2 floor space index (FSI) 0.36
north-eastern corner. A gas condensing treated floor area (TFA) 113 m2 gross volume (V) 611.7 m3
boiler was installed with a solar collector thermal envelope area (A) 409.3 m2 A / V ratio 0.67
A weighted /TFA 3.11
plant to provide domestic hot water and
U-values [W/m2K]
support the heating system. The mechan-
roof 0.1 W/m2K wall 0.1 W/m2K
ical ventilation unit with a heat recovery ground slab 0.07 W/m2K window: Uw-value 0.708 W/m2K
system uses a brine heat exchanger for glazing-to-floor area ratio 0.213 g-value 0.61
frost protection purposes in winter. A (glazing/TFA)
ground heat exchanger would have been Energy performance data PHPP
very expensive without the construction of space heat demand 13.8 kWh/m2a heat load 10.3 W/m2
primary energy 115.5 kWh/m2a ventilation system central
a basement storey. Due to the open lay- heat supply rate 86 % blower-door test 1/h (50 Pa) 0.29
out, the air ducts have only been incorpo- GWP (CO2 equivalent) 28.2 kg/m2
rated in the ancillary rooms. The heat is Heat supply system gas condensing boiler
supplied to the rooms through a heating energy carrier natural gas solar collector plant (coverage 49 %
water circuit and radiators. This means photovoltaic plant not installed rate)

that the air volume can be set and con- Particularities

trolled independently from the heating. frost protection layer with brine circuit
5.12
51
Reference buildings – residential

Multi-family home
Bern, CH 2007

Client:
Peter Schürch, Bern
Architect:
Halle 58 Architekten, Bern
Energy, building physics, acoustics:
Gartenmann Engineering, Bern
Heating and ventilation:
Riedo Clima, Bern

New homes can be created through infill
developments within existing housing
estates without having to face the conse-
quences of new development areas, such
as the extensive use of space or their fre-
quently anonymous character. The project
presented here illustrates the qualities that
can be achieved by adding new builds to
existing neighbourhoods.
The wedge-shaped leftover site located
amidst fairly spaciously laid out residential
blocks from the 1960s was thought to be
an ideal setting for a three-family home. In
terms of size, the new building is in line
with the neighbouring blocks; in appear-
ance, however, it differs greatly. Due to the
narrow site, the building is not very deep
and has only one apartment per floor. The
underground garage and basement
accommodate all potentially disturbing
functions allowing a large communal gar-
den to be created on top. Each floor is
divided into two zones both of which face
west, onto the garden – a private area with
bedrooms and bathrooms, and a loft-like
living and dining area. The building fea-
tures an interesting combination of three
spatially interlocking layers including a
balcony, main room and access zone.
On the road side, the concept is per-
5.13
ceived as a staggered arrangement of
three volumes each with different materi-
als and design principles. From the gar-
den, on the other hand, the building
appears filigree with a fully-glazed facade
and balconies which seem to be levitated
in front of the facade. This effect is
emphasised by the fact that the balconies
end like the bow of a ship in the south.
The building meets the requirements of
the Swiss Minergie-P-Eco label, i. e. the
building had to also fulfil ecological crite-
ria alongside energy-related requirements
that are slightly lower than those of the
Passive House standard.

5.14
52
 Multi-family home in Bern

5.13 View from north-west

5.14 View from south-west
with full-length balconies and terraces
5.15 Site plan, scale 1:2000
5.16 Second floor plan, scale 1:400
5.17 First floor plan, scale 1:400
5.18 Ground floor plan, scale 1:400
5.19 Access path in the east
5.20 Balcony shading with wooden roller shutters

5.15

5.16

5.17

5.19

5.18 5.20
53
Reference buildings – residential

Construction
The underground garage, basement and
staircase have consistently been left out-
side the thermal envelope. Together they
make up almost half of the built volume
and, as a reinforced concrete structure,
contribute considerably towards the build-
ing’s total embodied energy. The heated
volume, in contrast, is conceived as a
lightweight timber structure.
The facades are made up of timber frame
elements, the floors and roof of hollow box
elements. In the main, fully-glazed
facade, the construction changes to a
skeleton structure with steel posts and
beams made of laminated timber. In
order to provide the required degree of
stiffness, frequently lacking when using
2
this kind of structural concept, reinforced
concrete panels have been added to the
structure.
Due to the low compactness (at least this
is the case for a multi-family dwelling), the
requirements to meet the Minergie-P
standard were high, in particular concern-
ing the energy performance of the build-
ing envelope. The window-to-wall junc-
tions are a key aspect in this respect.
3
Because the window frames are not insu-
lated, the insulation layer has been con-
tinued across the outer face of the
frames. In order to meet German Passive
House standard, it would have been
necessary to use insulated frames and
improve the thermal performance of sev-
eral junction details. Due to the large
proportion of glazed areas, it was abso-
lutely essential to provide effective solar
shading devices. Timber roller shutters
have been fitted on the outside of the
balconies for this purpose.

Building services
A wood pellet boiler and thermal solar
collectors together with a solar combi
storage tank are responsible for the build-
ing’s heat supply. The mechanical ventila-
tion unit has been placed on the roof,
whereby separate air intake and extractor
fans, as well as the associated ducts,
ensure that the residents of each apart-
4 ment can control and set their air volumes
individually. A low temperature underfloor
heating system has been installed to dis-
tribute heat. Thus, the ventilation and
heating systems have been clearly sepa-
rated in this project.
The vertical air ducts and all water pipe-
lines have been accommodated in a cen-
tral shaft next to the entrances to the
apartments; the horizontal ducts and
pipes, on the other hand, are incorpo-
rated in partially suspended ceilings.
5.21
54
 Multi-family home in Bern

5.21 Vertical section facade, scale 1:20

1 roof:
80 mm extensive roof planting, protection fleece
4 mm bitumen damp-proof membrane 2 3
2≈ 3 mm elastomeric bitumen membrane
27 mm roof sheathing, laid to fall
4
60/100 –160 mm rear ventilation/battens on
strips of rubber particle mat 1
roofing membrane, 3 layers
360 mm hollow box element, cross
laminated timber, fully insulated
0.33 mm polypropylene vapour barrier
95 mm rockwool cavity insulation
15 mm gypsum fibreboard with smooth finish,
fixed with anti-vibration ceiling hangers
2 window:
triple glazing in wooden frame 6 7
5
(Ug = 0.5 W/m²K; g-value = 55 %)
3 floor slab, 1st/2nd floor:
24 mm oak parquet flooring
80 mm cement screed with underfloor heating
PE foil
17 mm impact sound insulation, wood
fibreboard 25 mm rockwool floorboards
320 mm hollow box element, cross 8
laminated timber, fully insulated
60 mm cellulose cavity insulation
15 mm gypsum fibreboard with smooth finish,
fixed with anti-vibration ceiling hangers 9 10 11
12
4 floor slab, ground floor:
24 mm oak parquet flooring
80 mm cement screed with underfloor heating
vapour barrier/PE foil
180 mm PUR insulation — outside air
120 mm rockwool insulation — supply air
250 mm reinforced concrete floor slab — extract air
5 exterior wall: — exhaust air
15 mm cement-bonded particle board — heating
60/30 mm rear ventilation/battens
2≈ 15 mm gypsum fibreboard 5.22
300 mm timber stud construction, spruce/fir,
fully insulated with cellulose
25 mm OSB board 3.3 roof
80 mm rockwool cavity insulation
8.8 wall
50/80 mm battens fixed with anti-vibration
ceiling hangers transmission heat loss 2.8 ground slab
15 mm gypsum fibreboard with smooth finish
(2≈ 12.5 mm in wet zones) 2.1 doors
5.22 Section with building services concept 38.2 windows
1 solar thermal collectors
2 exhaust air 1.8 thermal bridges
3 outside air
ventilation heat loss 8.5
4 ventilation unit with heat recovery system
5 exterior sun shading device
6 supply air solar gain 43.7
7 extract air
8 underfloor heating internal heat gain 8.1
9 buffer storage tank
10 pellet boiler
11 washing machine space heat demand 13.7
12 underground wood pellet store
5.23 Heat balance. The solar heat gain is higher than
0 10 20 30 40
the transmission heat loss through the windows.
[kWh/m2a]
5.24 Building data
Building data 5.23
Use
residential
Areas
gross floor area (GFA) 422 m2 floor space index (FSI) 0.53
treated floor area (TFA) 408 m2 gross volume (V) 1254 m3
5 thermal envelope area (A) 739 m2 A / V ratio 0.59
Aweighted /TFA 1.64
U-values [W/m2K]
roof 0.10 W/m2K wall 0.10 W/m2K
ground slab 0.09 W/m2K window: Uw-value 0.92 W/m2K
glazing-to-floor area ratio 0.938 g-value 0.55
(glazing/TFA)
Energy performance data Minergie-P-Eco
space heat demand 13.7 kWh/m2a heat load 17.9 W/m2
weighted energy demand 25.1 kWh/m2a ventilation system semi central
(Minergie-P) blower-door test 1/h (50 Pa) 0.51
Heat supply system wood pellet boiler
energy carrier wood pellets solar collector plant 63 %
photovoltaic plant not installed (coverage rate)
5.21 5.24
55
Reference buildings – residential
Town terrace houses
Munich, D 2006
Client:
Home builder community
“Stadtgestalten”, Munich
Architect:
Rainer Vallentin, Munich
Building services:
Kurt Güttinger, Kempten
Landscape architect:
Heidi Janicek, Bernried /Munich
A general change of public opinion on the
city and what it offers as a place to live is
currently leading to a rediscovery of
urban qualities. Densely built, individual
dwellings as an alternative to traditional
multi-storey apartment complexes are of
great significance in this respect.
In the case of these town terrace houses,
resident participation was a key aspect
since the houses were planned and con-
structed by a builder community as a self-
build project. The Bavarian capital city of
Munich used the conversion area of for-
mer barracks to allocate plots on a large
scale to home builder communities and
56
housing cooperatives. One of these
schemes involved the development of
eight town terrace houses on a fairly small
inner-city plot.
Owing to the high density stipulated, the
architect decided on a three-storey build-
ing with only a minimum of fixed ele-
ments. These included the type of load-
bearing structure, the thermal envelope,
which was to meet Passive House stand-
ards, and the position of the vertical ser-
vice shaft and stairs. In the context of a
structured participation process, this
approach unlocked potential for the indi-
viduals to create their own floor plans.
3
2
1
4
5
5.25
Several workshops were organised in
which the future residents were instructed
on how to develop their own concepts of
living using a range of working models.
The building envelope, on the other hand,
is uniform in order to provide a suitable
urban appearance and to exploit the
financial advantages associated with pre-
fabrication. Furthermore, in response to
the terraced housing scheme which had
been stipulated by the town planning
authorities, the architect developed a
zoning concept that also incorporated the
exterior areas. In order to provide transi-
tion zones on the access and garden side
5.26

5.27
of the terrace, additional slightly raised
and spatially framed areas have been
added to each unit: in the north, an
entrance terrace and porch and, in the
south, a garden terrace and balcony,
which has been conceived as a two-
storey “green loggia” to form a semi-
private exterior space. The garden, in
contrast, is not separated and is used
as a communal space by all residents
(fig. 4.33, p. 45).
Due to the position of the balconies, with
the longer side at a right angle to the
facade, the main windows are also
exposed to the sun in winter. In summer,
4 5
6
7
8
5.28
in contrast, the planted trellises function
as a seasonal “passive” shading device.
The rhythm of balcony elements and
porches, and the changes of material in
the facade allow the houses to be per-
ceived as individual units within the ter-
race.
The concept of zones is continued in the
floor plans: the houses are divided into
a main zone with the kitchen, living and
dining areas or bedrooms and other
private rooms, and a secondary zone with
stairs, bathrooms and hallways. This lay-
out made it possible to avoid the dark
centre zones that can be so typical of ter-
a
5.30
5.32
Town terrace houses in Munich
5.29
race houses. The main volume features a
simple cubic structure with a very well
insulated and airtight building envelope.
The porches and balconies, on the other
hand, have been set outside the thermal
envelope as independent structures to
enable the design of simple and thermal
bridge-free junctions at the transition
points.
Building construction
The porches are neither heated nor are
they included in the air exchange process
of the ventilation unit. They have for this
reason specifically been designed with
5.31
5.25 Site plan, scale 1:1000
1 “Stadtgestalten” town terrace houses
2 children‘s day care centre
3 parkland
4 small biotope
5 future shopping centre
5.26 View from south
5.27 View of the garden facade from south-west
5.28 View into the living area
5.29 View of the entrance facade from north-west
5.30 First floor plan, scale 1:500
5.31 Section a – a, scale 1:500
5.32 Ground floor plan, scale 1:500
1 bedrooms
2 bathroom
3 balcony
4 entrance terrace
5 porch
6 kitchen
7 living area
8 south-facing terrace
57
Reference buildings – residential
5.33 Vertical section facade, scale 1:20
1 roof:
80 mm extensive roof planting
drainage layer
filter mat
EPDM membrane
50 – 200 mm EPS insulation (WLG 035),
laid to fall
350 mm EPS insulation (WLG 035)
polymer bitumen vapour barrier, glass
fibre reinforced
200 mm reinforced concrete roof slab
2 28 mm 3-ply solid wood panel, larch
3 fire protection tape
4 exterior wall (U-value: 0.137 W/m²K):
24 mm larch cladding (alternative:
copper, standing seam covering)
insect protection mesh
30/60 mm cavity/battens
16 mm wood fibreboard, open to diffusion
241 mm timber construction, double-webbed
beams filled with cellulose fibre (WLG 040)
18 mm OSB board, joints with airtight seal
60 mm installation layer, rockwool
12.5 mm gypsum fibreboard (F30)
5 window frame with copper covering
6 vertical awning
7 100 mm EPS insulation (WLG 030), covering
window frames
8 window:
timber frame, pine, varnished, with
PU insulation core (Uw = 0.76 W/m²K)
triple thermal insulation glazing, security
glass for middle pane, selective coatings
on 3rd and 5th level, Ug = 0.60 W/m²K,
g-value = 0.54
9 EPDM membrane with copper sheathing
10 0.8 mm copper sheathing
EPDM membrane
XPS insulation wedge
11 terrace: 30 mm timber decking, larch
12 ground floor/basement floor slab:
10 mm floor covering, industrial parquet
55 mm cement screed
separating layer
20 mm impact sound insulation (WLG 040)
30 mm EPS insulation (WLG 040)
200 mm reinforced concrete floor slab
13 basement wall (U-value: 0.161 W/m²K):
drainage layer
240 mm XPS perimeter insulation (WLG 040)
cold applied, self-adhesive bitumen
sealing membrane
200 mm reinforced concrete wall
14 ground slab (U-value: 0.107 W/m²K):
16 mm floor covering, industrial parquet
55 mm cement screed
20 mm impact sound insulation (WLG 040)
60 mm PUR insulation (WLG 025)
bitumen membrane
250 mm reinforced concrete floor
slab, watertight
PE foil, 2 layers
240 mm EPS insulation, load-bearing
50 mm blinding layer of concrete
5.34 View from north-west
5.35 View from west with roof landscape
5.36 Section with energy and building services concept
5.37 Structure of compact ventilation unit
1 extract air
2 supply air
3 compact unit
4 solar store with latent heat storage material
5 outdoor air inlet
6 ground heat exchanger
7 exhaust air outlet
8 solar collector
9 ventilation unit with heat recovery system
10 small-scale heat pump
11 supply air heater coil, 1st heat pump circuit
12 hot water coil, 2nd heat pump circuit
13 electric heater rod, 2 kW
14 solar plant
15 solar circuit – heat exchanger
16 solar circuit – expansion tank
17 domestic hot water circuit
18 heating circuit
5.38 Building data
58
1
2
3
4
5.34
open joints, i.e. not airtight, to ensure a
certain degree of natural air exchange.
Experience has shown that the double
thermal insulation glazing selected for
5
these unheated buffer rooms is necessary
to avoid the formation of condensation on
6
windows on cold winter days.
The basement has been set inside the
thermal envelope and is insulated on the
7
8 outside, since all houses have direct
access to the basement level by the
9
interior stairs. All basement rooms are
heated and included in the air exchange
provided by the heat recovery ventilation
system.
Due to the small distance to the neigh-
bouring terrace houses, the Passive
House building is subject to extreme
overshadowing. The impact of the reduc-
tion of solar heat gain on the building’s
energy balance meant that compensation
had to be found elsewhere. A fairly rea-
sonable solution was to add extra insula-
tion to the roof.
11 10 12
A mixed construction, with all load-bear-
ing components made of reinforced con-
crete elements, was chosen for the town
terrace houses. The facades, on the other
hand, consist of space-saving frame-
works made of wood I-beams and cellu-
lose insulation. The slim facade construc-
13
tion was also chosen for cost reasons,
since it was not the plot area but the com-
pleted gross floor area that determined
the purchase price in the land purchase
14
agreement.
The frames of the main windows protrude
beyond the exterior surface. This feature
allowed the integration of sun shading
devices at the same time as covering the
frames with insulation.
In the case of a mixed construction sys-
tem, the concept for airtightness must be
detailed and executed very accurately.
Therefore great effort was taken to make
all junctions between the timber and con-
crete construction, including all second-
5.33
 Town terrace houses in Munich

1 2

3 4
5.35
ary junctions, airtight. Furthermore, spe-
cial care was taken to ensure that the fire
6
protection requirements were met at the
partition walls. 5.36

Building services
A compact ventilation unit with an inte- exhaust air extract air supply air hot water heating solar collectors outside air
grated small-scale heat pump was chosen 7 5
13
for the supply of fresh air. Due to the fact
that the building services are positioned
inside the thermal envelope, the heat loss 11 12 17
caused by storage and distribution is mini- 9 18
mal. Furthermore, the additional effort
involved in making airtight penetrations for
electricity, ventilation, heating and sanitary 14
10
installations through the building envelope 16
was not necessary. 15
Each terrace house has a central service
shaft, which means that all secondary runs 3 4
are short. The position was specifically
chosen to allow different layouts. 6
The rooms are heated by the supply air
— outside air — extract air — solar collector
and additional radiators, which are con- — supply air — exhaust air circuit 5.37
nected to a hot water circuit. Radiators
are particularly necessary in the end ter-
race houses since this is where the heat
Building data
loss through the building envelope is
Use
highest and the air heating system does
residential
not suffice to ensure comfortable indoor
temperatures during the coldest winter Areas

periods. gross floor area (GFA) 1407 m2 floor space index (FSI) 1.07
treated floor area (TFA) 1266 m2 gross volume (V) 5560 m3
The building services concept is comple- thermal envelope area (A) 2277 m2 A / V ratio 0.41
mented by adding solar collectors for the A weighted /TFA 1.48
heating of domestic hot water and a U-values [W/m2K]
ground heat exchanger to each house. roof 0.074 W/m2K wall 0.136 W/m2K
ground slab 0.161 W/m2K window: Uw-value 0.74 W/m2K
Three families have also installed photo- glazing-to-floor area ratio 0.318 g-value 0.54
voltaic panels. Through the use of power- (glazing/TFA)
saving components, the total consump- Energy performance data PHPP
tion of electricity for heating, ventilation, space heat demand 12.8 kWh/m2a heat load 9.7 W/m2
the provision of domestic hot water and (MTH: 10.5; ETH: 19.6) (MTH 8.5; ETH: 12.8)
primary energy 81.5 kWh/m2a ventilation system central (per house)
household appliances, which amounts to heat supply rate 78 % blower-door test 1/h (50 Pa) 0.33
27 to 30 kWh/m2a, is no higher than the GWP (CO2 equivalent) 20.5 kg/m2
average domestic electricity consumption Heat supply system compact heat pump unit
alone of a comparable home. Compared energy carrier exhaust air, electricity solar collector plant (cover- 58 %
to a conventional new build completed photovoltaic plant 4.1 kWp age rate)

according to EnEV, these savings are Particularities

equivalent to the total heating costs. ground heat exchanger

5.38
59
Reference buildings – residential

Courtyard housing
Winterthur, CH 2007

Client:
Building 1: Profond Vorsorgeeinrichtung,
Rüschlikon
Building 2: Allianz Suisse Lebens-
versicherungs-Gesellschaft, Zurich
Architect:
Dietrich Schwarz Architekten, Zurich
Building services and building physics:
Amstein + Walthert, Zurich

The conversion of former industrial and
military sites is a fundamental aspect of
inner city development. The derelict areas
generally have great potential for redevel-
opment due to their central locations. But
it is precisely the first projects on such
sites that struggle with their role as pio-
neers. The residential estate Eulachhof in
Winterthur is a perfect example for the
strategy of setting an “urban anchor“ in
the process of change with the aim of
helping residents to relate to their new
environment.
The two courtyards are each flanked by
one long, five-storey, south-facing resi-
dential block, with a fairly deep floor plan,
and, attaching to either end, two narrower
two-storey blocks with terrace housing
and a few small commercial units.
The courtyards are designed as commu-
nal gardens for the residents; narrow pas-
sageways through them provide connec-
tions to the surrounding streets. The
basements and underground car parks
are half set into the ground. This reduced
the amount of excavated material and
allowed the ground floor of the apart-
ments facing onto the semi-public garden
courtyards and those directly beside the
public footpaths to be raised.
5.39
There are two units per staircase, which
means that the apartments extend from
one side of the building to the other; they
therefore face in two directions and
receive daylight from both sides. Unlike
the staircase, the kitchen, sanitary and
storage rooms, which are located in the
middle of the deep apartments, all bed-
rooms and living rooms are placed along-
side the facades.
The cube-shaped volumes are extremely
compact, owing to their large depth, and
are really only structured by the spacious
balconies, which have been set outside
the thermal envelope. The facade design

5.40
60
 Courtyard housing in Winterthur

5.39 Site plan, scale 1:3000

5.40 Courtyard with view from south
5.41 View from north-east with store frontage
5.42 Section a – a, scale 1:1000
5.43 Ground floor plan, scale 1:1000
1 shops/commercial units
2 apartments
3 terrace houses
5.41
is characterised by grey-varnished timber
cladding and floor-to-ceiling window
openings. Due to the way in which the
blocks are connected and the positions
that have been chosen for passageways,
the urban scheme is, from a pedestrian
point of view, perceived as a large single
perimeter block development.

Building construction
The buildings have been erected using a
mixed construction method with facades
consisting of timber frame components
while reinforced concrete was used for 5.42
the load-bearing structure and most of
the interior walls. Triple glazed windows
have been installed in all apartments; the
south facades have furthermore been
equipped with special glazing elements
with transparent thermal insulation. These
consist of quadruple glazing with an inte- 3 3
grated prism system and phase-change
material, which allows the solar heat gain
in winter to be used in a time-delayed
mode. The prism system is designed to
prevent the interior space from overheat-
ing during hot summer periods.
One of the key details in this building is at
the junction between the floor slabs and
the facades. In order to fulfil the fire pro-
tection requirements, complicated by the
timber cladding, the rear ventilation 2 2
space had to be interrupted with sheet
metal profiles to provide one bulkhead
per storey. This compartmentalisation has
a considerable impact on the facade’s a a
horizontal configuration.
All junctions between the timber and con-
crete structures have to fulfil the require-
ments for fire protection, noise insulation
and airtightness. Moreover, the depth of
insulation behind the blind boxes has 1 1 1 1
been reduced to conceal the fitting of the
exterior shading devices. In addition, this
junction zone has been used to incorpo-
rate the air intake for the airbox and the
brackets for the balcony slab. 5.43

61
Reference buildings – residential

4
5.45
3 5.44 Vertical section timber facade (balcony)
scale 1:20
1 flat roof:
40 mm gravel, extensive roof planting
waterproofing membrane
polymer bitumen barrier, 2 layers
360 mm mineral fibre insulation
vapour barrier
330 mm reinforced concrete roof slab
5 mm gypsum plaster
2 window lintel:
22 mm Douglas fir cladding, weathered,
natural oil-stained finish
40 mm cavity/battens
wind paper
15 mm gypsum fibreboard
cellulose insulation
15 mm OSB board
vapour barrier
40 mm mineral wool insulation
9 reinforced concrete floor slab
3 window:
triple glazing in timber/aluminium frame,
stainless steel spacer, butyl rubber seal
4 exterior shading device:
aluminium blind
5 upper storey floor slab:
10 5 10 mm oak parquet flooring
70 mm screed with underfloor heating
PE foil, vapour barrier
30 mm impact sound insulation
220 mm reinforced concrete floor slab
5 mm gypsum plaster
6 precast concrete element, 2 % slope
7 ground floor/basement floor slab:
8 mm oak parquet flooring
80 mm screed with underfloor heating
0.2 mm PE foil, vapour barrier
20 mm impact sound insulation
4 180 mm mineral fibre insulation, load-
bearing
3 vapour barrier, fully bonded
310 mm reinforced concrete floor slab
8 base:
8 mm protection fleece
5 mm bitumen sealing membrane
150 mm concrete parapet
120 mm EPS insulation
reinforced concrete floor slab
9 balcony railing:
6 7 22 mm Douglas fir cladding, weathered,
natural oil-stained finish
50 mm steel bracket, galvanised
10/90 mm hand rail, galvanised flat steel
10 balcony:
210 mm precast concrete element
broom-finished surface, gutter incorporated
8 5.45 Courtyard view with balconies
5.46 Apartment floor plans with building services.
The left apartment illustrates the ventilation sys-
tem; the right one the heating system.
5.47 Functional diagram of building services
5.48 Building data

5.44
62
 Courtyard housing in Winterthur

Airbox 1
Building services
In each of the buildings three systems are underfloor
heating
used to generate heat: an exhaust air and in-duct
a waste water heat pump, as well as dis- supply air
trict heat as a back-up system during heater
outside air
peak periods. The main objective of the air inlet
concept is to make full use of the waste supply air
heat produced in the building (extract air, supply air
outlet
waste water) to cover the heat demand. extract air
The solution chosen here is, for several extract valve
reasons, unusual for Passive House build- distributor for
extract air
ings. Instead of using a heat exchanger in with fire
the mechanical ventilation unit, this sys- damper
tem takes a detour via an exhaust air heat
pump, from where the heat is transferred
to the in-duct heating coils in the supply
air ducts and the underfloor heating sys-
tems in the facade zones. This solution
ensures that the ventilation concept can
be divided into centralised and decentral-
ised components. The outside air is
drawn in through the facade and directed
to a ceiling integrated airbox, which incor-
porates a filter, fan, air heater and sound
Airbox 2
attenuator. Each apartment has two of
these units with very short runs to provide 5.46
fresh air to the main rooms located in the airbox for preheating
facade zones. of supply air
The disadvantages of this solution are exhaust air supply air waste water photovoltaics heat
power
that extra heating is required in colder HE heat exchanger
periods, when the outside air temperature HP heat pump
HE AH HE
drops below 12 °C, that all apartments AH in-duct air heater
must be accessed to service and change
the filters in the total of 290 units, and that
excellent sound insulation is required for
the units, which are placed in the ceilings
above the bedrooms. The waste air is HP I hot water electricity inverter
HP II
extracted from the rooms in the core underfloor
zones and directed to the exhaust air heating
heat pump in the basement via a central
vertical service shaft. district power
The waste water heat pump is used to heat grid
5.47
produce domestic hot water in the build-
ing. This is achieved by collecting the Building data
faecal-free waste water in a tank in the Use
basement. A brine heat exchanger and a residential and commercial
heat pump then extract the heat from the Areas
waste water and use it to produce gross floor area (GFA) 23,870 m2 floor space index (FSI) 1.54
domestic hot water. treated floor area (TFA) 20,400 m2 gross volume (V) 96,300 m3
thermal envelope area (A) 20,028 m2 A / V ratio 0.21
The electricity to operate the heat pumps Aweighted /TFA 0.82
as well as all other auxiliary equipment is U-values [W/m2K]
financially balanced by a roof-mounted roof 0.10 W/m2K wall 0.13 W/m2K
photovoltaic array that feeds solar power ground slab 0.07 W/m2K window: Uw-value 0.80 W/m2K
into the public grid. If the amount of dis- glazing-to-floor area ratio 0.227 g-value 0.50
(glazing/TFA)
trict heat through waste incineration were
Energy performance data Minergie-P
also considered renewable, the total heat
space heat demand 32.8 kWh/m2a ventilation system decentralised airbox,
demand would be, in terms of a zero- weighted energy demand 19.5 kWh/m2a centralised extraction
energy balance, covered by renewable heat supply rate no heat recovery blower-door test 1/h (50 Pa) 0.6
primary energy sources only. The domes- Heat supply system exhaust air and waste water heat pumps; district heat
tic power consumption, on the other energy carrier exhaust air, waste water, photovoltaic array 186 kWp
hand, is taken from the public grid and is electricity, district heat solar collectors (coverage rate) not installed

therefore not part of this project’s zero- Particularities

energy concept. Mechanical ventilation unit without a heat recovery system, but with an exhaust air heat pump instead
5.48
63
Reference buildings – residential

Residential and care home

Hannover, D 2008

Client:
Landeshauptstadt Hannover
Architect:
Pfitzner Moorkens Architekten, Hannover
Building services:
Planungsgruppe VA, Hannover
Passive House consultant:
Carsten Grobe, Ottbergen

Homes for elderly people require a differ-
entiated approach. On the one hand, it is
necessary to meet the needs for self-
determination and independence; on the
other hand, there are the diverse and
complex conditions of individual care and
support. The Kurt Bahlsen House in Han-
nover has fulfilled these demands to the
full and met Passive House standard at
the same time. The residential and care
home is divided into four residential com-
munities for a total of 48 senior citizens.
These are arranged in two parallel, but
slightly offset linear buildings, which
relate to the surrounding parkland. The
entrance area, the main staircase and the
communal rooms for various events are
located in a separate building, a trans-
verse element which connects the two
residential wings. The offices and rooms
for special care are located immediately
next to the entrance foyer.
Through this arrangement of buildings,
the architects have created different open
spaces and incorporated neighbouring
public buildings and exterior zones into
the overall master plan. In the south, the
entrance courtyard relates to the neigh-
bouring children’s day care centre and
community centre. The garden courtyard
5.49
in the north opens out to parkland, the
Bothfelder Anger, and provides a com-
fortable and safe abode for dementia
patients.
Each residential community, including a
range of smaller rooms for single persons
and larger rooms for couples, is assigned
its own kitchen, dining and living room for
the residents’ own use. Two-storey con-
servatories function as additional links
between the residential communities. All
corridors and hall areas open out to the
communal gardens, thus enabling the
residents to enjoy the views and have a
better appreciation of their surroundings.

5.50
64
 Residential and care home in Hannover

5.49 Main access/entrance courtyard

5.50 North-facing garden courtyard
5.51 Site plan, scale 1:2000
5.52 Section a – a, scale 1:500
5.53 Ground floor plan, scale 1:500
1 entrance foyer
2 office
3 living room
4 kitchen
5 dining room
6 bedroom
7 conservatory
5.54 Interior
a view out to conservatory
b bedroom

5.51

5.52

6
6
6
6
6
6 6
7
6 6
6
6 6 6
6

6 6 6
3
2 6
4

7 a
5 2 2
a 1 a
6
2

6
5

6
4

3
6

5.53 b 5.54
65
Reference buildings – residential

11
1
5

12

3
13

4
14

8
9
10

5.55
5.55 Vertical section street facade, scale 1:20
1 flat roof, extensive planting:
80 mm vegetation, filter fleece
50 mm strip of pebbles
bitumen waterproofing membrane, 2 layers
≥ 20 mm EPS insulation, laid to fall
220 mm EPS insulation, vapour barrier
160 mm reinforced concrete roof slab
2 exterior wall:
15 mm exterior rendering, 22 mm plaster lath
240 mm thermal insulation
175 mm limestone lintel
15 mm interior plaster
3 Passive House window:
triple glazing in wood/aluminium frame
4 sun shading device: aluminium blind
5.56 Vertical section entrance foyer facade,
scale 1:20
5 sun shading device:
180/26 mm fixed larch louvres, weathered
100/15 mm flat steel profile
6 truss top chord:
180/100/8 mm rectangular steel hollow
section
7 Ø 25 mm steel stiffening rod
8 truss bottom chord:
120/120/4 mm rectangular steel hollow
section
9 roof over entrance:
zinc sheet covering
bitumen separating layer
25 mm plywood panel
60/100 mm squared timber
66
5.56
25 mm plywood panel
34/34 mm batten cladding
10 rain gutter
11 flat roof, extensive planting:
80 mm vegetation, filter fleece
50 mm strip of pebbles
bitumen waterproofing membrane, 2 layers
20 –170 mm EPS insulation, laid to fall
220 mm EPS insulation
vapour barrier
160/300 mm ribbed reinforced concrete slab
12.5 mm suspended plasterboard ceiling
12 window lintel and parapet:
8 mm single pane security glass
glass fibre fleece
290 mm mineral wool insulation
20 mm plywood panel
210 mm recycled XPS loose-fill insulation
20 mm plywood panel
13 window:
double glazing in wood/aluminium frame
14 first floor slab:
30 mm concrete floor tiles
50 mm cement screed
PE foil
20 mm impact sound insulation (WLG 035)
20 mm polystyrene insulation (WLG 035)
160/300 mm ribbed reinforced concrete slab
12.5 mm suspended gypsum plasterboard
ceiling, smooth finish, painted
5.57 Entrance foyer with fixed sun shading louvres
5.58 Floor plan with building services concept
5.59 Building data
5.57
 Residential and care home in Hannover

Building construction
The residential and care home has been
built as a solid construction. The sub-
structure and the floor slabs are made of
reinforced concrete, the walls of sandlime
brick; some of the interior walls are made
of gypsum plasterboard. The building
features a composite thermal insulation
system for the walls, roof insulation laid to
fall and foamed glass gravel below the
ground slab. As a consequence, the con-
struction is inexpensive and flawless from
a building physics point of view.
The transverse element with the entrance
foyer has been conceived as a buffer
zone and therefore does not meet the
Passive House standard. This solution
made it easier to meet requirements for
fire protection and airtightness in connec-
tion with the open staircase and the lift;
furthermore, the use of the foyer for tem-
porary activities does not have a major
impact on the ventilation and heating con-
cept. Most of the facade in the entrance
foyer is only double glazed. A fixed shad-
ing device has been positioned in front of
the large, south-facing windows.
The Passive House windows in the resi-
dential wings are not perfectly placed in
the insulation plane; however, the position
was chosen to allow concealed fitting of
the exterior blind and to cover the window exhaust air
frame with a small amount of insulation. supply air
radiator
Even so, the windows are still subject to heating – forward/return flow
thermal bridging. heating – riser
extract air terminal (wall)
The roof parapet is executed using an extract air terminal (ceiling)
insulated timber frame construction. This supply air terminal (jet nozzle)
junction is thermal bridge-free and per- supply air terminal (disc valve)
fect for fixing the waterproofing mem-
brane. Except for the unavoidable, point- 5.58
fixed, stainless steel fittings, the balconies
and terraces are thermally separated
from the building envelope.

Building services Building data

A district heating network supplies the Use
residential and care home with heat. A residential and care home
mechanical ventilation unit with heat Areas
recovery takes care of the fresh air supply gross floor area (GFA) 3638.4 m2 floor space index (FSI) 0.65
treated floor area (TFA) 2725 m2 gross volume (V) 12,374 m3
and exhaust air extraction. For reasons of thermal envelope area (A) 5345 m2 A / V ratio 0.432
fire protection, the building is divided into A weighted /TFA 1.615
several ventilation zones, each with an U-values [W/m2K]
independent air heater for the supply of roof 0.108 W/m2K wall 0.128 W/m2K
heat to the corresponding area. A ground ground slab 0.154 W/m2K window: Uw-value 0.94 W/m2K
g-value 0.57
heat exchanger is used for frost protec-
Energy performance data PHPP
tion purposes as well as the preheating of
space heat demand 15 kWh/m2a heat load 11.9 W/m2
supply air in winter and, accordingly, for primary energy demand 104 kWh/m2a ventilation system central
passive cooling in summer. The mechani- heat supply rate 77 % blower-door test 1/h (50 Pa) 0.38
cal ventilation unit does not take care of Heat supply system
the air exchange in the centre zone, with energy carrier district heat solar collectors (coverage rate) not installed
the foyer, main staircase, lift and common photovoltaics not installed

room. If there is a need for fresh air, the Particularities

windows are simply opened. ground-to-brine heat exchanger

5.59
67
Urban design
Impact of energy-related aspects on
the urban design
Today catchwords, such as “solar city” or
“energy-efficient urban development”, are
being used to highlight the increasing
significance of energy-related issues with
new model and design concepts in town
planning schemes. More often than not in
these cases the space/energy-related
interdependencies are given priority and
demanded as design principles without
taking into consideration the effects of
their unilateral application on an urban
and social level. In response to these
conflicts and the complex nature of the
interdependencies, many “traditional”
town planners are trying to keep energy-
related issues out of the urban design
process.
The aim of the following contents is to
bring together the two perspectives in
such a way that the energy-related issues
become an essential component of the
urban design without dominating the pro-
cess in a one-sided manner. A variety of
studies and already completed residential
housing estates have shown that the Pas-
sive House concept is capable of offering
suitable and practical solutions in this
respect.
direct radiation
overshadowing
by vegetation
overshadowing by topography
68
Influencing factors of energy-efficient
urban planning
The factors influencing energy-efficient
urban planning are extremely diverse,
and complex in the way they correlate.
It is for this reason that there are many
publications containing statements and
requirements which appear contradictory.
For urban design, it is therefore abso-
lutely essential to be able to differentiate
between important and less important
parameters while at the same time keep-
ing an eye on the energy-related and
spatial conditions.
The results of the author’s [1, 2, 3] sys-
tematic studies on the interdependencies
of town planning and energy-related
issues can be summarised as follows
(figs. 6.1 to 6.6):
• The choice of the buildings’ energy per-
formance is the most important and
overriding factor concerning the energy
demand of a residential housing estate.
• Alongside the energy performance of
buildings, the building services concept
is mainly responsible for the level of the
primary energy demand and the green-
house gas emissions of the estate.
• The density of housing is the most
important space/energy design param-
diffuse radiation
reflected radiation
infrared radiation
overshadowing by neighbouring buildings
6.1
• Impact of energy-related aspects
on the urban design
• Design principles of compact and
solar building
• Model urban design guidelines
• Reference projects
• Completed Passive House
developments
eter in town planning. This factor is also
extremely significant in terms of eco-
nomic efficiency.
• The location and positioning of structural
elements in town planning schemes
has an impact on the sunlight situation.
The orientation of main facades and
roofs, in particular, as well as the over-
shadowing produced by topography,
neighbouring buildings and vegetation
have an impact on the effective amount
of solar heat gain.
• In summer as in winter, thermal comfort
is better in buildings where the main
facades face south. However, south-
facing windows require some kind of
shading device in summer.
• The overshadowing of facades is more
pronounced on lower floors and in inner
corners. Careful attention should be
paid to these areas in terms of captur-
ing sufficient sun and daylight.
• The regional climate – even a distinctive
climate of a small-scale area – is an
important influencing factor on space
heat demand and even more so on
thermal comfort in indoor and outdoor
spaces in summer.
• A number of principles that have been
regarded as very important in the past,
such as wind protection, preventing the
a b
c d 6.2
 Design principles of compact and solar building

Annual space heat demand [kWh/m2a]

Annual space heat demand [%]

based on south-oriented design
100 160 Passive House
formation of cold air pools or the use of
90 Low Energy House
fully-glazed buffer rooms, take a back EnEV
150
seat today due to the airtight and very 80 (each with 30 %
window area)
well insulated construction of the build- 70
ing envelope. 140
60

The interaction of the above-mentioned 50 Passive House, 20 % window area 130

influencing factors can be assessed by Passive House, 30% window area
40 Low Energy House, 20% window area
performing special urban energy studies. Low Energy House, 30% window area 120
30
The aim is to draw up an energy balance EnEV, 20% window area
of a housing estate and the individual 20 EnEV, 30% window area
110
buildings while taking into consideration 10
the energy performance of the buildings
0 100
and the urban spatial conditions of the north east south west north north east south west north
environment. There is a range of special a Orientation b Orientation
simulation programs for this purpose, for
Annual space heat demand [%]
based on south-oriented design

Annual space heat demand [%]

based on south-oriented design
160 160
example GOSOL, which even highlights linear apartment blocks linear apartment blocks
detached apartment blocks detached apartment blocks
the potential for improving performance 150 single-family homes 150 single-family homes
and, hence, the results (form factor, perimeter block development perimeter block development
reduced solar heat gain in relation to 140 140
perfect orientation and minimum over-
shadowing). 130 130

Design principles of compact and solar 120 120

building
110 110
In urban planning the spatial determi-
100 100
nants, such as the position and distance
of buildings, the number of storeys, the
90 90
depth of the building and the vegetation, north east south west north north east south west north
have a considerable impact on the c Orientation d Orientation
energy demand of a residential housing 6.3
Annual specific space heat demand [kWh/m2a]

estate. Based on these influencing 140 1.0

Reduction factor for overshadowing

parameters, it is possible to establish 0.9

120
design principles for a compact and/or 0.8
solar urban design. If the space heat residential dwellings acc. to EnEV
100 0.7
demand is selected as the most important
criterion, the parameters can either refer 80
0.6
to the heat loss properties of the estate – 0.5
the specific surface-to-volume ratio, A / V 60
0.4
or A weighted /TFA (fig. 6.2) – or the amount Low Energy Houses
of heat that can be captured on the estate 40 0.3
– the specific solar gain [4]. The applica- row of trees
0.2 block
tion of these principles in town planning 20 terrace
0.1
procedures must always be weighed with Passive Houses courtyard
other urban considerations, and any con- 0 0.0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
flicting goals must be resolved.
Form factor Aweighted /TFA Distance-to-height ratio
6.4 6.5

6.1 Schematic diagram of the sunlight situation in a
residential housing estate. The residential
housing estate and its solar aperture receive
solar radiation in the form of direct, diffuse and
reflected radiation. In order to assess the over-
all situation in terms of solar energy, the radia-
tion received by the solar aperture surfaces
must be calculated for each different type of
radiation independent of orientation, inclination
and overshadowing (e.g. by neighbouring
buildings and vegetation). The long-wave radi-
ation exchange is also of significance (e.g.
radiation exchange with the cold night sky).
6.2 Abstract residential estate typologies as a
basis for energy-efficient urban design studies:
a single family home housing estate
b detached apartment blocks
c linear blocks all with south orientation
d perimeter block development
6.3 Studies concerning the energy impact of orien- facades, the window surface area in the main
tation on the annual space heat demand facade is increased by a factor of 1.5.
according to the energy standard of the build- d like c, however, in this case, the ratio is 20 %
ing, the window surface area and the type of and the distribution of windows is equal
development. Conclusion: it is not possible to throughout the facades.
make a general statement about building orien- 6.4 Annual space heat demand for a variety of
tation. The energy impact is very much depend- building types or buildings with differing form
ent on the boundary conditions. factors according to different energy standards
a annual space heat demand of a terrace house EnEV: German Energy Performance of Buildings
estate according to the orientation of the main Directive (EnEV 2002)
facade and the energy standard LEH: Low Energy House
b like a, however, in this case, the assessment PH: Passive House
of the relative differences is based on south- 6.5 Reduction factor for overshadowing dependent
facing buildings (= 100 %) on the distance-to-height ratio (D/H ratio, dis-
c relative impact of the orientation on the annual tance between buildings in relation to the height
space heat demand for different types of of the building or vegetation/trees) for a single-
developments with Passive House standard. family home estate, a terrace or road situation,
The ratio of window surface area to treated courtyard housing or a row of broadleaf trees set
floor area is 30 %. In comparison to all other in front of the south facade.

69
Urban design
Design principles of compact building
The most important design principles of
compact building are summarised in fig-
ure 6.7. Alongside a fairly general assess-
ment of the energy-related significance,
the overview also includes the impact on
the maximum achievable structural den-
sity, the conservation of resources in
terms of energy and space, as well as the
ability to form space on an urban scale.
The number of storeys, the depth and
length of buildings as well as the use of
recessed or projecting elements in the
facade are key factors in this respect.
Naturally, single-storey buildings do not
perform very well. The compactness, or
form factor, of buildings is generally pre-
determined by the configuration of build-
ings or by the types of buildings used in
the town planning concept (fig. 4.4, p. 35
and fig. 6.11, p. 72).
Design principles of solar urban design
The most important design principles of
solar urban design are (fig. 6.8):
• a south orientation of buildings, their
main facades and solar system sur-
faces (photovoltaic panels, solar ther-
mal collectors)
• limiting the overshadowing of solar
aperture (windows, collectors, photovol-
taics) through topography, vegetation,
neighbouring buildings and construc-
tional elements from the building itself
• making use of climate advantages (e.g.
south-facing hillsides and wind pro-
tected zones, but avoiding foggy
areas).
These design principles are highly appre-
ciated because they also have an impor-
tant role in terms of well-being (e.g. the
amount of sunlight that enters a home).
However, the implementation of the prin-
ciples is always doomed to failure when
the conditions of the property or the spe-
6.6 Impact of space formation on the annual space
heat demand. Comparison of different develop-
ment structures. For further information see [1],
pp. X –19ff.
a different urban structures A – F with an indica-
tion of their floor space index (FSI)
b annual space heat demand for the estates
A – F built according to Passive House
standard
6.7 Design principles of a compact urban design/
compact building. Assessment of the energy-re-
lated significance and the impact on the achiev-
able density, the protection of resources and the
formation of space in an urban environment.
++ very positive impact
+ positive impact
o neutral impact
– negative impact
– – very negative impact
6.8 Design principles of a solar urban design/solar
building. Otherwise identical to figure 6.7
70
cific requirements of the scheme lead to
the following conflicting goals in the early
phases of the design.
Conflicting goals
When applying the aforementioned
design principles, conflicts inevitably
arise in the following situations:
• The demand for perfect sunlight condi-
tions in winter leads to an increase in
the distance between buildings and in
the amount of space used.
• A strict south orientation of buildings is
frequently difficult to achieve. The ques-
tion concerning the orientation of build-
ings can by no means be limited to
sunlight or energy-related aspects. Infill
developments with a predetermined
context (access, topography, morphol-
ogy), the need to block off disturbing
situations (noise, commercial or indus-
trial units) or the need to turn towards
attractive features (view, landscape)
frequently weigh stronger than all
aspects concerning sunlight. Neverthe-
less, if there are no serious urban
objections, it is definitely an advantage
to choose a south (± 45 degrees) orien-
tation for the buildings’ main facades.
• The formation of space in an urban
environment always involves accepting
a certain amount of overshadowing
(across corner and horizontal over-
shadowing) as well as buildings or
parts of buildings that are not ideally
oriented (e.g. perimeter block develop-
ments, L-shaped buildings, courtyards
and squares). The play of light and
shadow is also a fundamental aspect
concerning the way in which space is
perceived [5].
• Planting in a residential environment
conflicts with the demand for minimum
overshadowing. This contradiction can
be alleviated in the case of Passive
Houses by using broadleaf trees,
A B C
south terraces, south-facing mixed south +
high density terraces west terraces
(FSI = 1.29) (FSI = 1.07) (FSI = 1.07)
D E F
terraces around west-facing perimeter
courtyard terraces block
(FSI = 1.07) (FSI = 1.07) (FSI = 1.65)
a b
because the overshadowing during the
very short heating period is caused only
by branches. In summer, on the other
hand, overshadowing by the foliage is
desirable as a means of improving ther-
mal comfort conditions in the dwelling
units and open spaces.
• The principles of compact building can
also only be applied along with the con-
sideration of other urban issues. The
number of storeys, for example, can
only be increased in accordance with
the context of the scheme and to a very
limited extent. The depth of buildings is
determined by the layout; the aim here
is to avoid dark centre zones with lim-
ited use.
Formation of urban space
The formation of space can be used as a
touchstone for the application of princi-
ples distinct to an energy and space-
saving urban design (fig. 6.6). The Pas-
sive House concept as an energy effi-
ciency standard can easily satisfy the
complexity of these principles since its
compactness weighs stronger than the
aspects of south orientation or minimum
overshadowing. As illustrated in fig-
ure 6.11 (p. 72), compact residential
housing estates can be used to achieve
high densities and therefore a reduced
demand for space. Moreover, in the case
of Passive House buildings, there are no
special requirements concerning solar
aperture, floor plans or roof design. The
energy performance of the thermal enve-
lope and the building services are mainly
responsible for the energy efficiency,
and no limitations are imposed on these
aspects by the urban design. These
advantages are even more pronounced in
the case of energy efficiency upgrades
as the conditions concerning the urban
and architectural design have generally
already been determined.
Annual space heat demand [kWh/m2a]
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
A B C D E F
6.6

Planning principles and aspects of compact urban design/compact building
Planning principle or
aspect
Greater number of
storeys (I – III)
Greater number of
storeys ( > IV)
Greater building depth
Greater building length
(linear development)
Building proportions opti-
mised for better form factor
Roof landscape optimised
to achieve greater compact-
ness
Prevention of protrusions
and setbacks in the build-
ing‘s thermal envelope
Planning principles and aspects of solar urban design/solar building
Planning principle or
aspect
South orientation of
main facades
Sunlight-oriented distribution
of windows (A) or
enlargement of south-facing
window area (B)
Solar-optimised distance
between buildings
(D/H = 3.0 – 5.0)
Solar-optimised arrange-
ment of buildings
Solar-optimised distance
between vegetation and
facade
Use of climate advantages
(south-facing hillside) or so-
lar-optimised terrace con-
structions
Perfect orientation and incli-
nation of solar roofs (local
solar heat, zero or plus ener-
gy housing estates)
Energy-related impact Impact on achievable density
space heat demand: +++ linear development: +++
heat load: +/++ block /courtyard
development: ++
detached development: ++
space heat demand: +/++ linear development: +
heat load: +/o block /courtyard
development: +
detached development: o/+
space heat demand: +/++ linear development: +/++
heat load: + block /courtyard
development: +/++
detached development: +/++
space heat demand: + in comparison to open building
heat load: o/+ configurations with detached
buildings or short terraces, the
structural density is increased
space heat demand: o/+ linear development: o/+
heat load: o block /courtyard
development: o
detached development: +
space heat demand: + particularly for developments
heat load: +/o with few storeys, there is po-
tential to create additional resi-
dential space through roof ex-
tensions
space heat demand: +/++ no impact
heat load: +/++
Energy-related impact Impact on achievable density
insolation: ++ no direct impact
space heat demand: +/++ indirectly: preference of linear
heat load: +/o developments with low density
summer climate:+
insolation: ++ no impact
space heat demand: +/++
heat load: +/o
summer climate (A): +/o
summer climate (B): –/– –
insolation: ++ severe reduction of density in
space heat demand: + comparison to solution which
heat load: +/o observes the minimum re-
summer climate: – quired distance
insolation: + if the distance between the
space heat demand: +/o buildings has to be increased
heat load: +/o to achieve better insolation,
summer climate: –/o the density is reduced consid-
erably
insolation: + no impact
space heat demand: +/o
heat load: +/o
summer climate: –
insolation: + density is increased by reduc-
space heat demand: +/o ing the distance between
heat load: +/o buildings
summer climate: –/o
considerable influence on depending on energy supply
solar yield of systems; system, the number of storeys
great economic signifi- is limited to three or four
cance due to high system
costs
Design principles of compact and solar building
Contribution towards resource
protection: energy/space
low developments (single-storey;
single-storey with roof) are especial-
ly resource intensive; important con-
sideration for improving resource
efficiency
impact decreases for buildings with
more than four storeys; however, ad-
ditional measures are required, e.g.
fire protection, lifts
in an urban context: combined im-
provement of form factor, density
and sunlight conditions in apart-
ments
low positive impact by reducing the
energy and space demand
only of significance for small build-
ings
in developments with few storeys,
this can, in some circumstances, be
an important contribution towards
resource efficiency (e.g. infill devel-
opments)
no contribution
Contribution towards resource
protection: energy/space
significant reduction of space heat
demand in the case of aligned de-
velopments; otherwise only a low
impact
moderate reduction of space heat
demand
considerable increase of space de-
mand with only a slight reduction of
energy demand
slight reduction of energy demand;
however, in some circumstances,
the result may be a considerable in-
crease of space demand
no contribution
either reduction of the space heat
demand (the same distances) or
considerable reduction of the space
demand
reduced use of fossil fuels; limited
density due to the limited availability
of surfaces for solar installations
Impact on the formation of
urban space
no direct impact
no direct impact;
high-rise residential buildings are
often criticised for social reasons
no direct impact;
maximum building depth should
be limited according to the struc-
tural geometries and the situation
concerning overshadowing (floor
plan design)
very long buildings in residential
developments are regarded as
unfavourable in terms of social-
spatial aspects (lack of resident
identification)
fluid transformation of solitaire
and linear developments influ-
ences the formation of urban
space.
asymmetric roof shapes require
special attention regarding the
formation of urban space due to
the different eave heights
a structured appearance of build-
ings is necessary in residential
developments to enable resi-
dents to better identify with their
home
6.7
Impact on the formation of
urban space
strict south orientation leads to
poor quality of space and lack of
differentiation (e.g. exclusively
south-facing terraces)
none; strategic significance to
compensate for the unfavourable
orientation of buildings frequently
encountered in urban situations
building distances that are (too)
large are frequently not very ben-
eficial in terms of creating mean-
ingful space
results in an even distribution of
buildings on the plot with a lack of
differentiated space
vegetation is an important feature
used to structure and create
differentiated access routes and
public spaces
due to the differing heights of the
space enclosing structures, care-
ful attention must be paid to the
formation of urban space
housing estates with solar roofs
are distinguished by the typical
issues associated with south-
facing terraces; high north fa-
cades are unfavourable in terms
of social-spatial aspects
6.8
71
Urban design
Req. average U-value (opaque components) [W/m2K]

0.50 south, no overshadowing Model urban design guidelines

0.45 west, no overshadowing
multi-family dwellings south, overshadowing
0.40 west, overshadowing Systematic research into Passive House
west, extreme overshadowing estates has shown that the significance of
0.35
solar strategies in urban design is very
0.30 terrace houses much dependent on the density and com-
0.25 pactness of buildings (fig. 6.9 – 6.11):
single-family homes • Dwellings and residential housing
0.20
estates that are neither dense nor com-
0.15 pact (single-storey buildings and small
courtyard houses
0.10 single-family homes) generally require a
0.05
great deal of effort and expense to
meet Passive House standard.
0.00 Improvements in terms of solar perfor-
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5
Form factor A weighted/TFA mance (south orientation, minimum
6.9 overshadowing) are absolutely essen-
Req. average U-value (opaque components) [W/m2K]

0.60 south, no overshadowing tial for these building types.

0.55 multi-family dwellings west, no overshadowing
south, overshadowing • In the case of dwellings and residential
0.50
west, overshadowing housing estates with an average
0.45 west, extreme overshadowing degree of compactness (multi-storey
0.40 single-family homes, terrace housing,
0.35 terrace houses small multi-family homes), the urban
0.30 design and energy-related parameters,
0.25 single-family homes form factor, orientation and overshad-
0.20 owing, have a considerable impact on
0.15 courtyard houses costs. However, unfavourable condi-
0.10
tions can be compensated for with justi-
fiable expenditure.
0.05
• In terms of the requirements imposed
0.00
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5
on the building envelope, extremely
Form factor A weighted/TFA compact dwellings and residential
6.10
housing estates are comparable with
typical low-energy constructions. Situa-
Density [FSI module]

5.0
dense apartment blocks
4.5 apartment blocks
tions with unfavourable orientation and
detached housing estate overshadowing can be improved with
4.0 (offset) only a moderate amount of extra effort.
detached housing estate
3.5
terrace housing estate
• Thus, Passive House buildings are also
3.0 courtyard housing estate suitable for inner city locations with a
single-family home estate high density and unfavourable sunlight
2.5
conditions.
2.0 • As a consequence of the technological
1.5 advances in the area of Passive House
components (windows, glazing,
1.0
mechanical ventilation units), opportuni-
0.5 ties for the implementation of Passive
0 Houses in cities are increasing. This is
0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8 4.0 4.2 especially true for borderline cases with
Form factor A weighted/TFA a fairly low degree of compactness.
6.11

Design tool
6.9 Required average U-value of the opaque, insu- 6.11 Relationship between the energy-related form The urban design principles are also suit-
lated surfaces (roof, exterior wall, basement factor and achievable density. These are the
ceiling) in order to meet Passive House standard results from a study that analysed 1800 residen-
able to make some first design-related
(space heat demand = 15 kWh/m2a) for build- tial housing estates with different types of assessments concerning the perfor-
ings with different orientations and degrees of buildings. One of the first observations that can mance and capacity of Passive House
overshadowing in relation to their form factor be made is that there is no direct relation be-
(A weighted /TFA). For further information see [1], tween the density and the energy-related form components. To begin with, it is really
pp. VIII – 42ff. The following conditions were factor. Provided that solar-optimised building only necessary to determine the form fac-
used for the calculations: distances are applied, the density achieved is
• U-value of window: 0.8 W/m2K low even if very compact building configurations
tor of the buildings and make some rough
• g-value of glazing: 0.50 are used. estimates of the solar situation (orienta-
• energy-equivalent air change rate nl: 0.08 h-1 On the other hand, it is true that high densities tion, overshadowing). According to this,
• window surface area: 20 % of TFA can generally be achieved with compact build-
6.10 like fig. 4.9, but with better quality Passive ing structures. Courtyard housing estates are an urban design and energy-related studies
House components (windows + ventilation unit): exception: despite their low to average form are a suitable tool for looking into strate-
• U-value of windows: 0.60 W/m2K factors, they can achieve densities comparable
• g-value of glazing: 0.55 to those of multi-storey buildings.
gic design issues – also in terms of ensur-
• energy-equivalent air change rate nl: 0.06 h-1 For further information see [1], pp. XI–13ff. ing cost-efficient developments.

72
 Reference project

Reference project

This reference project is designed to illus-

trate how climate protection strategies
can be applied to a specific urban devel-
opment scheme. Here it is the conversion
of the former barracks Prinz Eugen
Kaserne in Munich into a new urban dis-
trict for 5000 residents with 1800 apart-
ments, school and child care facilities,
office buildings and a central square with
local amenities.
• The proposal is based on the idea of
creating a densely built, mixed-use
quarter with several development
blocks or pockets, which are able to
function as independent neighbour-
hoods (fig. 6.12 a and b).
• The public space and the residential
courtyards are characterised by clear
urban features with differentiated pro-
portions. The school, as one of the
components, is also incorporated into
this basic structural concept.
• All buildings meet Passive House
standard. However, the constructional
and technical input to meet the energy
criteria differs according to the form
factor, orientation and overshadowing
of the individual buildings (fig. 6.12 d).
• The majority of buildings face south. In
particular, in the case of the less dense a
configurations with semi-detached and
terrace housing, all main facades are
oriented south.
• Areas for photovoltaic panels are pro-
vided on south-facing roofs.
• Heating is supplied by a district heating
system using a low-temperature net-
work (Low-EX). The main network is
kept to a minimum by incorporating
only one substation per block and then
using so-called mini networks. The
higher temperature required for domes-
tic hot water is achieved by installing
waste water heat pumps (fig. 6.12 c).
• The mobility concept is based on good
public transportation services (tram, b c
bus) with stops at the central square,
car sharing services and good facilities
to use electric vehicles (bicycles, city
6.12 Urban design scheme for the conversion of the
cars) in every neighbourhood. former barracks Prinz Eugen Kaserne in Munich,
design competition, architects: Matthias
The urban design is deliberately not dom- Kroitzsch, Elisabeth Notter, Alexander Reich-
mann, Rainer Vallentin
inated by an energy-based approach. a siteplan
The successful implementation of climate b urban design /landscape concept
c district heating system
protection strategies is rather due to the d Passive House requirements (for conditions
energy performance of all buildings com- see fig. 6.9). The average U-value of the
pleted according to Passive House stand- opaque, insulated building envelope of the
highlighted buildings is:
ard and the energy supply concept. The 0.08 – 0.10 W/m2K
solutions applied have hardly any, or no, 0.10 – 0.12 W/m2K
0.12 – 0.15 W/m2K
impact on the urban appearance of the 0.15 – 0.20 W/m2K
new residential housing district. > 0.20 W/m2K
d 6.12
73
Urban design

Passive House developments

The following housing estates illustrate in

a number of different ways how the Pas-
sive House concept can be incorporated
in the design of an urban district.

Terrace housing estate in Lystrup (DK)

Denmark’s largest housing estate
designed according to climate protection
targets is located in Lystrup near Aarhus.
The development incorporating 32 ter-
race houses features an urban design
with a serial character using very tradi-
tional south-facing terrace houses. The
a b 6.13 buildings have been erected by a prop-
erty developer using a timber construc-
tion method and without basements.
Narrow footpaths provide access to the
individual homes; roads and car parking
facilities, on the other hand, have been
positioned on the site boundary. The
development is complemented by a com-
munity house, which forms a social and
cultural meeting point within the estate.
The tower-shaped elements, accommo-
dating the two-storey-high main living
rooms, create a rhythm in the terraces,
which has become a very characteristic
feature of the development.

a b Passive House development in Fellbach (D)

c d
6.13 Passive House housing estate in Lystrup (DK)
2009; architects: Schmidt Hammer Lassen;
construction design: Olav Langenkamp;
energy concept: passivhus.dk
a photo
b site plan
6.14 Passive House infill development in Fellbach (D)
2011; architects: Brucker Architekten; energy
concept: ebök
a photo
b site plan with surroundings
c model
d site plan
6.15 Urban district built according to Passive House
standards, Bahnstadt in Heidelberg (D) 2012;
6.14
urban design concept: Trojan+Trojan, energy
concept: ebök
a model
b schematic diagram
c urban design
6.16 Two Passive House housing estates: Lodenareal
and Youth Olympic Village in Innsbruck (A)
2009/2011, architects: Architekturwerkstatt
dina4, teamk2 architects, Reitter Architekten
a aerial view of Lodenareal
b Lodenareal site plan
c perimeter block development: Lodenareal
(phase 1)
d detached apartment blocks: Olympic Village
(phase 2)
The City of Fellbach bought the site of a
former garden centre close to the town
centre to develop a Passive House hous-
ing estate. Designed to shield the interior
space from the main road, the project
features a comb-shaped development in
the east with a staggered roof line. The
short terraces on the west side are
slightly offset from the development in the
east. The buildings adopt the small-scale
configuration of the neighbourhood.
Despite the somewhat low density, the
Passive House estate could be devel-
oped in a cost-efficient way using stand-
ard solid construction methods.
Two housing estates in Innsbruck (A)
The largest Passive House housing
estate in Austria is distinguished by two
different building typologies – a perime-
ter block development and detached
apartment blocks. As a consequence, it
has been possible to directly compare
the different design approaches in terms
of open space and building typology.
The first construction phase (Loden-
areal), based on a competition design,
did not provide ideal conditions to imple-
ment the Passive House concept due to
the continuous balconies with integrated
loggias and the elaborate ventilation sys-

74
 Completed Passive House developments

5 2
tem. The learning process triggered by 4
these results meant that the extra costs 2
for Passive House standard in the 1 6+7
detached apartment blocks (Olympic
Village), in comparison to a conventional 2 2
development, could be reduced to 1
almost 5 % and thus more than halved. 3

5+6
Bahnstadt Heidelberg (D)
Germany’s largest Passive House district 8
with a dense and mixed-use concept is 0 1000 m
currently being completed in Heidelberg.
The new district Bahnstadt is being devel- 1 housing 5 culture
2 service facilities 6 public supplies
oped on the former grounds of a freight 3 business park 7 transportation hub
station. A new urban layout with block- 4 specialised trade 8 special use
type structures has been created by trans- a b
forming former railway lines into elegantly
curved urban spaces and adopting the
alignment of roads ensuing from the river
Neckar and the city centre. The urban
features structure the district and create
new visual links to the landscaped park,
Pfaffengrund. Public spaces with different
functions, sizes and shapes are located
at the intersections of the urban fabric.
The energy concept derived by the engi-
neering practice ebök is based on the
fact that all buildings are built according
to Passive House standard. This has
been set out in the property purchase
agreements between the City of Heidel-
berg and potential buyers and will be c 6.15
monitored by the building authority on
receiving the building permission applica-
tions, which must be submitted together
with energy calculations and documents
completed according to the PHPP. The
energy supply is provided by a district
heating system and so-called mini net-
works, which are responsible for distribut-
ing the heat within the individual blocks.
Because of the high density in the district
and the obligation to connect to the dis-
trict heating system, the network-based
heat supply is reasonable and sustaina-
ble despite the low heat demand of the
Passive House buildings. The accept-
ance of this energy supply system is a b
being supported by subsidy schemes,
information and consultation programmes
initiated by the City of Heidelberg.

Notes
[1] Vallentin, Rainer: Energieeffizienter Städtebau mit
Passivhäusern. Göttingen 2011
[2] Vallentin, Rainer: Städtebauliche Spielräume und
Grenzen beim Entwurf von Passivhäusern. Protocol
Volume No. 5, Passive House conference
2001, p. 29 – 42
[3] Vallentin, Rainer: Passivhäuser – Impulse zur Wei-
terentwicklung städtebaulicher Themen. Protocol
Volume No. 2, Passive House conference 1998,
p. 207 – 232
[4] ibid, p. 210
[5] Twarowski, Mieczyslaw: Sonne und Architektur.
Munich 1962, pp. 107ff.
[6] see note 1, pp. VII – 41ff.
c d 6.16
75
Non-residential building
Passive House principles in
non-residential buildings
In non-residential buildings, the techni-
cal building services (lighting, ventila-
tion, heating) tend to be more complex
and require greater automation than
those in residential buildings. The venti-
lation system and measures for summer
heat protection, in particular, have to be
planned carefully in order to minimise
costs for cooling. Winter thermal protec-
tion, on the other hand, is usually of
minor importance.
The economic viability of meeting the
Passive House standard is scrutinised
more carefully in non-residential building
than in residential building. The greater
complexity of building services is natu-
rally reflected here too. Energy costs in
commercial buildings are higher than in
housing, but the savings potential for
energy-related matters is also greater.
However, the savings frequently depend
on the installation of more complex and
more costly technical equipment. On the
other hand, improved energy efficiency
serves to increase the value of the prop-
erty. This factor should also be taken
into account in the feasibility study.
Alongside reducing energy loss, the
7.1 Office building in Lüneburg (D) 2009, G2R Gäde
Rückner Rückner Architektenpartnerschaft.
Compact timber framed construction with a flexi-
ble floor plan, average size window openings
and tall window formats to provide natural day-
light into the depths of the interior space. The al-
most square floor plan accommodates four units
with a usable floor area of each 150 m2. The
Passive House standard is supplemented by a
photovoltaic array and a rainwater harvesting
system.
7.2 Standard utilisation data for different non-resi-
dential buildings
76
energy concept should take into consid-
eration aspects that sometimes conflict
with one another. A compact building,
for example, has a reduced transmission
heat loss, but might have deeper rooms
leading to greater power consumption
for artificial lighting. Large glazed areas
provide better daylight conditions, but
can result in overheating and therefore a
higher energy demand for cooling. The
provision of daylight may also contradict
the requirement for a glare-free environ-
ment (fig. 7.1). Depending on the func-
tion of the building or the part of the
building concerned, these factors differ
in their importance and must be
assessed carefully in terms of their inter-
dependencies.
User behaviour
Although non-residential buildings are
used for shorter periods than residential,
the space is used more intensively. For
example, the occupancy rate of office
space is 10 m2 / person on average;
schools reach occupancy rates of up to
2 m2/person in classrooms. Moreover,
the behaviour patterns of users and the
energy-related requirements can vary
considerably within the same type of
building (fig. 7.2). For all building typolo-
• Passive House principles in
non-residential buildings
• Energy balance
• Features of different
building typologies
gies, the success of an energy concept
is very much dependent on user behav-
iour. Differences between the calculated
energy demand and the actual con-
sumption can arise in buildings where
the climate-regulating measures require
the active participation of the user (e.g.
shading devices, ventilation). In cases
where users are not known (e.g. tenants
in let properties), a reliable operation
can only be ensured if the concept is
simple and requires little maintenance.
Buildings that meet the Passive House
requirements are extremely flexible in
terms of “unknown” user behaviour. But
even in the case of small buildings, the
technical complexity of modern building
services quickly exceeds the usual com-
petencies of a facility manager. Provi-
sion of a set of instructions and compre-
hensive project documents is not suffi-
cient to ensure achievement of projected
energy efficiency targets. It is essential
that users are fully trained and given
thorough expert advice during the com-
missioning phase. The support should
include monitoring the results throughout
a period of two to three years after com-
pletion, as well as the readjustment of all
technical installations to be consistent
with the behaviour patterns of the users.
7.1
 Energy balance

Energy balance
The progress in building services engi-
neering should not be used as an
excuse for a less than optimal energy-
efficient building design. Far more, the
building services concept should be an
integral part of the master plan, requiring
interdisciplinary cooperation between
the architect and technical consultants.
In accordance with the building typol-
ogy, requirement profiles are identified
which take into account the specific
parameters of use and thermal comfort
(fig. 7.2). These parameters influence
the energy balance and highlight con-
flicts caused by contentious planning
requirements. The best response in this
case is to improve the design in terms of
its energy efficiency. This strategy
requires investment of immaterial capital
in the design, in the form of time, but
eventually saves on material capital
when it comes to the construction and
operation of the building.
Thermal insulation
Independent of the building typology, a
well-insulated building envelope with no
or very few thermal bridges is essential
for the Passive House concept in non-
residential building. The heat loss
through the thermal envelope is directly
proportional to the surface area of the
building (A) and the coefficient of ther-
mal transmittance (U-value). Therefore
the U-values of the construction must be
improved and the exterior surface area
minimised as far as possible. The
smaller the exterior surface area (com-
pact building), the lower the thickness of
insulation. The facade is one of the most
expensive building components, making
this measure doubly worthwhile.
Nonetheless, the size and shape of
rooms in compact buildings have to be
checked with regard to their suitability.
Usually, the situation concerning natural
daylight has to be improved to minimise
the use of artificial lighting and hence
electricity. Methods frequently applied
include the creation of zones in rooms or
open spaces with different lighting
requirements (e.g. work and recreation
areas close to the facade, ancillary
rooms in darker zones) or the integration
of atria, light shafts or skylights.
Compact buildings are often prone to a
layout of rooms which pays little atten-
tion to cardinal direction. Yet, a clear lay-
out of space is a fundamental feature of
the building’s energy efficiency. The
amount of heat loss is heavily dependent
on the orientation of the building and the
proportions of the rooms. At the same
time, these features exert a strong influ-
ence on the solar heat gain and other
energy-related factors, such as the need
for lighting and shading devices.
Ventilation
The provision of a mechanical ventilation
system with a heat recovery unit is
essential to maintain the air quality
indoors and meet Passive House stand-
ard. The necessary quality of room air, in
terms of hygiene, is determined mainly
by the CO2 content. According to current
standards, the value should not exceed
1500 ppm. However, according to Max
von Pettenkofer, deterioration in comfort
conditions can already be expected
when values exceed 1000 ppm. Possible
consequences include headaches, tired-
ness, lack of concentration and reduced
productivity (fig. 7.6, p. 79).
For an economic and energy-efficient
building operation, it is extremely impor-
tant to limit the air volume to the minimum
amount necessary. The size and design
of the system should consider the stand-
ard use and number of occupants.
Short-term, higher demands can be
compensated for by opening windows.
gymnasiums
As most non-residential building typolo-
gies are used for limited periods only
and the number of occupants varies
considerably, the operation of the venti-
lation system should be phased accord-
ing to need. This can be achieved, for
example, by installing timers, presence
monitors and CO2 sensors. To avoid
having to install additional fireproof
dampers and barriers, careful attention
should be paid to the requirements for
fire protection in the design of the duct
layout. Decentralised systems are an
advantage in this respect.
Use of solar energy
The passive use of solar energy to
reduce space heat demand is less
important in non-residential buildings
than in housing schemes. When plan-
ning large-scale buildings, it is not
always possible to influence the orienta-
tion of rooms. For most building typolo-
gies, such as offices, classrooms, gym-
nasiums, museums, etc., the preference
is to avoid direct sunlight. Nevertheless,
even in these schemes, the installation
of adjustable shading devices can pro-
vide the opportunity to make use of solar
heat gain outside normal working or
opening hours.
In situations where direct sunlight is less
of an issue, as is the case for children’s
day care centres and assembly halls,
the amount of glazing should still be
carefully considered, since the low
remaining energy demand of Passive
House buildings can usually be covered
by a fairly small proportion of glass in
the facade. The window areas should
therefore be dimensioned primarily
according to provision of daylight and
summer solar protection.
Internal heat sources
Depending on the use, the internal heat
sources, including occupants, lighting
storage space

halls / stages

laboratories

sales areas
workshops
production
hospitals
(general)

Type of use
schools

schools
primary
offices

sites/

Proportion of days the building is in use during the heating season 69 % 52 % 52 % 52 % 71 % 69 % 100 % 69 % 76 % 69 % [–]
Number of hours the building is in use during a normal day 10 10 6 12 14 10 24 10 12 10 [h/d]
Average number of occupants when building is in use 25 10 10 20 70 35 35 50 50 100 [m2/P]
Average room temperature on days the building is in use 20 20 20 18 20 20 22 18 20 16 [°C]
Average room temperature on days the building is not in use 15 15 15 10 15 15 – 10 15 10 [°C]
Heat limit temperature 12 12 12 12 12 12 15 12 12 12 [°C]
Mechanical air exchange when building is in use (average) 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.4 0.4 0.8 0.6 0.8 0.8 0.2 [1/h]
Mechanical air exchange when building is not in use (average) 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.6 0.2 0.0 0.0 [1/h]
Power consumption in kWh/m2 TFA a (without air conditioning) 25 15 10 15 25 50 40 50 50 10
7.2
77
Non-residential building
a with well-designed solar shading
b ings achieved can either be invested in
c 7.3
7.3 Children‘s day care centre in Kraiburg am Inn
(D) 2012, Pollok + Gonzalo. Traditional applica-
tion of Passive House principles: good insula-
tion, open south facade with shading devices,
natural ventilation in summer, compact volume
a south elevation
b interior of group room
c section, scale 1:500
7.4 Possibilities of coordinating the channelling of
daylight, shading devices and the view out of
the building
7.5 Secondary school in Klaus-Weiler-Fraxern (A)
2003, Dietrich Untertrifaller Architekten. Efficient
sun and glare protection provided by exterior-
mounted aluminium Venetian blinds that can be
adjusted in different ways; view out of building
through self-overshadowing strip window
a section through facade, scale 1:40
b classroom interior
7.6 Typical development of CO2 concentration in
classrooms that use purge ventilation strategies.
Symptoms, such as tiredness and headaches,
can already occur at rates higher than 1000 ppm
(Pettenkofer). The limit in terms of hygiene is at
1500 ppm. Without a mechanical ventilation sys-
tem, the critical values are exceeded frequently.
7.7 Impact of window’s position on the distribution of
daylight
7.8 Impact of storage mass on the room tempera-
ture in the case of night cooling strategies
78
and electrical appliances, can some-
times suffice to heat the space in build-
ings constructed according to Passive
House standard. However, this contribu-
tion towards the heating is inconsistent
and prone to fluctuations during the
course of a year (e.g. holidays), the
course of a week (bank holidays, week-
ends) and even the course of a day
(day/night, absences). In order to make
effective use of these heat sources, it is
therefore necessary to coordinate heat-
ing and ventilation accurately and to
install control units in individual rooms.
In summer, natural lighting combined
devices, ideally exterior-mounted, help
to reduce unwanted heat gains. The
excess heat indoors can either be dis-
sipated using an efficient natural venti-
lation system (night-time ventilation) or
stored by making use of thermal mass.
The Passive House Planning Package
(PHPP) takes these factors into consid-
eration when assessing the summer sit-
uation, in particular the frequency of
overheating (see pp. 25ff.). If planned
correctly, most non-residential build-
ings should be able to provide suffi-
ciently comfortable conditions without a
mechanical cooling system. The sav-
better thermal insulation, measures to
prevent overheating or natural ventila-
tion methods.
Solar shading
Alongside internal heat sources, solar
radiation is the main cause of overheat-
ing in energy-improved buildings. The
solar shading devices, for which the
design and dimensions are determined
by the orientation, must therefore be
planned with utmost care (fig. 7.3).
Whereas fairly simple systems suffice
for south and north-facing windows, the
measures necessary at windows facing
east and west are more complicated
due to the low-lying sun. The high posi-
tion of the sun in summer means that
horizontal and inclined apertures in roof
surfaces are similarly difficult to protect.
Fixed shading elements do not require
any adjustment; the drawback is, how-
ever, that they are not an ideal solution
for all weather conditions. Other shad-
ing devices (e.g. roller or Venetian
blinds) must therefore be installed to
supplement the fixed elements. The
efficiency of adjustable shading
devices is very much dependent on
correct operation, whereby the oppor-
tunity to actively take control increases
user acceptance considerably. On the
other hand, the shading devices also
have to be capable of operation during
periods of absence or outside opening
hours to prevent the building from over-
heating.
Solar shading devices must provide for
a glare-free atmosphere indoors without
obstructing the outwards view. What at
first appears to be a contradiction can
be achieved in some applications. It is,
for example, possible to separate the
facing directions of reflective lamellae at
a single window, i.e. at the bottom, they
are set to prevent glare and the penetra-
tion of sunlight; at the top, the lamellae
guide daylight onto the ceiling and into
the depths of the room (fig. 7.4 and 7.5).
Daylight
The provision of daylight is the most fun-
damental criterion when determining the
size of windows. Even if Passive House
windows feature very good U-values
(< 0.8 W/m2K), they are still more than
five times higher than those of opaque
exterior wall surfaces. Furthermore, the
construction and maintenance costs of
windows exceed those of opaque wall
surfaces. For these reasons and due to
the danger of overheating, the size of
openings should be considered care-
fully. The distribution of daylight and, in
turn, the creation of zones for different
functions in the layout are sensitive to
the position and geometry of windows
and the type of glass installed. The top
portion of the window is useful to direct
light into the depths of a room; the dan-
ger of glare, in this case, is relatively
low. At desk level, the view out and
issues concerning glare require special
attention. While glass areas below desk
level do not have any significant effect
on the lighting conditions, they do, how-
ever, increase solar heat gain, which is
something to be avoided in summer
months (fig. 7.7).
Artificial light should be thought of as a
supplement to natural daylight. The
power consumption can be reduced by
using daylight sensors, energy-efficient
lighting systems or desk lamps. By
installing presence monitors, the operat-
ing time of lighting systems can be mini-
mised in rooms with intermittent use.
Heat storage
Solid building components have the abil-
ity to function as natural heat sinks and
reduce short-term temperature peaks
during summer periods prone to over-
heating. The effectiveness of thermal

mass is determined by the specific ther-
mal capacity and the thermal conductiv-
ity of the building component, as well as
the size of the surface participating in
the heat exchange (fig. 7.8). Ceiling
slabs generally provide the best condi-
tions in this respect, provided they are
not made inaccessible through sus-
pended ceilings or sound-absorbing
panels.
In the case of some non-residential
building typologies (offices, administra-
tive institutions, etc.), the requirement for
greater flexibility limits the use of solid
construction methods (e.g. partition
walls). The lack of storage mass in
these buildings can be compensated
for by installing PCM elements, which,
although thin and light, are capable of
storing large amounts of heat by chang-
ing their physical state from solid to liq-
uid and vice versa. An alternative is to
use a mixed construction method with
solid load-bearing components in the
interior and light insulating materials in
the building envelope. The building must
be cooled in a 24-hour cycle, if possible
by using natural cooling methods (e.g.
cross ventilation at night), in order to
reactivate the heat absorption capacity
of the building components.
CO2 concentration [ppm]
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
8.00 10.00
7.4 a b
Summer-time ventilation
A comprehensive design aimed at mini-
mising external and internal heat loads
in summer can usually provide for com-
fortable conditions in Passive House
buildings during hot temperature peri-
ods without the need for a mechanical
cooling system. Exceptions are rooms
with high occupancy rates (e.g. assem-
bly halls, conference rooms in office
buildings) or rooms which, due to their
function, have high internal heat loads
(e.g. production sites, large-scale cater-
ing establishments).
Natural ventilation, ideally using a cross
ventilation method, is the easiest way to
dissipate excess heat. However, it only
makes sense to use this method during
operating hours if the outside tempera-
ture is at least 2 °C below that of the air
inside. The airflow should be restricted
to areas with high internal heat loads
(e.g. electrical appliances) or building
components with good heat absorption
qualities, so that comfort conditions are
not disturbed unnecessarily by
draughts.
Night-time ventilation can be used to
cool the thermal mass of the building at
night, with the result that the particular
components are then again able to
Daylight factor D [%]
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
hygienic limit 2
0 15
Pettenkofer limit 0 1 2 3
12.00 14.00
2/3 transparent
Time
surface
7.6
Energy balance
7.5
absorb excess heat during the following
day. The ventilation openings therefore
need to remain open during the night
and the apertures must be weather and
burglar-proof (fig. 7.10, p. 80). A mini-
mum of three air changes per hour and
conditions which enable the cool fresh
air to flow freely around solid building
components are required to ensure suc-
cessful cooling during the night.
Features of different building
typologies
The first Passive House office building
was completed in Ulm in 2003, the first
sports gymnasium in Unterschleißheim
close to Munich the same year and the
first German Passive House school was
inaugurated in Frankfurt in 2004. Since
then, the Passive House standard has
been applied to many more types of
non-residential building. The most fun-
damental, typology-specific features in
relation to their design are described
briefly below.
Office, administration
Depending on the type of organisation
(single or group rooms, open-plan layout
Temperature [°C]
35
30
25
20
4 5 6 28 July 29 July 30July 31 July
Room depth [m]
thermal mass 200 kg / m2
thermal mass 500 kg / m2
thermal mass 1 000 kg / m2
central transom outside air temperature ta
windows
window strip
7.7 7.8
79
Non-residential building
7.9
7.9 Commercial and residential building in Munich
(D) 2005, Martin Pool. Offices are accommodat-
ed on the lower floors, apartments on the upper,
sunnier levels.
7.10 Primary school in Frankfurt-Riedberg (D) 2004,
4 a Architekten. The facade has been equipped
with weather and burglar-proof apertures for
nighttime cooling in summer (behind the air
vents in the upper parts of the facade panels).
7.11 Saint Franziskus Church in Wels (A) 2005,
Luger & Maul. First Passive House church.
A timber structure is used both for the church
hall and the office wing; the church hall is con-
ceived with a photovoltaic facade measuring
200 m2; space heating is provided by solar
thermal collectors and a pellet boiler.
7.12 Office building in Dornbirn (A) 2012, Hermann
Kaufmann. Eight-storey, wood-concrete hybrid
building with prefabricated facade and ceiling
elements. The building services have been
designed to enable a flexible floor plan layout.
7.10
7.11
80
or a mixture thereof), office buildings
impose different requirements on the
form factor, orientation, solar shading
devices, the provision of daylight and
ventilation. The behaviour of occupants
also varies according to the organisation
of office space. Whereas single offices
require occupants to participate in the
control of ventilation, shading devices
and lighting, for open-plan office environ-
ments automated systems are almost
essential.
Because office buildings are character-
ised by high occupancy rates and a lot
of technical equipment, internal heat
gains are often the cause for overheating
in summer. Energy-efficient devices, as
well as the concentration or spatial sepa-
ration of office appliances, which are
known to produce a lot of waste heat
(photocopiers, servers, etc.) help to
reduce the heat load in office space.
Reducing the electricity consumption of
office equipment helps to deal with the
problem of overheating and it is also
clearly beneficial in terms of meeting the
primary energy limit of 120 kWh/m2a.
Energy-efficient office appliances, which
are fully switched off when not in use
(not simply in stand-by mode), and a
good use of daylight contribute towards
meeting the limit imposed by the Pas-
sive House standard.
Office work spaces generally require a
certain amount of glare-free light. Indi-
vidual desk lamps in addition to the gen-
eral lighting system and controlled sepa-
rately can be used to adjust the lighting
conditions according to personal needs.
Fully glazed facades lead to a high heat
loss in winter. In summer, they are the
cause for increased cooling loads and
the need for elaborate shading systems.
Ideally, the size of glazed areas should
be based on the actual amount of light
required. In most cases, this is less than
50 % of the room-related facade surface
area (fig. 7.9, 7.12). The rooms should
be organised in such a way that most
workplaces have direct contact to the
exterior space and can thus obtain natu-
ral light and fresh air by opening win-
dows in summer. The recommended
design to raise user acceptance is a
mixture of automated and individual
control for the artificial lighting, sun
shading and glare protection devices.
Office buildings require efficient ventila-
tion systems designed to supply, as
accurately as possible, the requisite
amount of fresh air. However, due to
fluctuations in the use of the building,
the system must adapt to the conditions
prevailing at any particular time. In the
case of open-plan offices, the amount of
supply air is based on the average
demand, whereas deviations from the
average are controlled by means of CO2
sensors. The individual control of air vol-
umes is more complicated in the case of
individual rooms. The length and sec-
tions of air ducts can be reduced signifi-
cantly by positioning the supply air and
exhaust air outlets in different room
zones and making use of transfer paths
beneath doors or at door heads (e.g.
with the supply air outlets placed in the
office area and the exhaust air outlets in
the corridors and/or ancillary rooms).
Fire regulations which require the forma-
tion of fire compartments or the use of
corridors as escape routes frequently
limit the available space for the optimal
layout of air ducts. Fire proof dampers
that have to be installed between these
fire compartments are expensive and
high-maintenance.
Concepts with semi-decentralised sys-
tems for specific groups of rooms are
better suited to meet and adapt to the
varying needs of buildings with different
use zones (offices with and without pub-
lic access areas, canteen, conference
rooms, archives, etc.). Individual room
ventilation units, on the other hand, are
often not feasible due to the high invest-
ment and maintenance costs.
Buildings for education: schools, child
care centres
Although the classroom tends to be the
focus for development of the energy
concept, schools include a multitude of
other areas which differ not only accord-
ing to their spatial and functional needs
but also in relation to period of use (e.g.
art and craft rooms, corridors, indoor
play areas, gymnasium, library, staff
rooms and cafeteria). The requirements
concerning air exchange, lighting, shad-
ing devices and temperature vary
accordingly.
Schools present a special challenge
due to the combination of high occu-
pancy rates and short periods of use.
A mechanical ventilation system is able
to ensure a low noise and draught-free
work environment and meet the require-
ments in terms of hygiene (CO2 content
below 1500 ppm). In a classroom with
closed windows, this value would be
exceeded within less than half an hour
without a mechanical ventilation system.
A two-fold air exchange per hour (i.e.
approximately 15 to 20 m3/h per person)
is sufficient to maintain good air condi-
 Particularities of different building typologies

tions inside classrooms. The intermittent
demand is a fundamental aspect for the
design and operation of both the heating
and ventilation system. Pre and post
flushing, lasting for approximately one
hour before and after the occupancy
period, also has to be taken into
account. It makes sense to use a time-
controlled mechanism; however, flexibil-
ity must be ensured to cope with excep-
tional situations (public holidays, can-
celled lessons). Presence detectors and
CO2 sensors have proven successful in
this respect. The size of the ventilation
system can be reduced to a minimum,
if it is only designed to cover the basic
demand, and temporary larger air vol-
umes are provided by opening the win-
dows. CO2 alarms are well suited to this
task. They send out a signal when there
is a demand for greater air exchange
and increase the awareness of pupils
and teachers regarding the importance
of good air quality.
The number and size of window open-
ings must be sufficient to ensure the
necessary air exchange in summer. The
city of Frankfurt am Main, for example,
insists on window openings measuring
0.3 m² per pupil. Schools are mainly
used during the early hours of the day
and, because the outside temperature in
summer is rarely higher than the inside
temperature during this period, it is usu-
ally possible to dissipate the heat gener-
ated inside by simply opening the win-
dows. The alternative would be to use
the mechanical ventilation system during
hot temperature periods with a summer
bypass; however, this solution adds cost
for electricity. Night purging is even more
effective in schools than in residential
and office buildings (fig. 7.10). In most
cases, this measure suffices to provide
comfortable indoor conditions during
class hours. Nevertheless, it is important
to make sure that the classrooms are not
too cold and uncomfortable when les-
sons begin in the morning.
design to keep the expense in terms of
technical installations and operation
costs as low as possible.
Hospitals
The average heat demand in hospitals
currently amounts to approximately
24,000 kWh a year per bed. Despite the
considerable savings potential inherent
in the Passive House standard, hardly
any experience has been gained in this
field. Due to the good A / V ratio of hospi-
tals, it is usually fairly straightforward to
produce the thermal envelope with the
required Passive House values. Never-
theless, in the case of hospitals, it is bet-
ter to strive for an airtightness value well
below the boundary value for Passive
Houses (e.g. 0.1 h-1). Greater airtight-
ness reduces the overall heat loss of the
building and also has the effect of mini-
mising structural damage caused by
possible air leakages.
Air conditioning and medical technol-
ogy, together account for most of the
energy consumed in hospitals. It is pos-
sible to dispense with compression
refrigeration units by using adiabatic
cooling systems in summer. With the
help of heat pumps, the excess heat
generated, for example, by medical
equipment, sterilisers or kitchen appli-
ances, is simply directed to areas where
there is a demand for heat. Block-type
thermal power plants are ideal for
energy supply to hospitals due to the
consistently large demand for power
and heat. Hospitals are subject to more
stringent hygiene requirements than
other non-residential buildings, and this
has significance for ventilation. For this
reason, large air volumes are used in
traditional hospital buildings, which then
only allow for a maximum heat recovery
of 60 %. However, much smaller air vol-
umes frequently suffice to provide the
right air conditions. By limiting the air
supply to the absolutely essential vol-
ume, the heat supply rate can be
increased to 85 % and more.
The air humidity in hospital wards must
be kept at between 35 to 60 %. In order
to ensure this condition in winter without
the use of an energy-intensive humidifi-
cation system, the extracted air should
be used to recover not only heat but
also moisture.
Hotels
In the case of Passive House hotels too,
experience has been compiled from
only very few completed projects. An

Cultural buildings and assembly halls

Social and cultural institutions usually
accommodate a wide variety of func-
tions with differing requirements under
a single roof (exhibition space, shops,
dining facilities, offices, assembly halls
with storage space, social facilities, etc.)
(fig. 7.11). In order to provide the perfect
room climate for the various user groups
(e.g. visitors, staff, exhibits), complex
building services systems are usually
required. It is therefore extremely impor-
tant to strive for an energy-efficient
7.12
81
Non-residential building
average three to four star hotel built
according to EnEV 2009 standard has
a final energy consumption for heat and
domestic hot water of approximately
4000 kWh per bed per year. In the first
German Passive House hotel in Fischen,
it was possible to reduce the consump-
tion to approximately 2000 kWh/year.
The results showed that it was actually
possible to achieve greater savings in
the amount of energy consumed for
heating than for the provision of domestic
hot water. Electricity accounts for the
largest proportion of energy consumption
in the project mentioned above with an
a average of 3300 kWh per bed per year.
Despite an efficient lighting concept,
37 % of electricity is used for the build-
ing’s illumination and nearly 20 % for the
movement of air. The sauna and fitness
area account for a further 13 % of elec-
tricity. Limiting the building services
and the design to the absolutely essential
is also a fundamental step towards
energy efficiency in Passive House
hotels. This includes providing smaller
hotel rooms, narrower balconies, a more
compact fitness area and less stock
storage.
Museums
b Museums are a special challenge for the
use of the Passive House standard since,
for conservation reasons, exhibition space
usually requires little or no direct sunlight.
Heat gain from solar radiation is therefore
virtually non-existent. On the other hand,
museums often have high occupancy
rates and therefore high internal heat
loads - in both winter and summer. The
usually very efficient ventilation and cool-
ing technology, which is a must for muse-
ums anyway, is then used to remove the
excess heat. A large amount of thermal
mass is always helpful to keep the climate
conditions in the exhibition space as con-
stant as possible. As an example, the con-
c 7.13 crete ceilings in the first Passive House
7.13 Art museum in Ravensburg (D) 2012, Lederer
Ragnarsdóttir Oei. First Passive House museum.
museum worldwide, located in Ravens-
Three-storey, solid structure with walls made of burg, are more than 40 cm thick and the
recycled bricks. The building is heated and exterior walls are conceived as cavity
cooled using ground probes, a gas absorption
heat pump and thermo-active building systems. walls with a 24 cm-thick infill of mineral
a south elevation wool insulation (fig. 7.13). Thermo-active
b exhibition room on 2nd floor
c 2nd floor and ground floor plans, scale 1:750
building systems, which are connected to
7.14 Swimming pool in Lünen (D) 2012, nps tchoban a geothermal heat pump (eight ground
voss. Combination of new build and refurbished probes each 100 m deep) are responsible
former district heating station (both Passive
House standard). South-oriented swimming pool for maintaining the base temperature in
heated with a bio gas CHP unit. the museum. Peak heating and cooling
a west elevation loads are covered by the mechanical ven-
b floor plan, scale 1:1500
7.15 Research institute in Oslo (N) 2011, Pir II. The tilation system, which, apart from being
canteen on the upper level is heated with the able to recover heat, can also dehumidify
waste heat from the server rooms below.
a south elevation
or humidify the supply air according to
b ground floor, scale 1:750 need.
82
Archives and libraries
Archives and libraries have an atypical
energy balance with negligible solar heat
gains, low internal heat loads and
reduced demands in terms of building
ventilation. Nevertheless, the require-
ments concerning the indoor climate are
critical, and conditions need to be kept
stable throughout the year with constant
temperature and humidity levels; further-
more, the archive material must be pro-
tected from direct sunlight.
The compact volume and largely closed
thermal envelope, characteristic of most
archive buildings, provide the perfect
conditions for minimising solar heat gain
and reducing transmission heat loss.
Constructions with a good heat storage
capacity are beneficial in that they com-
pensate for fluctuations in the indoor cli-
mate. The fairly even energy demand is
suitable for the application of purely pas-
sive heating and cooling strategies (e.g.
thermo-active building systems using
geothermal energy). Only the areas for
administrative purposes or public access
require a different approach to the build-
ing services concept.
Gymnasiums
Like most non-residential buildings,
gymnasiums are also not used continu-
ously. Nevertheless, good thermal insula-
tion is also indispensable for this build-
ing typology in order to provide the
required amount of heat with the neces-
sary volume of supply air (approx. 0.7 h-1
in the sports hall and 5 h-1 in the shower
and changing rooms). Alternatively, the
heat demand can be covered with a
standard heating system. The shower
and changing rooms in conventional
buildings also require a mechanical
ventilation system. It is therefore a good
solution to introduce the supply air into
the sports hall and extract the waste air
from the shower or changing rooms. Due
to the very different room sizes and air
exchange rates, both areas require
almost the same air volumes.
The temperature stratification caused by
the large room height in typical gymnasi-
ums is often critical. The temperature
directly below the ceiling is usually very
high and of little or no benefit to the occu-
pants; moreover, much of the heat is
wasted through the building envelope.
This effect is hardly an issue in Passive
House gymnasiums due to the good ther-
mal insulation - the difference in tempera-
ture is less than 2 °C. The function of gym-
nasiums requires the installation of sun
shading devices. Additional measures

a b
(e.g. night-time cooling using natural
ventilation methods) are applied in sum-
mer to provide a comfortable indoor cli-
mate. The impact of thermal mass is
less pronounced than is the case for
schools or office buildings. This means
that lightweight constructions are also
suitable to provide comfortable condi-
tions in gymnasiums.
Swimming pools
In contrast to buildings for other sports,
swimming pools require high indoor tem-
peratures and consume much more
energy for their operation. Consistent
with other building typologies, the most
fundamental criteria to meet Passive
House standard are a compact form
without penetrations in the thermal enve-
lope (e.g. by slides) and, from an energy
point of view, an appropriate amount of
glazed surface. The fully glazed areas
are best placed along the south facade,
whereas the ancillary rooms, with fewer
window openings, are better positioned
on the north side of the building
(fig. 7.14).
One of the advantages of constructing
the thermal envelope according to Pas-
sive House standard is the fact that the
temperature on the inside of exterior
a b
walls is higher than in conventional
swimming pools. This allows the level
of indoor air humidity to be much higher
without condensation forming on the
inside of windows and walls as is usu-
ally the case in conventional pools.
This in turn reduces the amount of
water evaporating from the surface of
the pool. Moreover, it means that the
ventilation system can be operated
with a lower air change rate since less
moisture must be removed from the
pool area.
In swimming pools, heat should be
recovered not only from the extract air
but also from the pool water. Further-
more, it is advisable to reduce the
amount of supply air at night and
increase the amount of circulated air
accordingly. Alternatively, the ventilation
unit can be switched off at night and
only turned on sporadically, i.e. when
certain room air parameters are under-
shot or exceeded (e.g. air humidity,
indoor temperature).
Solutions to reduce heat loss from
pools, including covers that are drawn
across them at night or lowering the
water level by, for example, raising
hydraulic floors, should also be taken
into consideration.
Features of different building typologies
7.14
Mixed-use buildings
If several functions are mixed in one
building (e.g. commercial and residential
space), synergy effects can often be
obtained from the energy supply sys-
tems. The time of energy consumption,
for example, alternates in commercial
and residential properties, which means
that the output capacity of supply net-
works is more consistent. The difference
in energy demand (mainly electricity in
the case of commercial use and heat in
the case of residential use) is beneficial
in terms of using a block-type thermal
power plant or making use of waste heat
from the commercial unit to heat the
dwellings. Similar principles apply to
mixed-use, non-residential buildings,
where, for example, the waste heat from
kitchens or server rooms can be used to
heat offices, classrooms or other regu-
larly occupied places (fig. 7.15).
The mixing of functions also offers inter-
esting opportunities in terms of building
design. Space with different functions
can be arranged according to the most
suitable orientation (e.g. dwellings face
south, offices face north) or according to
the availability of sunlight (e.g. offices on
the lower, more overshadowed storeys,
dwellings on top, fig. 7.9, p. 80).
7.15
83
Reference buildings – non-residential
School extension
Marburg, D 2010
Client:
City of Marburg‘s municipal authority
Architect, building physics:
Hess / Talhof / Kusmierz Architekten
und Stadtplaner, Munich
Energy consultant: Passive House
Institute, Darmstadt
Building services:
Müller und Partner, Gießen
The extension to the Martin-Luther-Schule
in Marburg is the first phase of a compre-
hensive overhaul of the neighbouring
town hall. The new build incorporates
classrooms, music rooms and an indoor
recreation area with dining facilities.
The spatial link between the school and
the town hall is designed to generate syn-
ergy effects. A joint kitchen, for example,
supplies both the school cafeteria and the
restaurant in the town hall with meals. At
large events, the town hall can use the
music rooms as small concert halls and
the classrooms as seminar rooms. In
return, the space in the town hall is availa-
84
ble to the school. This arrangement of
multiple use has made the development
of additional buildings unnecessary.
The compact three-storey new build is
ideally suited for the economic implemen-
tation of the Passive House standard. In
terms of orientation, the rooms are per-
fectly laid out from an energy perspec-
tive: rooms for recreation, such as the
indoor recess area and the cafeteria, on
the ground floor and the classrooms on
the upper levels face south, the ancillary
rooms, on the other hand, face north
towards the town hall. Wide access corri-
dors adjoined by a three-storey void, fea-
1
2
3
8.1
turing skylights to provide natural daylight
from above, are designed to function as
communication zones (fig. 8.7).
Building construction
The building responds to its surroundings
by featuring two very different facades:
facing south and east, precast concrete
cladding panels relate to the exposed
aggregate concrete facade of the town
hall. The surface structure of the town hall
panels has been used as a negative
mould for the concrete facade of the
school. Smooth, deep prefabricated ele-
ments surround the window openings.
8.2
 School extension in Marburg

4 4

8.3 8.4

8.1 Site plan, scale 1:2000

1 existing town hall
a
2 existing school
3 school extension
8.2 View from east
8.3 First floor plan, scale 1:500
4 classrooms
5 three-storey void
7 6 teaching material
8.4 Section a – a, scale 1:500
8.5 Ground floor plan, scale 1:500
10 7 entrance hall
8 lounge
9 9 indoor recess area/cafeteria
8
10 kitchen with canteen counter
8.6 Pictograms illustrating construction phases
a existing town hall
b school extension (completion 2010)
a c conversion / extension of town hall (completion 2014)
8.7 Access zone with the deep corridor wall, which is designed to accommo-
date not only coat hangers, cupboards and door niches but also the build-
8.5 ing‘s entire duct and pipework.

c
8.6 8.7
85
Reference buildings – non-residential

1
2

8.8

8.8 Horizontal section of south-east corner

on ground floor, scale 1:20
8.9 View into classroom; south facade on the left
3
8.10 Vertical section south facade, scale 1:20
1 prefabricated reinforced concrete element,
smooth finish
2 stainless steel gutter 5
3 wood-aluminium Passive House windows and
doors with airtight connections: insulated pine
frames, varnished; aluminium cover plates,
powder-coated
4 120 mm prefabricated reinforced concrete
element, mounted with thermally broken
brackets
5 triple thermal insulation glazing:
6 mm float glass + 16 mm argon-filled cavity +
6 mm float glass + 16 mm argon-filled cavity +
6 mm float glass
6 380/40 mm MDF window sill board, 6
clear varnish
7 173/65 mm plastic installation duct 1
8 wall panelling (invisible fixing system):
16 mm MDF acoustic panel, slotted, 7
clear varnish
30 mm acoustic insulation infill 8
50 mm battens
9 rubber flooring 9
10 foam glass spacer to thermally separate the 4
structure supporting the sun shading device
11 fabric roller blind with fold-out mechanism
8.11 Second floor plan with building services
scale 1:400 10
8.12 Corridor wall with air supply and extract ducts
a section a – a, scale 1:50
b section b – b, scale 1:50
c floor plan, scale 1:50
1 air transfer duct
2 floor slab penetration for supply air
3 wall penetrations for air ducts
4 floor slab penetration for sanitary installations
5 heating forward and return flow 11
8.13 View from south-east
8.14 Building data

8.9 8.10
86
 School extension in Marburg

The north and west facades of the new — supply air

— extract air
build, which are to a large part provisional — heating
to allow for a planned extension to the
town hall, are low-cost using a composite
thermal insulation system. Small openings
are strewn across these facades in an
irregular pattern. The Passive House
windows are incorporated into the thick
insulation plane, which envelopes the
building in a homogenous way. The ther-
mal bridges generated by mounting the
facade panels have been reduced to a
8.11
minimum by using thermally broken
brackets. The exterior-mounted fabric
roller blinds for solar protection purposes
are concealed by the concrete cladding.
When in use, they can be folded out ena-
bling teachers and pupils to look out of
the building (fig. 8.13). All windows can
1 1
be opened in summer. Opening sashes in
the window strips of the corridor walls are
designed to remove the warm air and, by
making use of cross ventilation, cool the
solid interior walls.

Building services
Thanks to the excellent insulation of the
Passive House certified-windows, radia-
tors were no longer required along the
exterior wall, but could be placed oppo-
site, thus reducing the length of pipe runs
(fig. 8.11).
The ventilation is organised in a semi-
central fashion with three units, one in
a b
each the kitchen, the recess hall and the
classrooms. In the case of the classroom a b
unit, the fresh air is supplied to the class-
rooms and extracted from the ancillary
rooms. Both of these areas are connected 1 5
by the corridor, which functions as a 4 3
transfer zone. Coat hangers, cupboards 2 3 3
and door niches are set into the deep
wall between the corridor and the class-
rooms, which is also designed to accom-
modate all services ducts (fig. 8.12). This a b
arrangement ensures a simple distribu- c 8.12
tion of services and short runs.
Building data
Use
Education: school
Areas
gross floor area (GFA) 2033 m2 floor space index (FSI) 1.08
treated floor area (TFA) 1316 m2 gross volume (V) 7869 m3
thermal envelope area (A) 2714 m2 A / V ratio 0.34
U-values [W/m2K]
roof 0.097 W/m2K wall 0.140 W/m2K
base slab 0.117 W/m2K window: (Uw-value) 0.790 W/m2K
glass-to-area ratio (glass/TFA) 30 %
Energy performance data PHPP
space heat demand 14 kWh/m2a heat load 15 W/m2
primary energy 116.0 kWh/m2a ventilation system semi-central
heat provision ratio 82 % blower-door test 1/h (50 Pa) 0.16
Heat supply system
energy carrier district heat /gas solar collectors (coverage rate) –
photovoltaic plant 16.83 kWp
8.13 8.14
87
Reference buildings – non-residential
University extension
Kuchl, A 2009
Client:
Weco FH Holztechnikum, Kuchl
Architect:
Dietrich  Untertrifaller Architekten,
Bregenz
Building physics:
Horst Lukas and Wolfgang Graml,
Wals close to Salzburg
Building services:
Axel Burggraf, Salzburg
The extension to the Holztechnikum at
Salzburg University of Applied Sciences
is intended to present the potential of
modern timber construction together with
the very best standard of energy effi-
ciency in an exemplary way and thus put
into practice the science of timber engi-
neering. Together with the existing build-
ing, the three-storey new build forms an
L-shaped complex. Fully glazed corridors
connect the two buildings at every level.
The elongated, cube-shaped new build
appears to float on top of the solid base-
ment storey. Narrow lines and an archi-
tectural design that has been restricted to
88
a few visible elements underline the
impression of lightness. Almost the entire
building has been conceived as a timber
construction. The staircase, which for fire
protection purposes is made of concrete,
is the only exception. However, its struc-
ture is also required to stiffen the new
build with the help of the two fully closed
end walls. All the main rooms face north-
east, whereas the access corridor and
the staircase are accommodated on the
south-west side of the building. The
classroom for drawing on the ground floor
is the only room that stretches the entire
depth and therefore receives daylight
2
1
8.15
from two sides. Because the seminar
rooms on the upper floors are fairly deep,
they are provided with an extra portion of
daylight from the wide and fully glazed
access corridor through transom windows
positioned high up in the interior walls.
The favourable surface area-to-volume
ratio of the new build is the key to meet-
ing Passive House standard. The uniform
compact structure allows for an uninter-
rupted layer of insulation with a thickness
of up to 35 cm.
Building construction
In contrast to the closed end walls made
8.16
 University extension in Kuchl

8.15 Site plan, scale 1:5000

1 existing building
2 extension
8.16 View from north-east
8.17 South-west facade of extension;
original building is on the left
8.18 First floor plan, scale 1:400
1 library
2 photo laboratory
3 project room
4 seminar room
5 connecting passageway
8.19 Section a-a
8.20 Ground floor plan, scale 1:400
6 foyer
7 classroom for drawing
8 entrance (existing building)
8.21 View from one of the seminar rooms
8.22 View into access corridor

8.17

1 2 3 4

8.18 8.19
a

4 6 7

8.21
5 a

8.20 8.22
89
Reference buildings – non-residential

8.23 Vertical section north-east facade 1 2

scale 1:20
1 flat roof with overhang:
50 mm pebbles, filter fleece
bitumen waterproofing membrane, 2 layers
72 mm three-ply cross laminated timber
60 – 50 mm timber substructure
60/24 mm panelling, white pine, untreated
2 flat roof:
50 mm pebbles, filter fleece
bitumen waterproofing membrane, 2 layers 3
330 –200 mm mineral wool insulation, 1°
slope
bitumen vapour barrier
240 mm Brettstapel panel
250 mm substructure
50 mm mineral wool, acoustic fleece 4
15 mm laminated veneer lumber, birch, oiled 5
3 120/275 – 280 mm laminated timber beam
4 300/260 mm laminated timber beam
5 HEB 240 steel section
6 window:
triple glazing 6 mm SSG + 18 mm cavity
+ 6 mm SSG + 18 mm cavity + 6 mm SSG
in 100/100 mm aluminium/white pine
(untreated) post and rail facade 6
7 200/300 mm laminated timber post
8 300/100 mm bracing against buckling,
laminated timber with 70/70/3 mm steel
section, sunken and screwed 7
9 window parapet:
8 mm SSG glass element, rear side
enamelled 8
14 mm cavity ventilation, wind paper
350 mm mineral wool insulation
vapour barrier, 2≈ 12.5 mm gypsum
fibreboard
fixed with anti-vibration ceiling hangers
24 mm laminated veneer lumber, birch, oiled
10 floor slab:
24 mm ash mosaic block flooring, oiled
60 mm cement screed, PE foil
30 mm impact sound insulation, mineral wool
24 mm loose sand infill
10 mm separating ply 10
9
40 mm laminated veneer lumber panel
100/400 mm laminated timber beam with
100 mm mineral wool infill 11
40 mm laminated veneer lumber panel
280 mm substructure, acoustic fleece,
30 mm mineral wool
15 mm laminated veneer lumber panelling, 12
birch, oiled, partially hole punched
11 170/60/3130 mm fixed sun shading lamellae,
white pine with water drip, glue-fixed
M 15 threaded bolt
12 ¡ 80/40/4 mm stainless steel tube,
micaceous iron oxide finish 13 14
13 ¡ 80/12 mm flat steel, stainless steel
14 4 mm steel flashover protector, micaceous
iron oxide finish
8.24 View fron north
8.25 First floor plan with building services,
scale 1:400
8.26 Ground floor plan with building services,
scale 1:400
8.27 Building data

8.23
90
 University extension in Kuchl

— air supply ducts

o air supply outlets
8.24 — air extract ducts
8.25
of cross laminated timber, the long sides
of the building facing north-east and
south-west are almost entirely glazed.
The framed facade, set out in horizontal
window ribbons and made of a composi-
tion of aluminium and untreated white
pine, incorporates Passive House-certi-
fied windows with triple glazing. The par-
apets in between are conceived as highly
insulated timber components (fig. 8.23).
An exterior-mounted structure made of
horizontal, untreated white pine battens is
designed to provide shading for some
parts of the glass facade. Even though it
filters the sunlight, the view out onto the
forecourt can still be enjoyed (fig. 8.17,
p. 89). However, the distribution of bat-
tens in the facade is based on formal
and compositional aspects, rather than
the requirements for solar protection.
Unfortunately, the fixed lamellae also
reduce solar heat gain on the south-
facing facade in winter. Due to the
strong winds, the remaining glazed sur-
faces are without exterior-mounted shad-
ing devices. Interior roller blinds have
been fitted instead, despite the fact that
they are less efficient.

Building services
The heating system is run on renewable 8.26
Building data
energy, in the form of wood chip. The
Use
heat is distributed exclusively by the sup-
Education: University of Applied Science
ply air, without additional radiators. A
Areas
mechanical ventilation unit with a heat
gross floor area (GFA) 1886 m2 floor space index (FSI) 0.92
recovery system complements the Pas- treated floor area (TFA) 1510 m2 gross volume (V) 7940 m3
sive House concept. The central unit with thermal envelope area (A) 1633 m2 A / V ratio 0.21
a zone and speed controlled mechanism U-values [W/m2K]
is accommodated in the basement. In roof 0.110 W/m2K wall 0.120 W/m2K
addition to filtering the air and distributing base slab 0.100 W/m2K window: (Uw-value) 0.850 W/m2K
glass-to-area ratio (glass/TFA) 39 %
the heat, the mechanical ventilation unit,
Energy performance data alternative calculation method
fitted with an evaporation cooler, is
space heat demand 10 kWh/m2a heat load 16.02 W/m²
designed to humidify the air in winter and primary energy 117.2 kWh/m2a ventilation system central
cool it in summer. The air ducts are con- heat provision ratio 85 % blower-door test 1/h (50 Pa) 0.6
cealed by a suspended, perforated ceil- Heat supply system
ing structure, which also fulfil the acoustic energy carrier district heat/biomass solar collectors (coverage rate) –
requirements for sound absorption. photovoltaic plant –
8.27
91
Reference buildings – non-residential

Office building
Krems, A 2011

Client:
LIG NÖ – State Real Estate Company,
Lower Austria, St. Pölten
Master planner:
ARGE NÖHK – AllesWirdGut Architektur /
feld72 architekten / Fritsch, Chiari &
Partner, Vienna
Building services:
ZFG Projekt, Baden close to Vienna
Building physics:
Walter Prause, Vienna

Since 2007, all new public buildings in
the Federal State Lower Austria have to
meet Passive House standard. These
requirements also applied to the Nieder-
österreichhaus, which thus became the
largest Passive House office building in
the whole of Austria. The new build,
located just outside the old town of
Krems, closes a gap in the urban land-
scape. The scheme is subdivided into
three parts with alleyways, open spaces
and bridges positioned in between. The
most southern block, with up to six sto-
reys, accommodates several depart-
ments of the District Administration. The
centre and smallest block houses the
Citizens Advice Bureau, as well as train-
ing and meeting facilities. The most north-
ern part, immediately next to the town
wall, incorporates the Municipal Office,
the Road Construction Authority and the
regional Chamber of Commerce. A cen-
tral south-north axis connects all main
entrances at ground level and, with the
help of bridges, all of the office zones on
the upper levels.
Building construction
The rendered punctuated facade has
been insulated using a composite thermal
8.28
insulation system. The overshadowing of
glass surfaces is extreme due to the very
dense arrangement of buildings, which
meant there was little chance of heat gain
through solar radiation in winter. On the
other hand, less intense solar radiation is
preferred in office buildings to avoid the
problem of glare. So, the low proportion
of window area covers the requirements
for natural daylight without leading to
excessive heat loss in winter or overheat-
ing in summer (fig. 8.29). The uniform dis-
tribution of windows, on the other hand, is
a problem since the offices on the lower
floors receive less daylight than those

8.29
92
 Office building in Krems

8.30 8.31
8.28 Aerial view from the north
Block C 8.29 South facade at the ring road
8.30 Site plan, scale 1:5000
8.31 Bridge connecting block B and C
8.32 First floor plan, scale 1:1000
3 8.33 Ground floor plan, scale 1:1000
1 1 parking deck
2 courtyard
2 3 offices
4 canteen
5 atrium
6 meeting rooms
7 Chamber of Commerce reception area
8 Citizens Advice Bureau
8.34 Atrium in block A

Block B

3
Block A

8.32

1
7

3
8

8.33 8.34
93
Reference buildings – non-residential

8.35 View of block A from north-east

1
8.36 Vertical section south facade
scale 1:20
1 flat roof, extensive roof planting:
70 mm extensive substrate
5 mm filter mat
25 mm drainage board
160 mm XPS insulation
bitumen damp-proof membrane, 3 layers
(top two layers are root-proof)
120 – 280 mm EPS insulation, sloped
(on average 200 mm)
bituminous undercoat
250 mm reinforced concrete roof slab
silicate paint finish
2 fixed glazing (flush with interior wall):
triple thermal insulation glazing in aluminium
frame, Uw = 0.90 W/m2K;
g-value = 50 %;
light transmission = 70 %
3 opaque opening sash (flush with exterior
wall):
aluminium sandwich panel with core of PIR
insulation, tilt/turn mechanism,
U = 0.91 W/m2K
4 upper level exterior wall:
silicate render with Lotus-Effect
200 mm EPS insulation
200 mm reinforced concrete wall 2 3
skim coat
silicate paint finish
5 floor slab:
10 mm linoleum floor covering
60 mm cement screed
PE foil
30 mm EPS impact sound insulation
vapour barrier
50 mm chipping infill
250 mm reinforced concrete slab
silicate paint finish
6 ground floor exterior wall:
framed glazing, triple thermal
insulation glazing in aluminium frame
(Ug = 0.5 W/m2K)
sun shading device positioned in the
cavity between panes, exterior surface
with screen printing (partially) 4 5
8.37 Second floor plan with building services
block C
scale 1:400
8.38 Schematic diagram of ventilation system
8.39 Building data

8.35 8.36
94
 Office building in Krems

— fresh air
higher up. All windows have a fixed glass — supply air
element and an opaque, insulated ventila- — extract air
— exhaust air
tion sash made of aluminium, which helps — heating
to visually increase the size of the open-
ings in the facade. Exterior-mounted alu-
minium blinds provide solar shading.
Because the blinds are incorporated in
the insulation plane, the effectiveness of
the insulation is weakened slightly at
these points. In the case of the framed
glazing at ground floor level, the blinds
have been fitted into the cavity between
the panes to prevent them from being
vandalised. A broadly conceived green
concept was introduced to minimise the
embodied energy of construction materi-
als and processes. This included using
concrete with blast furnace sand as a
substitute for cement (improved CO2 bal-
ance), the use of renewable resources,
the avoidance of PVC in the interior fit-out,
as well as a plan to improve energy effi-
ciency in the logistics of the construction
work. 8.37

air outlet air outlet

Building services
Two mechanical ventilation units supply
fresh air to the office space in all three
air inlet
buildings; two further units cater for the Unit A01: offices in block A + B
needs of the canteen and the Chamber of supply air volume 27,740 m3/h (47,550 m3/h night-time ventilation)
extract air volume 28,305 m3/h (48,230 m3/h night-time ventilation)
Commerce (fig. 8.38). Ground collectors
have been installed to preheat or precool ground collector
extract air
the fresh air. Vertical ducts in shafts next
to the staircases and horizontal ducts
supply air
accommodated in the suspended ceil-
ings above the corridors distribute the
supply air. Thus, no technical installations
are required in the office areas and the Unit A02: kitchen, canteen
supply air volume 3120 m3/h; extract air volume 3120 m3/h
ceilings are accessible as storage mass
to mitigate peak temperatures in summer.
extract air
The waste air is drawn from the offices
into the corridors and from there into verti- supply air
cal exhaust air ducts (fig. 8.37). The
mechanical ventilation system operates
8.38
with a higher air exchange rate in summer
Building data
nights to cool the building’s thermal
Use
mass. Only the server rooms, meeting
office/administration
rooms and offices in the Chamber of
Areas
Commerce are actively cooled by means
gross floor area (GFA) 12,556 m2 floor space index (FSI) 2.63
of chilled ceiling panels. The supply air treated floor area (TFA) 8,756 m2 gross volume (V) 45,830 m3
for the remaining office areas is cooled thermal envelope area (A) 11,889 m2 A / V ratio 0.26
with ground water using an adiabatic air U-values [W/m2K]
humidification system. The consequence roof 0.120 W/m2K wall 0.153 W/m2K
is that it is not possible to ensure a defi- base slab 0.217 W/m2K window: (Uw-value) 0.730 W/m2K
glass-to-area ratio (glass/TFA) 20 %
nite room temperature; however, peak
Energy performance data PHPP
temperatures can be reduced by approxi-
space heat demand 13.5 kWh/m2a heat load 14 W/m2
mately 4 to 5 °C. The heat supply in the primary energy 113.0 kWh/m2a ventilation system semi-central
building is provided by a local district heat provision ratio 69 % blower-door test 1/h (50 Pa) 0.55
heating network. Distribution is by means Heat supply system
of conventional radiators. All work places energy carrier district heat solar collectors (coverage rate) –
are equipped with standing lamps, which photovoltaic plant 9.45 kWp
are controlled according to the number of Particularities
occupants and the time of day. individual desk lighting, adiabatic cooling
8.39
95
Reference buildings – non-residential

National Archives
Vaduz, LI 2009

Client:
State of Liechtenstein
Architect:
Kaundbe Architekten, Vaduz
Energy and ecology concept:
Lenum, Vaduz
Building physics:
Baumann, Dietfurt

Nestled up against a steep hill, the new
build of the Liechtenstein National
Archives now flanks the government
quarter together with the House of Repre-
sentatives. Raised above a full-storey
plinth, the central entrance zone sepa-
rates the building into two parts accom-
modating different functions (fig. 8.41).
The northern part incorporates mainly the
archive and, except for the large glass
areas of the user zone, is perceived as a
vast window-less structure. The adminis-
trative area in the south, on the other
hand, has been conceived as a punctu-
ated facade with small openings.
Building construction
The triple glazed elements are positioned
just inside the insulation plane and form a
box-type window together with an addi-
tional pane set flush with the exterior sur-
face. The openings are each comple-
mented by a narrow ventilation sash.
The space in the box-type window has
been used to fit a blind to provide protec-
tion against sun and glare. The entire east
side, except for the roof parapet, has
been set into the hillside. The conse-
quence is that all offices and areas
accessible to the public face west,
whereas access zones, ancillary rooms
8.40
and sanitary areas are positioned along-
side the closed wall below ground. The
exterior reinforced concrete walls with
180 mm-thick insulation are clad on the
exterior. Despite the extra costs, a more
durable insulation method was chosen
than that of a simple thermal insulation
composite system. The large, closed
facade areas of the archive building and
plinth have been clad with clinker bricks;
in the case of the punctuated office
facade, the outer layer of the exterior wall
has been finished using rendered brick-
work (fig. 8.47, p. 98). To facilitate future
changes, the office space is almost

8.41
96
 National Archives in Vaduz

4
5

8.42 8.43
8.40 View of first floor looking towards
the main entrance
8.41 View of south-west facade
1 8.42 Section a – a, scale 1:500
8.43 Site plan, scale 1:3000
1 State museum
2 State parliament building
3 “Long House” (House of Representatives)
4 National Archives
5 Government building
8.44 Floor plans, scale 1:750
1 offices/legal services
2 archive
3 lobby with double door system
4 offices/National Archives
1 5 seminar room
6 reading room
2 3
7 cafeteria
8 plant room
8.45 Access corridor
8.46 Reading room on first floor

4
2 3

7 4
5 6
8.45

3 8
2

a
8.44 8.46
97
Reference buildings – non-residential

8.47 Vertical section, office wing

scale 1:20
1 flat roof:
100 mm extensive roof planting
5 mm separating fleece 1
180 mm XPS insulation
10 mm waterproofing membrane, 2 layers
120 –180 mm foam glass insulation, sloped
350 mm reinforced concrete roof slab
2 25 mm plaster with mineral paint finish
precast reinforced concrete lintel
3 reveal with supply air inlet
4 outside window:
laminated safety glass in brass frame
5 inside window:
triple glazing in wood/metal frame (oak/
brass) (Ug = 0.5 W/m2K; g = 0.5)
6 facade:
25 mm render with mineral paint finish
150 mm facing brickwork
15 mm tolerance range
180 mm mineral wool insulation
250 mm reinforced concrete
10 mm plaster finish 2 9
8.48 Horizontal section, office wing (box-type
window) 3 3
scale 1:20
7 ventilation sash, oak/brass
(U = 0.78 W/m2K)
8 brass sheet metal reveal
8.49 Vertical section, archive wing
scale 1:20
9 precast reinforced concrete lintel with clinker
facing brickwork
10 exterior wall: 4 5
115 mm clinker facing brickwork
40 mm ventilation cavity
180 mm mineral wool insulation
250 mm reinforced concrete
10 mm plaster finish
8.50 Facade section, archive wing
(work zone on first floor)
8.51 Team offices on second floor
8.52 Schematic diagram of building services concept
1 mechanical ventilation unit (mono block)
2 cooling system / heat pump
3 hot water storage tank
8.53 Second floor plan with building services
scale 1:400
a archive zone
b office zone
8.54 Building data

10
6

8.47 8.49

7 5

8
8

8.48 8.50
98
 National Archives in Vaduz

exclusively structured by lightweight par-

1 offices
tition walls (fig. 8.45). 4
20–26°C/30–65%

archive offices
Building services 3 16–20°C/40–60 % 20–26°C/30–65%
Despite the high requirements, the build-
ing makes do with a minimum of technical special archive archive offices
2 20–26°C/30–65 %
equipment. The two zones (administration 11°C/40% 16–20°C/40–60%
and archive) are clearly separated in
special archive reading room offices
terms of technical installations. The tem- 1
11°C/40% 20 – 26°C/30–65% 20–26°C/30–65 %
perature and relative humidity in the
archives must be constant and range 0 archive facility manager’s
1 1 2 3
16–20°C/40–60% office
between 16° / 45 % and 20° / 55 %. Due to
the thermal stability of the ground and the 2 archive units
-1
well-insulated building envelope, this 16–20°C/40–60%
zone can manage without an active heat-
ing or cooling system. A finely tuned ven-
tilation unit has been installed to reduce 8.52
the air exchange to a minimum. The
archives are only provided with fresh air
when the exterior climate conditions are
opportune. It was possible to reduce the
number of mechanical ventilation units by
using a single system to supply different
zones at different times. Silica gel-filled
packs built into the shelving system are
designed to control the moisture level.
In the administrative wing, a central venti-
lation system supplies fresh air to the
offices via an air inlet terminal above the
a
windows (fig. 8.46, p. 97). Overflow
valves above the doors are used to trans-
fer the waste air to the corridors. The air is
finally extracted from the ancillary and
sanitary rooms (fig. 8.53 b). The office
zones have been equipped with a heat
pump-operated underfloor heating sys-
tem; not, however, an active cooling sys-
tem. The only measure planned to cater
for hot summer temperatures is the cool-
ing of supply air to room temperature.
— supply air
The energy concept is complemented by — extract air
a daylight and presence-controlled light- — heating
— cooling
ing system. Due to the compact design,
the good insulation as well as the heat b 8.53
recovery system, which extracts heat
Building data
from the waste air using a rotational heat
Use
exchanger, Minergie-P standard is met.
offices/archives
Areas
gross floor area (GFA) 4720 m2 floor space index (FSI) 1.31
treated floor area (TFA) 4564 m2 gross volume (V) 16,500 m3
thermal envelope area (A) 5434 m2 A / V ratio 0.33
U-values [W/m2K]
roof 0.120 W/m2K wall 0.150 W/m2K
base slab 0.180 W/m2K window: (Uw-value) 0.780 W/m2K
glass-to-area ratio (glass/TFA) 5 % (total) 9.3 % (office wing)
Energy performance data Minergie-P
space heat demand 10.5 kWh/m2a heat load 9.7 W/m2
primary energy 32.0 kWh/m2a ventilation system central
heat provision ratio 75 % blower-door test 1/h (50 Pa) 0.2
Heat supply system
energy carrier local heat/ heat pump solar collectors –
photovoltaic plant –
Particularities
daylight-controlled lighting, presence monitor
8.51 8.54
99
Passive House refurbishment

• Conditions for an energy

efficiency refurbishment
• Refurbishment strategies
• Energy balance and individual
measures
• Outlook

Conditions for an energy Examples include the benefits of increas- refurbishment concepts for the structure,
efficiency refurbishment ing the density of existing building stock fit-out and finishes, in line with the princi-
through conversions, enlargements, roof ple of separating the elements according
The Passive House concept was origi- extensions or adding infill developments to their individual life spans, increase the
nally developed for new builds and, ini- to existing neighbourhoods. Urban densi- time intervals of the renewal process.
tially, applied exclusively in this sphere. fication measures allow for a better “If the parts of a building with short life
However, the greatest potential for energy exploitation of infrastructure in already spans are easily accessible and replace-
savings is the existing building stock: developed areas. Only when this savings able, the overall life expectancy of the
approximately a third of the primary potential has been exploited is it possible building increases.” [1]
energy consumed in Germany is for the to implement effective constructional and
space heating of buildings. Buildings technical measures which are designed Constraints
completed in the post-war era and up to to meet Passive House standard (fig. 9.1). Alongside technical issues, there are
the 1970s are particularly suited to Whenever building functions have to be other obstacles which must be overcome
achieving high energy savings (fig. 9.2). adapted to meet new requirements, the before a refurbishment can be com-
The aim of an energy retrofit is to maintain whole layout of the building has to be pleted. The structure of ownership, for
the structurally sound building fabric and reviewed and possibly changed. Build- example, is an important issue when it
to convert it to meet today’s requirements ings of the post-war era, especially, are comes to implementing energy-efficient
in terms of functional aspects and distinguished not only by a high consump- measures. Whereas single-family homes
reduced energy consumption, ideally tion of energy but also by complicated are usually in the possession of a single
bringing it up to Passive House level. In floor plans that no longer meet today’s owner, in multi-unit dwellings, residents’
addition, an energy efficiency refurbish- standards. Because these buildings are associations usually have to arrive at
ment is designed to increase comfort difficult to deal with, they are prone to decisions through consensus. The initia-
conditions inside and eliminate damage neglect. Measures that achieve greater tor in this case is the property manager,
caused by building physics issues (e.g. density and restructure the properties in who is then also responsible for seeing
dampness). However, energy efficiency combination with an energy efficiency the work through. Unfortunately, property
building refurbishments are not only a upgrade are therefore also an opportunity management companies often lack true
technical and constructional measure, to initiate urban improvements in terms of interest and/or competence.
but an integrative process which should social standards (fig. 9.4). In the case of rented property, there is
also consider urban design, typological New requirements or advances in techni- frequently a conflict of interest between
and design aspects in terms of their cal systems are usually the trigger for a landlord and tenant. The landlord has to
energy-related impact. modernisation or conversion. Flexible bear the investment costs, but the tenant
Primary energy demand [kWh/ m2 a]

250 300 1958−1968 1969− a b c d e a first Thermal

Space heat demand [kWh /m2a]

old building before 1919–1948 1949–1957

1918 1977 Insulation
Regulation, 1977
250
200 b second Thermal
Insulation
Regulation, 1984
state of the art

200
150 saving potential
c third Thermal
of factor 10
Insulation
150 Regulation, 1995
EnEV
100 d EnEV energy
approx. 50% of the total
100 standard 2002– 2007
building stock
e Passive House
50 standard
Passive House 50
Passive House requirements for refurbishments

0 Passive House requirements for new builds

0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.9 1.0 10 20 30 40 60 70 80 90 100
50
A/V ratio [1/m] Existing building stock [%]
9.1 9.2
100
 Conditions for an energy efficiency refurbishment

benefits from the cost savings achieved

through lower energy consumption and
increased comfort conditions inside the
dwelling unit. At a communal level, the
attitude of owners and users towards
refurbishment measures in public build-
ings can also be antagonistic. Alongside
advisory support, feasibility studies
should also be a fundamental part of
every decision-making process.
Restrictions imposed by building regula-
tions may also complicate refurbishment
schemes. This is the case, for example, if
buildings are set very close to the bound-
ary line or are actually placed on it. Exter-
nal insulation, which would, in this case,
extend into the neighbouring property,
infringes on the right of ownership. Inter-
nal insulation, on the other hand, is not
always a suitable alternative for both eco-
nomic and technical reasons. Some fed-
eral states have introduced legislation
defining the conditions for failure to com-
ply with the distance to boundary lines or
for building over the boundary line in
these situations [2]. The refurbishment of
only certain parts of buildings or building
complexes, such as adding insulation to
the facade or roof of a terrace house,
requires careful planning concerning not
only thermal bridges but also the overall
appearance of the scheme.
Building conservation
The most common constructions and
measures for energy efficiency refurbish-
ments are not always suitable for listed
buildings. Since it is usually necessary to
make compromises in the case of build-
ing conservation projects, it is almost
impossible to meet Passive House stand-
ard. On the other hand, buildings with
conservation orders and buildings with
distinctive features worthy of protection
represent only a small proportion of the
total number of buildings in need of an
upgrade.
a b
The highest quality should be aimed for in
situations where it is possible to perform
some individual measures. In the case of
listed buildings, the incorporation of new
building services, in particular ventilation
systems, has a negative impact on the
appearance similar to that of wrapping the
exterior with insulation. Interior insulation,
seldom used in new builds, is often there-
fore used in listed buildings (fig. 9.3). New
developments in windows (e.g. narrow
frames, thin window panes and vacuum
insulated glass), as well as new, high-
performance insulation materials, provide
numerous solutions for buildings with
limited opportunity for refurbishment
(fig. 9.5, p. 102). The alternatives to con-
ventional solutions, however, tend to be
slightly more complicated in terms of con-
struction and also more expensive. Nev-
ertheless, the significance of these build-
ings usually justifies the extra effort.
The requirements and regulations for the
refurbishment of listed buildings are usu-
ally clearly defined. More often than not,
though, a conservation order only applies
to a particular part of the building (e.g.
the street facade). Exact precedents for
these cases are rare, and even if availa-
ble, it is seldom possible to achieve the
same result. It is more complicated to find
9.3
an adequate architectural solution for the
retrofit of buildings that, while not listed,
are relevant from a design point of view.
The challenge, in this case, is to minimise
the energy consumption, improve the
comfort conditions in the interior and, at
the same time, maintain the authenticity of
the building’s appearance on the outside
(fig. 9.5).
Evaluation criteria
When it comes to making a decision on a
suitable strategy for the upgrade of exist-
ing building stock and the application of
Passive House measures, two aspects
should be considered: the merits of a
refurbishment and the ability to carry it
through. The first aspect concerns the
objective and subjective value of the
building, such as the urban situation,
functional suitability, characteristic fea-
tures or conservation orders, as well as
the potential to save energy and
resources.
The feasibility of a refurbishment involves
assessing the functional, structural and
constructional properties of the building
from an energy-related point of view.
These criteria determine the suitability
of a building for an energy efficiency
upgrade and the scope of the measures

9.1 Primary energy demand according to the A / V

ratio. The worse the energy standard of the
building, the more important the impact of the
form factor.
9.2 Percentage distribution and energy demand
of the existing building stock in Germany.
9.3 Full refurbishment of a former warehouse in
Brussels (B) 2011, MDW Architectes.
Metal frame facade with infill brickwork and
a continuous insulation plane.
a facade section, scale 1:20
b elevation
9.4 Refurbishment of a residential estate from the
1970s in Dornbirn (A) 2009, Helmut Kuëss.
The density and quality standard of the build-
ings was improved by incorporating the former
balconies into the heated building volume as
loggias.
a section, scale 1:300 (new parts in green)
b elevation
a b 9.4
101
Passive House refurbishment
that should be taken, ranging from a par-
tial refurbishment, stripping the building
down to its original frame, demolishing
parts of it or even total replacement.
The refurbishment has the effect that the
amount of energy invested in the initial
development is extended over a longer
period of time. In some situations, it nev-
ertheless makes sense to replace the old
building fabric by a new build, in particu-
lar if it means that much greater density, a
more efficient use of space and the exist-
ing infrastructure as well as a real Passive
House standard can be achieved. The
most effective way to realise energy sav-
a ings is through a major overhaul of the
building, ideally including conversion and
restructuring measures. The energy-
related aspects can be improved by
replacing the building services and the
fit-out. By replacing the old facade with a
new one, junction details are simplified
and become easier to master.
The poorer the U-values of the existing
building components, the greater the
economic impact of the energy efficiency
upgrade. The insulation of large surfaces
achieves the best cost-benefit ratio.
Measures that would have anyway been
required in terms of building mainte-
nance, such as a roof renovation, new
b windows or a replacement of the heating
system, are not considered in the eco-
nomic assessment of an energy efficiency
upgrade. The only costs that are com-
pared are the extra costs of an energy-
efficiency upgrade, in contrast to a con-
ventional refurbishment, and the energy
savings achieved through the better qual-
ity. Grants awarded by the government
and local communities also have an influ-
ence on the cost-benefit assessment in
favour of better quality upgrades.
It is also important to make use of oppor-
tunities. If, for example, the facade needs
repainting anyway, it is worth thinking
about adding insulation at the same time,
c in order to make full use of the scaffolding
and to face the restrictions to the use of
the property during the maintenance work
just a single time.
Alongside the savings in operating costs,
a cost-benefit analysis should also con-
sider subjective values, such as better
comfort conditions, less and easier repair
and maintenance work, protection against
rising energy costs and, last but not least,
the image of the property. The long-term
consequences of a suboptimal solution
and the costs for subsequent improve-
ments also have to be taken into consid-
eration. Some towns and communities
have taken this insight to heart and
d 9.5
102
require that Passive House standard is
met in the refurbishment of every public
building, or at least that Passive House
components are applied. [3]
Refurbishment strategies
The climate regulating functions of the
building envelope must be carefully
assessed in terms of ability to provide the
expected level of thermal comfort. Fre-
quently, the effort and expense involved
in remedying one-off problems associ-
ated with the existing building stock is
disproportionate. Despite improvements
to the design, the building services and
construction, the more demanding
requirements of a Passive House new
build can rarely be achieved at reasona-
ble cost. The PHPP has considered this
aspect and, hence, imposes different
requirements on redevelopment schemes
(fig. 3.14, p. 29). The aim, in this case too,
is to determine a thermal protection
standard, which exceeds that of the statu-
tory requirements, but nevertheless
allows the implementation of measures to
make economic sense.
The long-term use of the building
depends on the ability to prevent mois-
ture-related damage and ensure thermal
comfort in the interior space. With sound
and uniform insulation of the building
envelope, the room-enclosing surfaces
are similarly warm with temperatures dif-
fering no more than 3 °C. Due to the
warmer surfaces, comfort conditions
inside improve and the room temperature
can be reduced, which is beneficial in
terms of saving energy. Window sur-
faces are no longer perceived as cold
radiating surfaces and do not require
radiators in their immediate vicinity to
compensate for or avoid cold air drop at
windows. The positioning of radiators is
then less constrained, which also means
that pipe runs can be reduced, decreas-
ing the overall effort and expense of the
refurbishment.
Refurbishment using Passive House
components
The scope of the planned refurbishment
determines the scale of possible energy-
saving measures and thus influences the
possibility of meeting Passive House
standard. Nevertheless, even if a gradual
procedure is opted for or the measures
are being performed for repair or mainte-
nance purposes, it is always important to
pay attention to the right quality and strive
for Passive House standard or at least the

application of Passive House components.
Every building is a network of building
physical systems, in which every altera-
tion has an impact on the whole. In the
case of a gradual implementation of
measures (frequently due to financial or
user-related constraints), meaningful work
packages have to be determined without
losing the vision of a well-designed final
product. The replacement of windows, for
example, requires not only preparatory
construction work for the subsequent
installation of insulation, but also plans
concerning the quality of air and the regu-
lation of moisture in the interior space,
which must take into consideration the
improved airtightness of the building
envelope. The addition of a mechanical
ventilation system with a heat recovery
function is a sensible and sometimes
even a necessary solution. The challenge
presented by a gradual refurbishment is
that it is not always possible to clearly
predict the next work step. Nevertheless,
the impact of each measure should be
assessed as far as possible in terms of
both building physics (e.g. thermal
bridges) and thermal comfort.
If the condition of individual building
components is still acceptable and they
are to be renewed at a later date, it is
important to check whether the addi-
tional costs for a gradual refurbishment,
including the costs for building site facili-
ties and equipment, scaffolding and
restricted use during the construction
phase, exceed the remaining value of the
building components left in place. In
terms of the scheduling of refurbishment
work, precedence should be given to the
measures with the greatest impact on
thermal comfort and the energy balance,
as well as those which generate the most
significant reductions in operating costs.
Non-residential buildings
The refurbishment of non-residential
buildings using Passive House technol-
ogy has attracted wide interest in the field
of public buildings (fig. 9.5 and 9.6). In
the private sector too, measures following
Passive House principles are increasingly
being regarded as economic.
Commercial buildings, public buildings
as well as social and cultural institutions
incorporate a number of functions with
differing requirements. Even if the princi-
ples for Passive House refurbishment
apply to all of these in the same way,
there are no global solutions for the deter-
mination of modernisation measures. The
building typology and the type of use are
the most crucial factors: in the case of
Energy balance and individual measures
schools, for example, a mechanical venti-
lation unit is not only a worthwhile invest-
ment from an energy-saving viewpoint
but also for the provision of suitable air
conditions; sun and glare protection
devices are necessary in office buildings
not only to prevent overheating but also to
increase visual comfort at desks; floor
insulation in kindergartens reduces heat
loss at the same time as increasing ther-
mal comfort for those working at floor
level with children.
Energy balance and individual
measures a
Every refurbishment should be based on
a detailed building survey. It should
include an energy balance which enables
the planners to identify priority work areas,
as well as assess construction and
design-related issues. As is common
practice today, the transmission and ven-
tilation heat loss should be compared with
the solar and internal heat gains in order
to quantify the remaining space heat
demand. The elements of the energy bal-
ance can then be used to determine and
evaluate the improvement measures.
When planning the refurbishment of the
primary and secondary school in Gräfe- b
ling (fig. 9.6), the energy balance high-
lighted the fact that the transmission heat
loss through the facade was responsible
for high energy consumption despite the
school being a fairly compact building.
The most significant weaknesses were
identified in the aluminium frames of the
glazed elements where thermal breaks
were missing. Thermal bridges were also
identified at the junctions between the
infill elements and the concrete frame
construction. These weak points are
clearly visible in the thermographic
images (fig. 9.6 b, p. 103). The refurbish-
ment measures therefore included fixing
new, airtight timber panel elements with c 9.6
very well insulated windows in front of the 9.5 Refurbishment of 1970s parish community centre
in Planegg (D) 2010, Pollok + Gonzalo
concrete structure. The ventilation heat a Situation before the refurbishment
loss, which was almost as high as the b Bracket-mounted, rendered timber element
facade after the refurbishment. The new ther-
transmission heat loss through the build- mal envelope complies with the requirements
ing envelope, is now reduced by a roof- for Passive House standard.
installed mechanical ventilation unit with a c The downstand beams were wrapped in
vacuum insulation panels.
heat recovery function. The problems pre- d Vertical section through the insulated beams,
sented by the limited room height and fire scale 1:20
9.6 Refurbishment using Passive House compo-
protection requirements were resolved by nents: primary and secondary school in Gräfel-
introducing several individual vertical air fing (D) 2011, Pollok + Gonzalo
ducts. The fixed, protruding louvre shad- a Facade before the refurbishment
b The thermographic image clearly highlights
ing elements were replaced by adjustable the thermal bridges at the uninsulated alumini-
louvres, which reflect light onto the ceiling um window frames and concrete pillars.
c The new, prefabricated timber element facade
and thus into the depths of the building. is responsible for creating a homogenous insu-
This measure, together with the new, effi- lation plane.
103
Passive House refurbishment
a b
cient lighting system, reduces the power
consumption of the school considerably.
Thermal envelope
The transmission heat loss is in direct
proportion to the area of the construc-
tional elements and their insulation prop-
erties. It is for this reason that compact,
well-insulated buildings are at a clear
advantage. The form factor of an existing
building is a given feature that can hardly
be changed. Nevertheless, “cooling fins”,
such as dormers and loggias, can be cor-
rected as part of the overhaul of the build-
ing envelope. Extensions, such as an
added roof storey or annex, help to
increase the enclosed volume and
improve the A / V ratio (fig. 9.7). The same
applies to the replacement of infill ele-
ments in concrete frame structures. By
moving the insulation plane in front of the
load-bearing construction, thermal
bridges are avoided (fig. 9.6, p. 103).
When seeking to improve the thermal
performance of the building, it is neces-
sary to differentiate between the various
constructional elements. Each needs to
be assessed according to the overall
effect on the energy balance, the work
involved and the expense in the case of
refurbishment.
9.8
104
Replacing the insulation in roofs tends to
be fairly inexpensive. Adding insulation to
the underside of the basement ceiling is
also an efficient and simple refurbishment
measure. The effectiveness of insulation in
this case is sometimes limited by the low
ceiling height, which does not allow for an
adequate thickness of insulating panel, by
thermal bridges at wall-to-ceiling junctions
or by pipes that are suspended from the
ceiling and prevent creating a homoge-
nous plane. It is more difficult to insulate
the ground floor slab in buildings without a
basement. The installation of an insulation
skirt (usually reaching down to approx.
1 m below ground level) around the
perimeter of the building helps to improve
the situation marginally, especially in the
case of buildings with a large footprint.
This measure only improves the thermal
properties along the edge of the floor
slab; however, it helps to increase the
temperature below the building, which
means that the overall heat loss is actually
reduced (fig. 9.8, 9.9).
Facades are usually upgraded by adding
a composite thermal insulation system.
Special attention should be paid to the
junctions at the base and the top of the
building as well as around facade open-
ings. In the case of most details, the solu-
°C
20.9
19.8
18.7
17.6
16.5
15.4
14.3
13.2
12.1
11
9.9
8.8
7.7
6.6
5.6
4.4
9.9
c 9.7
tions differ from those of new builds.
Alongside heat loss, the typical weak
points (e.g. at wall junctions to unheated
basement areas, protruding elements,
such as downstand beams, concrete pil-
lars or balconies) can also lead to dam-
age caused by moisture, followed by a
deterioration of thermal comfort in the
interior space. Therefore special attention
should be paid to the planning of details,
but also to conducting special inspec-
tions of workmanship during the construc-
tion phase.
Areas which are not easily accessible
from the outside (e.g. areas in direct con-
tact with the ground), as well as facades
that are either listed or worthy of protec-
tion, generally only allow for insulation to
be fitted on the inside of exterior walls. In
this case, it is very important to make sure
that the construction is airtight and ther-
mal bridges are reduced to below the
critical value for interstitial condensation
(minimum permitted temperature of the
interior room surface: 12 °C at a room air
temperature of 20 °C and an air humidity
of 60 %). For reasons associated with
building physics or the loss of floor space
encountered, internal insulation is not
usually applied in the thickness required
by the Passive House standard.
Airtightness, ventilation
Upgrading the thermal envelope
improves the airtightness of the building,
thereby providing suitable conditions for
the efficient and economic operation of a
mechanical ventilation unit. Manual venti-
lation does not usually suffice to supply
the right amount of fresh air and is there-
fore often the cause of complaints, such
as headaches, lack of concentration and
tiredness. Problems like these frequently
arise in public buildings and schools, but
also in residential buildings that have
become airtight through refurbishment
measures. A mechanical ventilation sys-

tem is also necessary to control the
amount of moisture in impermeable
rooms.
One of the greatest challenges in a refur-
bishment project is finding the necessary
space to accommodate the ventilation
equipment and air ducts. Fire prevention
requirements are usually a reason for
further concern.
Decentralised systems are generally eas-
ier to plan and install. These also have the
advantage that the air exchange can be
controlled individually. On the other hand,
individual units require greater mainte-
nance, and care has to be taken to incor-
porate these in an aesthetically pleasing
way not only in the interior space but also
in the facade of the building.
Solar and internal heat gains
The orientation of an existing building
tends to be fixed; nevertheless, there are
many ways to improve the use of solar
radiation. It is, for example, possible to
change the size of apertures, rearrange
the layout so that more frequently used
areas are on the sunnier sides or remove
structures overshadowing the facade
(balconies, protruding roofs, etc.). These
alterations also improve the provision of
daylight, which, if used in combination
with an energy-efficient lighting system,
reduces electricity consumption signifi-
cantly (fig. 9.10). In this context, it is
important to mention sun-shading devices
that prevent glare and overheating in
summer, but do not limit the amount of
natural daylight entering the building.
The difference in the thermal balance
between heat gains and heat losses has
to be evened out through heating or cool-
ing. In the case of a Passive House refur-
bishment, the remaining energy demand
is a fraction of the original. Hence, the
existing heating system tends to be far
too powerful and is usually replaced by
more efficient equipment. Unlike new
builds, though, the heat demand following
the refurbishment in an existing property
can rarely be reduced sufficiently to be
covered solely by the required amount of
supply air.
Outlook
The effectiveness of an energy efficiency
refurbishment is conditional upon the
users changing their ways. Occupants
have to get used to and understand the
new ventilation methods, shading
devices, lighting and heating systems. It
is part of the planner’s task to support an
energy-conscious approach to the build-
ing’s use. The functional principles of the
climate regulating measures (e.g. sun
shading devices) should be straightfor-
ward and they should be simple to oper-
ate. Furthermore, the supporting technol-
ogy must be comprehensible and easy to
control.
Nowadays, constructions and technical
solutions are available and have been
tested for almost every critical zone.
The range of highly efficient insulation
materials (e.g. calcium silicates, aerogels,
vacuum insulation panels) is increasing
steadily (fig. 9.5 c and d, p. 102). How-
ever, there is still scope for greater crea-
tivity in the use of these new materials.
The procedure for the performance of
retrofitting measures is flexible, but not
random and without structure. As with
architecture in general, it is all about
understanding the interdependencies
of various measures. Numerous exam-
ples, including those described on the
following pages, illustrate not only the
feasibility of a Passive House refurbish-
ment but also how an energy efficiency
upgrade can be accomplished in combi-
nation with an appealing design. They are
by no means chance products of building
physics, but valuable examples of archi-
tecture.
Outlook
Notes
[1] Rogers, Richard: Architektur: Ein Plädoyer für die
Moderne. Frankfurt am Main 1993
[2] For example paragraph 46 a and 46 b of the
AGBGB (Implementing Law of the German Civil
Code) in Bavaria
[3] The city of Frankfurt, for example, demands:
“Passive House components are to be applied in
the refurbishment of municipal buildings (insula-
tion, windows, ventilation system with heat recov-
ery > 75 %). The aim should be to reach Passive
House standard. If it is not possible to meet the
requirements, the planners are obliged to give
reasons for the non-compliance.” (St V VB § 7502
on 28 January 2010).
9.7 Student hall of residence in Wuppertal (D) 2000,
Architektur Contor Müller Schlüter
a elevation after the refurbishment
b axonometric drawing of the new facade
c floor plan
Due to the extensions to the floor plans along-
side the facades (dark grey areas), it was possi-
ble to increase the room size, improve the form
factor of the building and enable the insulation
plane to be continued in the facades without in-
terruption. These measures contributed towards
achieving the quality standards of a new build.
9.8 Refurbishment of the parish community centre in
Dachau (D) 2010, Pollok + Gonzalo. The insula-
tion skirt is an extension of the external wall insu-
lation down into the ground (see p. 114ff.). This
solution reduces the heat loss through the
ground slab, which had never been insulated.
9.9 Dynamic simulation of the insulation’s impact on
the energy loss of an uninsulated floor slab.
9.10 Refurbishment of an office building in Bolzano (I)
2006, Michael Tribus Architecture. The slanted
reveals improve the provision of daylight to the
interior space. Because the windows are posi-
tioned in the insulation plane and all junction de-
tails are solved well, the reduced insulation
around the windows does not have a negative
impact on the building’s thermal properties.
9.10
105
Reference buildings – Passive House refurbishments

Refurbishment of multi-unit dwelling

Zurich, CH 2011

Client:
Pierre und Thomas Ledermann, Zurich
Architect:
Beat Kämpfen/Kämpfen for
Architektur AG, Zurich
Energy concept:
Planforum, Martin Fuchs, Winterthur

10.1

This multi-unit dwelling, positioned on a

busy road in Zurich, was completed in
1938 as part of a block development.
The good location close to the city centre
provided the motivation to enlarge the
building up to the permitted limit. This
involved moving the north facade, facing
the courtyard, out by one metre with the
result that the small rooms on this side of
the house are now a pleasant size. This
enlargement, together with the roof exten-
sion, has led to an increase in the useful
floor area of approximately 100 m2.
Based on thorough investigations of dif-
ferent variants, the clients eventually
opted for a Passive House refurbishment.
The improved thermal comfort and extra
space made this a worthwhile investment.
Formerly residential, the building is now a
mixed use property: offices are accom-
modated on the ground floor, two apart-
ments each on the four full-storey levels
above and a maisonette apartment in the
converted loft.

Building construction
Alongside outdated building services
and windows that needed replacing, the
most serious shortcomings of the existing
building fabric included uninsulated
walls, protruding balconies without ther-
mal breaks and a lack of impact sound
insulation in floors. An assessment
revealed that the windows alone were
responsible for more than half of the
transmission heat loss.
The facade facing the road has been
upgraded with a composite thermal insula-
tion system with the result that the building
still appears as part of the block develop-
ment. The arrangement and size of aper-
tures was not changed except for the
larger openings made on the ground floor.
The balconies at the south-east corner
have been enclosed to form a four-storey
bay window, which accentuates the other-
wise totally plane street facade (fig. 10.2).
10.2
106
 Refurbishment of multi-unit dwelling in Zurich

10.1 Site plan, scale 1:2000

10.2 Street view
10.3 Section a – a, scale 1:500
10.4 Floor plan, lower roof storey, scale 1:300
10.5 Floor plan, standard level (1st – 4th floor),
scale 1:300
1 office
2 meeting room
3 kitchen/dining
4 living room
5 bedroom
6 bathroom
10.6 Ground floor plan, scale 1:300
10.7 Street view prior to the refurbishment
10.8 View from courtyard
10.9 View into open-plan maisonette apartment in
the converted roof

10.3

6
3

5 5 4

10.4
10.7

3 3 5

6 6

5 5 5 5

10.5 10.8

2 2

1 1

a
10.6
10.9
107
Reference buildings – Passive House refurbishments

4
5

10

10.10 10.11
108
 Refurbishment of multi-unit dwelling in Zurich

— fresh air
The north facade and the roof were — supply air
mainly constructed using prefabricated — extract air
— exhaust air
timber elements, whereby the new, load-
bearing facade has been set on new, 1 roof apartment
separate foundations. The thermal enve- 1 ventilation unit
2 main ventilation
lope also incorporates the new lift added unit in plant room
at the rear of the building. Together with (basement)
the adjoining balconies, it has been clad
with timber battens and can thus be per-
ceived as an independent element set
apart from the main building (fig. 10.8,
p. 107).
Special attention was paid to thermal
bridges. Four of the eight balconies on
the south facade have been converted
into alcoves and insulated without leav-
ing any thermal bridges. Vacuum insula-
tion panels (¬ = 0.007) have been
added to the upper side of the remain-
ing balconies and the terraces on the
north facade with the result that there is
no step between inside and outside. 2
The soffits of the balconies have been
insulated with aerogel panels (¬ = 0.013)
(fig. 10.10).

10.12
Building services
The installation of a mechanical ventila- Building data
tion unit not only provides energy benefits Use
but also blocks out traffic noise. For residential
economic reasons, all apartments and Areas
offices are served from a single central gross floor area (GFA) 1338 m2 floor space index (FSI) 4.22
unit (fig. 10.12). By moving the facade treated floor area (TFA) 1117 m2 gross volume (V) 3678 m3
out on the courtyard side of the build- thermal envelope area (A) 1117 m2 A / V ratio 0.30

ing, space was created to accommo- U-values [W/m2K]

date the services ducts. The roof storey roof 0.090 W/m2K wall 0.110 W/m2K
base slab 0.18 W/m2K window (Uw-value) 0.950 W/m2K
apartment has its own mechanical ventila- glass-to-area ratio (glass/TFA) 19 %
tion unit. The technical concept also Energy performance data Minergie-P
includes thermal solar collectors for the space heat demand 16.7 kWh/m²a ventilation system central
provision of hot water and space heating, heat provision ratio 83 % blower-door test 1/h (50 Pa) 1.3 (residential),
heat load 14.8 W/m² 0.9 (GF/commercial)
as well as a roof-integrated photovoltaic
system. Heat supply system

The renewal of floors to install the previ- energy carrier gas solar collectors 14,029 kWh/a
photovoltaic plant 3.55 kWp
ously missing impact sound insulation
Particularities
was used as an opportunity to incorpo-
underfloor heating, energy-saving devices
rate an underfloor heating system. 10.13

10.10 Vertical section of south facade (road side)
scale 1:20
1 roof:
8 mm fibre concrete panels or PV modules
30 mm battens, 50 mm counter battens
2 mm waterproofing membrane
35 mm soft fibre panel
120 mm battens/mineral fibre insulation
27 mm 3-ply panel
280 mm timber beam/mineral fibre insulation
vapour barrier, 27 mm 3-ply board
2 rain gutter, chrome steel
3 10 mm render
25 mm prefabricated lintel element
sun shading device, Venetian blind, white
40/80 mm mineral fibre insulation
320 mm lintel, in-situ concrete (original),
plaster
4 terrace floor:
25 mm larch decking, untreated
30 mm sleepers
10 mm polymer bitumen waterproofing
membrane, 2 layers
30 – 50 mm rock wool insulation
30 mm vacuum insulation panel
5 mm polymer bitumen waterproofing membrane
170 mm concrete floor slab (original)
5 parapet:
10 mm render
60 mm mineral fibre insulation
60 mm 3-ply board, 8 mm fibre cement panel
6 balcony:
25 mm larch decking
30 mm sleepers
10 mm polymer bitumen waterproofing
membrane, 2 layers
60 mm mineral fibre insulation, sloped
30 mm aerogel insulation
5 mm polymer bitumen waterproofing membrane
140 –170 mm balcony slab
30 mm aerogel insulation, 10 mm render
7 window:
triple glazing in wood/metal frame
(Ug = 0.60 W/m2K; Uf = 1.22 W/m2K)
8 plinth:
10 mm render
140 mm XPS insulation
3 mm bitumen paint coat
420 mm brickwork (original)
350/500 mm limestone pillar
200 mm mineral fibre insulation infill
9 27 mm MDF panel, varnished
IPE 300 steel beam, infill insulation
80 mm mineral fibre insulation
10 floor slab to basement:
15 mm fine stoneware tiles
50 mm anhydrite flow screed with underfloor
heating, PE foil separating layer
30 mm mineral fibre impact sound insulation
30 mm EPS insulation
230 mm hollow brick floor slab with layer of
concrete (original)
80 mm mineral fibre insulation
10.11 Detail view of street facade
10.12 Section with ventilation concept
10.13 Building data

109
Reference buildings – Passive House refurbishments

Apartment block refurbishment

Freiburg im Breisgau, D 2011

Client:
Freiburger Stadtbau, Freiburg i. Br.
Architect:
Roland Rombach, Kirchzarten
Building services:
Ingenieurbüro Lenz, Umkirch
Building physics:
Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy
Systems, Freiburg i. Br.

10.14

The 16-storey building in Freiburg is the

first high-rise residential building ever to
have been refurbished according to Pas-
sive House standard. The apartment
block was completed in 1968 using a
serial construction method with precast
concrete elements typical of that time.
Having been in use for 40 years, the
building was in need of refurbishment.
The layouts of the large apartments no
longer suited the needs of the residents.
Furthermore, the long and narrow, loggia-
like balconies without thermal breaks
were the cause for severe thermal
bridges and a lack of daylight in the
apartments (fig. 10.19).
It was for this reason that the client
decided to totally restructure the floor
plans, which meant that the building
could not be lived in during the 18-month
construction period. All tenants who
wanted to return after the modernisation
were moved into temporary replacement
accommodation.
Now, after the refurbishment, each level
contains not six, but nine apartments with
improved layouts, but less floor area.
Among these are 30 barrier-free units.
Due to the reduction of floor area and cut
in heating costs, the all-inclusive rent per
unit is lower now than it used to be before
the modernisation. The circulation area in
the building has been reduced and the
former loggias enclosed so that thermal
bridges are no longer an issue and the
overall living area has been increased by
900 m2. This has had the effect that the
layouts are now even deeper than before.
However, the sanitary and ancillary rooms
are located in the inner darker zones; the
bedrooms and living areas, on the other
hand, are positioned on the window side.

Building construction
Due to the high degree of compactness
the tall structure is very beneficial in
terms of energy efficiency. Nevertheless,
10.15
110
 Apartment block refurbishment in Freiburg

10.14 Site plan, scale 1:5000

10.15 View from south-west
10.16 Section a – a, scale 1:1000
10.17 Standard floor plan before the refurbishment,
scale 1:400
10.18 Standard floor plan after the refurbishment,
scale 1:400
10.19 Refurbished block immediately next to identical,
not yet refurbished building
10.20 Entrance area
10.21 View of apartment interior; vertical supply shaft
on the left
10.16

10.19

10.17

10.20

a
10.18 10.21
111
Reference buildings – Passive House refurbishments

10.22 Vertical section punctuated facade

scale 1:20
1 floor slab:
10 mm floor covering
60 mm cement screed
separating foil
60 mm thermal insulation
levelling coat
25 mm original screed
1 160 mm reinforced concrete floor 9 8
slab (original)
2 exterior wall upper levels:
2 10 mm facade rendering
200 mm mineral thermal insulation
175 mm exterior wall, aerated concrete,
4 inner joints sealed (wind tightness)
10 mm internal plastering
3 window:
triple glazed PVC window
4 additional insulation behind roller
3 shutter box:
52 mm microporous silica insulation
(aerogel)
5 floor slab between ground floor and
basement:
10 mm floor covering
60 mm cement screed, separating foil
60 mm thermal insulation, levelling coat
25 mm original screed
160 mm reinforced concrete floor
slab (original)
200 mm mineral thermal insulation
10 mm internal plastering
6 basement window:
double glazed PVC window (Uf = 1.1 m2/K)
7 exterior wall, plinth:
10 mm natural stone cladding
200 mm mineral thermal insulation
5 10
200 mm concrete exterior wall (original)
100 mm mineral insulation
10 mm internal plastering
10.23 Vertical section facade/balcony
scale 1:20
8 balcony:
140 –160 mm new reinforced concrete
balcony element suspended from
protruding side walls, sloped top surface
Ø 100 mm balcony drain pipe
9 2 mm cover sheet, stainless steel
10 microporous silica insulation (aerogel)
10.24 Horizontal section facade/balcony
6 scale 1:20
11 10 mm facade rendering
160/200 mm mineral thermal insulation
10.25 Detail view of balconies
10.26 Standard floor plan (Type 5) with building
services concept
7 scale 1:150
10.27 Layout of mechanical equipment floor
scale 1:400
10.28 Energy balance
10.29 Building data

10.22 10.23

11

10.24
112
 Apartment block refurbishment in Freiburg

— fresh air
through the Passive House refurbishment, — supply air
energy savings of almost 80 % have been — extract air
— exhaust air
achieved. The facades have been — heating
upgraded with Passive House-certified
windows and a composite thermal insula-
tion system with 20 cm-thick mineral wool.
Aerogel insulation ( λ = 0.013 W/mK) has
been used to prevent thermal bridges
and compensate for the reduced thick-
ness of insulation at the balcony connec-
tions and behind the roller shutter boxes
(fig. 10.22 and 10.23). The original balco-
nies and exterior concrete wall supports
are now incorporated within the building 10.26
envelope and no longer cause thermal
bridging in the facade. In replacement,
all apartments now feature new exterior-
mounted balconies, which are supported
by the protruding, but thermally sepa-
rated, parapet elements made of rein-
forced concrete. By enclosing the log-
gias, the windows receive more direct
sunlight, which increases not only the
solar heat gain but also the amount of
natural daylight.

Building services
The restructuring of the apartments pro-
vided an opportunity to replace all build-
ing services. Two central mechanical ven-
tilation units with heat recovery have been
accommodated in a new roof structure 10.27
Final/ primary energy [kWh/m2a]

(fig. 10.27). The distribution of air is lim- 200

primary energy, electricity heat loss
ited to vertical ducts (fig. 10.26). The sys- 180 primary energy, heat DHW
tem is designed to supply an air change 160 30
electricity (grid) heating
district heat
rate of 0.4 per hour; however, the resi- 140 81
dents can increase it by 50 % if required. 28.75
120
In order to support the successful accom- 20
100
plishment of the retrofit, residents are
80 25 21 56.7
given instructions on how to use their
Passive House unit and live an energy- 60 22.5
104.1
saving lifestyle before moving in. The 40
70
10
48.9
results of the pilot project are being moni- 20 20
tored closely; the intention is to use the 0 15
research, among other things, as a basis Final energy Primary energy Final energy Primary energy
for the refurbishment of two identical unrefurbished unrefurbished refurbished refurbished
buildings in the neighbourhood. 10.28
Building data
Use
residential
Areas
gross floor area (GFA) 11,319 m2 floor space index (FSI) 1.53
treated floor area (TFA) 8582 m2 gross volume (V) 29,211 m3
thermal envelope area (A) 6977 m2 A / V ratio 0.24
U-values [W/m2K]
roof 0.207 W/m2K wall 0.177 W/m2K
base slab 0.255 W/m2K window (Uw-value) 0.830 W/m2K
glass-to-area ratio (glass/TFA) 20 %
Energy performance data PHPP
space heat demand 15.2 (before 68) kWh/m2a heat load 11.1 W/m2
primary energy demand 107.0 kWh/m2a ventilation system central
heat provision ratio 83 % blower-door test 1/h (50 Pa) 0.22
Heat supply system
energy carrier district heat/CHP(gas) solar collectors –
photovoltaic plant 23.7 kWp
10.25 10.29
113
Reference buildings – Passive House refurbishments
Parish community centre
refurbishment
Dachau, D 2011
Client:
Pfarrkirchenstiftung St. Peter, Dachau
Architect:
Pollok + Gonzalo, Munich
Building services:
PSB-Technik, Abensberg
The St. Peter‘s Parish Community Centre
in Dachau was completed in 1977 using a
system building method with an alumin-
ium skeleton construction. After having
been in use for 30 years, the building
needed not only a complete overhaul but
also more space for the now wider range
of community activities. The task was
therefore to extend and refurbish the
building in such a way that it would meet
today’s demands in terms of functional as
well as energy-related aspects. The result
of the construction work is a fine balance
of original and new parts, which double
the floor area of the community centre.
114
A wide corridor along the north side of
the new build connects new and old and
functions as a shared entrance and
meeting area. Different room profiles,
accentuated by natural daylight, create
a varied sequence of space in the corri-
dor. All rooms in the extension face
south opening out onto a quiet garden
area. In fact, the new build structures the
surrounding open space by establishing
a network of cycle and footpaths around
the community centre and defining a
new central square.
The modular construction system of the
existing building has been adopted in
10.30
the new build, and, in terms of functions,
the two parts form a single unit. Neverthe-
less, individual exterior features clearly
highlight the different dates of their com-
pletion.
Building construction
Due to the low quality of the insulation,
the entire building envelope of the exist-
ing building had to be renewed. A distinc-
tion between the new facade and the
extension is made not only in colour but
also in material. The existing building has
been completed with a cavity wall system
and anthracite-coloured fibre cement
10.31
 Parish community centre refurbishment in Dachau

10.30 Aerial view from the north

10.31 View from the east, new build on the right.
Small tilting sashes in the existing building (at
the back) are designed for night-time cooling
in summer; a strip of rooflights has this function
in the new build.
10.32 Link between the old hall (left) and the
extension (right)
10.33 Site plan, scale 1:2000
10.34 Section a – a, scale 1:500
10.35 Section b – b, scale 1:500
10.36 Floor plans, ground floor and basement,
scale 1:500
1 parish hall
2 small parish hall
3 group room
4 kitchen
5 multi-purpose room
6 workshop
7 cloakroom

10.32 10.33
panels; the new build, on the other hand,
has been clad with blue, horizontal larch
battens.
In the choice of building materials, a lot of
attention was paid to the use of ecologi-
cally sound products and cost efficiency.
In the case of the existing building, a new
insulated envelope has been wrapped
10.34
around the existing surfaces resulting in
excellent thermal protection without ther-
mal bridges. A framed glazing system
with triple-glazed window elements has
been incorporated into the same plane.
The roof structure has been upgraded by
blowing cellulose insulation into the gaps
between the aluminium beams. 10.35
Having been completed as a single-storey
building without a basement, the only
lightly insulated ground slab posed a real
problem since it was not possible to add
insulation at reasonable cost. A decision
was finally made to install 1 m-deep
2 3 a
perimeter insulation boards around the
outside edge of the foundation slab to
raise the temperature in the ground
beneath the floor (fig. 10.37 and 9.8,
p. 104). The insulation traps the heat
underneath the building with the effect 4 3 3 3 5
that heat loss is reduced.
The extension is made of prefabricated 1
timber components which were erected
on the perfectly insulated ground slab in b b a
a single week. The exterior walls made of
double-webbed beams and the roof
made of laminated timber beams have an
infill of cellulose insulation. Sloped insula-
tion boards on the roof increase the insu-
lation properties and help avoid flaws in
the construction.
As is the case for the existing hall too, the 7 6
new build features a framed glazing sys-
tem made of laminated timber with triple
glazed window and door elements. Fixed
metal louvres set in front of the south-fac-
ing facade of the new build and the west- 10.36
facing facade of the existing building pro-
vide additional solar protection in summer

115
Reference buildings – Passive House refurbishments

10.37 Vertical section west facade, existing filter fleece

building, scale 1:20 40 mm gravel drainage course
1 roof: 12 mm protective mat
58 mm corrugated fibre cement sheet protective sealing
30/50 mm battens EVA waterproofing (ethylene vinyl
6
40/60 mm ventilation cavity/battens acetate)
roofing felt, open to diffusion 120 mm (average) insulation, 2 % slope
80 mm trapezoidal sheet (original) liner sheet
2 300 mm aluminium joist (original) 22 mm OSB board
300/380 mm cellulose insulation 360 mm cellulose insulation
vapour barrier, reinforced, moisture 80/360 mm laminated timber beam
variable vapour barrier, reinforced
30/80 mm batten substructure 80/30 mm battens
18 mm perforated gypsum fibreboard 18 mm gypsum fibreboard,
2 exterior wall: fire-resistant
12 mm fibre cement cladding, 6 facade:
anthracite grey 60/160 mm framed glazing system,
30/100 mm vertical substructure laminated timber with aluminium
wind-tight fleece, polypropylene cover strips
16 mm soft fibreboard window sash: triple glazing in
58/240 mm timber I beam wood/aluminium frame
200/200 mm wall-integrated 7 floor:
aluminium support, filled with perlite 4 mm linoleum, bonded
insulation (original) 60 mm screed
240 mm cellulose insulation separation layer
15 mm OSB board 25 mm impact sound insulation,
60 mm mineral wool insulation mineral wool
18 mm gypsum fibreboard 70 mm EPS insulation (services zone)
3 floor (original): bituminous vapour barrier
4 mm linoleum, bonded 250 mm reinforced concrete slab
30 mm mastic asphalt screed PE foil
separation layer 120 mm XPS insulation
70 mm perlite infill insulation 100 mm gravel drainage course
sealing layer 10.39 Layout of ventilation system
175 mm reinforced concrete slab scale 1:500
60 mm thermal insulation 10.40 Section with ventilation system, new build
4 100 mm perimeter insulation scale 1:100
10.38 Vertical section south facade, new build 10.41 Section with ventilation system, existing
scale 1:20 building, scale 100
5 flat roof: 10.42 View into parish hall
50 mm extensive roof planting 10.43 Building data

3 7

10.37 10.38
116
 Parish community centre refurbishment in Dachau

— fresh air
(fig. 10.31, p. 114). The elements have — supply air
been dimensioned to cater for the high- — extract air
— exhaust air
standing sun in summer. Together with -- daylight
the wooden decks, they ease the transi-
tion between the compact volumes and
the exterior space.
A strip of transom windows along the
south-facing facade of the new build and
tilting sashes in the existing building pro-
vide a means to reduce the temperature
at night in summer using natural cooling
methods only. Daylight conditions in the
existing hall have been improved by
removing the roof overhang. A strip of
rooflights in the new build, positioned
immediately next to the partition wall to
10.39
the corridor, improves the lighting condi-
tions in the group rooms.

Building services
Due to the lack of height in the connect-
ing element between the existing building
and the extension (a consequence of the
low eaves height of the original building)
and insufficient space for a plant room,
the architects decided to use a decentral-
ised mechanical ventilation system.
It consists of three totally independent
units, one each for the old hall, the new
build and the basement, of which the air
change rate is adjusted by CO2 sensors 10.40
to meet the prevailing requirements. In
the new build, the mechanical ventilation
unit is positioned in the storage space
next to the kitchen. Fire protection damp-
ers could be avoided by integrating the
ducts in the corridor’s suspended ceiling
(fig. 10.40). In the existing building, the
sound-insulated ventilation unit is accom-
modated in the top part of a cupboard
with direct access to the hall (fig. 10.41).
Owing to the improved energy efficiency
of the existing structure and the Passive
House standard of the extension, the
10.41
former gas condensing boiler still suffices Building data
to supply the parish community centre
Use
with heat.
community centre
Areas
gross floor area (GFA) 725 m2 floor space index (FSI) 0.37
treated floor area (TFA) 487 m2 gross volume (V) 2551 m3
thermal envelope area (A) 1620 m2 A / V ratio 0.63
U-values [W/m2K] (extension/refurbishment)
roof 0.087/0.106 W/m2K wall 0.126/0.127 W/m2K
base slab 0.154/0.355 W/m2K window (Uw-value) 0.795 W/m2K
glass-to-area ratio (glass/TFA) 44 %
Energy performance data PHPP (extension/refurbishment)
space heat demand 15 /26 kWh/m²a heat load 14 / 18 W/m2
primary energy 82 /108 kWh/m2a ventilation system decentralised
heat provision ratio 83 /90 % blower-door test 1/h (50 Pa) 0.3
Heat supply system
energy carrier gas solar collectors (coverage rate) –
photovoltaic plant –
Particularities
CO2 -controlled ventilation system
10.42 10.43
117
Reference buildings – Passive House refurbishments
School refurbishment
Schwanenstadt, A 2007
Client:
Gemeinde Schwanenstadt
Architect:
PAUAT Architekten, Wels
Energy consultant:
team gmi, Vienna
LANG Consulting, Vienna
Building services:
Planungsteam E-Plus, Egg
Before the refurbishment, the school fea-
tured a reinforced concrete frame con-
struction with columns and panels made
of prefabricated aggregate concrete (fig.
10.49). The various extensions, added
over the years, had left the school without
any sign of compactness. Furthermore,
the demand for more space and the poor
conditions of the building precipitated the
need for an extension and refurbishment.
The main aim of the retrofit was to reor-
ganise the school’s room schedule so
that it would meet today‘s education
requirements. The result is a modern
school complex incorporating a polytech-
118
1 2
2
nical college, a lower secondary school
with a focus on music and a communal
area with a cafeteria, gymnasium and
central hall. The extensions complement
the existing structures in such a way that
the school now appears as a compact
volume enclosing a central courtyard.
At first only a conventional refurbishment
with an extension was planned; later,
however, the programme was revised to
incorporate sustainability aspects. The
aim was to insulate the building envelope
leaving no thermal bridges and to use
mainly construction materials from renew-
able sources. The refurbishment was to
1
10.44
be performed without interrupting school
operations. Thus, a decision was made to
use a timber frame construction method
with large-format prefabricated and insu-
lated facade elements.
Building construction
The new facade elements are set in front
of the original facade and therefore enve-
lope the existing concrete columns. The
windows are fitted in the new skin, flush
with the exterior walls. The lintels have
been raised to improve the penetration of
daylight. The cavity beneath the ground
slab has been filled with cement-based
10.45
 School refurbishment in Schwanenstadt

10.46 10.49
10.44 Site plan, scale 1:5000
1 refurbished building
2 new building
10.45 South elevation: entrance facade with re-
furbished building on the right, facade-
integrated solar panels in the centre and
new build on the left
10.46 Section a – a, scale 1:1250
10.47 Section b – b, scale 1:1250
10.48 Floor plan, 1st floor, scale 1:1250
1 gymnasium
2 storage/plant
3 physics or woodwork
4 teaching material
5 classrooms
6 school administration
7 computer room
8 exercise room
10.47 10.49 South elevation before the refurbishment
10.50 Access zone on 1st floor
10.51 Access zone with rooflights

3 2 3

2 1

4
4
5
5

10.50

5 5
7 7

5
4
5
8

8 6 5 5 5 5
b 5 5 b

10.48 10.51
119
Reference buildings – Passive House refurbishments

10.52 Installation of prefabricated wall elements

10.53 Section east facade
scale 1:20
1 flat roof:
10 mm EPDM waterproofing membrane
24 or 27 mm OSB board
60/280 mm and 60/160 mm joists
with mineral wool insulation in between,
two layers with a total height of 440 mm,
2 % slope
moisture adaptive vapour barrier
200 mm reinforced concrete roof slab 1
(original)
smooth-coated soffit
2 shading device (fitted on site)
light-coloured Venetian blind, individual
control
3 2≈ 12.5 mm gypsum fibreboard reveal,
fire-resistant
4 Passive House window:
triple glazing in wood/metal frame
(g = 0.55, Uw = 0.8 W/m2K)
5 reinforced concrete downstand beam
(original) 2
6 floor slab:
5 mm linoleum
50 mm floating screed 3
separation layer
30/25 mm impact sound insulation
4 5
50 mm chipping infill
200 mm reinforced concrete floor slab
(original)
smooth-coated soffit
7 bracket-mounted wall element:
18 mm white fir cladding, diamond sawn
30 mm cavity ventilation/battens
15 mm wall and roof panel, open to diffu-
sion, tongue and groove, glued
timber structure, with 480 to 540 mm cellu-
lose infill insulation (depending on existing
building)
15 mm OSB board
120 mm reinforced concrete parapet
(original)
8 ground floor:
6
5 mm floor covering
50 mm floating screed
separation layer
30 mm chipping infill
5 mm bituminous waterproofing membrane 7
200 mm reinforced concrete ground slab
400 mm foam glass granulate insulation
10.54 First floor plan with ventilation system,
scale 1:1000
a proposal with semi-central system
(not chosen due to a lack of space for tech-
nical equipment and ducts)
b completed system with decentralised units
10.55 Comparison between the energy performance
of the existing building, a conventional refur-
bishment and the Passive House refurbishment
10.56 View into the central open circulation space of
the refurbished building. The decentralised ven-
tilation units are visible in the classrooms (on the
right behind the transom window)
10.57 Building data

10.52 10.53
120
 School refurbishment in Schwanenstadt

foam glass granules (fig. 10.53). Vacuum

insulation panels have been used in criti-
cal areas, such as on the hollow concrete
slabs above the unheated basement, in
order to maintain the clear room height
and the barrier-free access to the school.
Good daylight design and energy-saving
light bulbs have reduced the energy
demand for artificial light from 20 to
5 kWh/m2a. Light exterior Venetian blinds,
of which the top third can be controlled
separately to direct light onto the ceiling,
provide solar protection. The blinds are
controlled automatically according to the
intensity of the sun and the amount of
daylight required. The circulation zones in
the interior receive daylight from rooflight
domes. Due to the glazed areas in the
partition walls to the corridors, the class-
rooms also benefit from this additional
light source (fig. 10.50, 10.51, 10.56).

Building services
Several systems were considered as
options for the ventilation of the building:
a central system for the whole building,
semi-central units for different zones and
fully decentralised units for individual
rooms. Due to a lack of space for techni-
cal installations, a decision was made to
use a decentralised system. This also — supply air — extract air
meant that interference in the existing a b 10.54
building could be kept to a minimum.
Energy coefficient [kWh/m2UFAa]

The units with noise-reducing casings are 165 space heating light, IT, ventilation
150
mounted on the ceilings (fig. 10.56); the (heat) (electricity)
125
air inlets and outlets are integrated in the
no data collected

prefabricated facade elements. Despite 100

the more extensive servicing needs, 75
60–70
this modular system has the benefit of
individual classroom control and very 50
20–30 15
short duct runs. With the help of a sum- 25
9 –13
mer bypass, the mechanical ventilation 0
units are also used for night-time cooling Existing building Conventional Passive House refurbishment
in summer. Vents in the light domes, Schwanenstadt refurbishment Schwanenstadt
which are, like the bypass, temperature 10.55
Building data
controlled, support the cooling process
Use
during hot summer spells.
education: school
Areas
gross floor area (GFA) 6835 m2 floor space index (FSI) 0.27
treated floor area (TFA) 5811 m2 gross volume (V) 29,550 m3
thermal envelope area (A) 8047 m2 A / V ratio 0.27
U-values [W/m2K]
roof 0.100 W/m2K wall 0.110 W/m2K
base slab 0.125 W/m2K (new) window (Uw-value) 0.800 W/m2K
0.15 W/m2K (original) glass-to-area ratio (glass/TFA) 28 %
Energy performance data PHPP
space heat demand 14.1 kWh/m2a (before:165) heat load 12.5 W/m2
primary energy 56.0 kWh/m2a ventilation system decentralised
heat provision ratio 85 % blower-door test 1/h (50 Pa) 0.35
Heat supply system
energy carrier wood pellets solar collectors –
photovoltaic plant 6.3 kWp
Particularities
daylight-controlled lighting and sun shading devices
10.56 10.57
121
Reference buildings – Passive House refurbishments

Office building refurbishment

Forest/Vorst, B 2008

Client:
C PAS de Forest
Architect, building physics:
A2M, Brussels
Energy concept, building services:
Matriciel, Louvain-la-Neuve

10.58
This listed building completed in 1934 is
a representative example of the Art Deco
style of the 1930s. A finely articulated
facade of brick and natural stone
stretches along the two street fronts, curv-
ing around the corner in the middle, as a
continuous single element. In its long his-
tory, the building has been home to vari-
ous functions (offices, apartments), which
have all left their respective traces of con-
version and alteration work. The disas-
trous condition of the building and the
asbestos contamination in the installa-
tions rendered the building almost unusa-
ble for any further use.
A total overhaul, including an energy effi-
ciency upgrade, was unavoidable.
All extensions added to the inner court-
yard were removed. As the more recent
buildings in the immediate vicinity are
much higher, the two-storey building no
longer fitted the scale of the neighbour-
hood. This is why the refurbishment was
used to add an extra storey; a decision
which nicely accommodated the spatial
requirements of the users. Thanks to the
set-back, fully-glazed facade and the pro-
truding roof, this level is clearly set apart
from the historic part below.
Greater density has also been achieved
in the basement, where a sunken court-
yard provides a meeting room with natu-
ral daylight. Lightweight partition walls
ensure greater flexibility for future altera-
tions to the building layout.

Building construction
The greatest challenge involved the resto-
ration and energy efficiency upgrade of
the facade. In the street facade, the nec-
essary thickness of insulation is fitted to
the inside of the exterior wall. Because
the facade is now totally independent
from the floors and interior walls, thermal
bridging is not an issue at any of the junc-
tions. To avoid damage caused by mois-
ture, the original masonry walls have
10.59
122
 Office building refurbishment in Forest

10.58 Site plan, scale 1:1500

10.59 South elevation of street facade
10.60 Section a – a, scale 1:300
10.61 Second floor plan, scale 1:300
10.62 First floor plan, scale 1:300
10.63 Ground floor plan, scale 1:300
1 entrance area/reception
2 waiting area
3 office
4 meeting/conference room
5 storage space
6 planted roof
10.64 View into interior courtyard
10.65 Entrance area with staircase
10.66 Office corridor on upper floor

10.60

3
3

5
1
2 1

3 3 3 3 3 3

10.61 10.64

6
3 3

3
3 3 3 3

10.62 10.65
a

4 3
6

3
5

1 2

a
10.63 10.66
123
Reference buildings – Passive House refurbishments

10.67 New, interior timber-framed windows 1

with double glazing set in front of the
reconstructed steel-framed windows with
single glazing
10.68 Vertical section street facade
scale 1:20 2
1 flat roof:
EPDM waterproofing membrane
50 mm mineral wool insulation
22 mm OSB board
230 mm cellulose insulation between
80/230 mm rafters
moisture-variable vapour barrier
2≈ 12.5 mm gypsum fibreboard (F 60)
50 mm cavity
12.5 mm interior gypsum fibreboard finish 3
2 roof overhang:
waterproofing membrane
22 mm OSB board, laminated veneer
lumber bracket
11 mm soffit cladding, HPL board
3 roof storey window:
double glazing in wood/aluminium frame
(Uf=1.6 W/m2K, Ug=1.1 W/m2K)
4 fall protection, laminated safety glass
5 new parapet to match original design,
timber cladding, zinc sheet finish on
upper surface 4
6 shading device:
aluminium Venetian blind
7 existing glazing, outside:
single glazing in steel section frame
8 new glazing, inside:
double glazing in wood/aluminium frame
(Uf=1.6 W/m2K, Ug=1.1 W/m2K)
9 ventilation sash (tilt):
5
50 mm aluminium sandwich panel
with PUR core insulation
10 ventilation grille (outside), new to match
original design
11 parapet:
340 mm exterior brickwork (original)
exterior treated with waterproofing coating,
open to diffusion (new)
250 mm cellulose insulation (new) 6
22 mm OSB board
50 mm cavity
12.5 mm gypsum plasterboard finish
10.69 Detail view of south elevation
10.70 First floor plan with building services,
scale 1:250
10.71 Section (extract) with the supply and extract air
systems, scale 1:150
10.72 Building data
8
7

10

11

10.67 10.68
124
 Office building refurbishment in Forest

10.69
been made water-resistant by coating
them with a hydrophobic material. A — supply air
lightweight timber construction was — extract air
— heating
chosen for the roof extension. The interi-
or insulation from the storeys below has
simply been continued into the new sto- 10.70
rey without any interruptions; hence, the
respectful setback of the new facade.
The facade facing the inner courtyard
has been upgraded with a conventional
composite thermal insulation system
(fig. 10.64, p. 123). Thus, the insulation
plane is continuous throughout the build-
ing envelope.
The original windows with steel frames
and single glazing, which were removed
and replaced by PVC windows in one of
the earlier refurbishments, have been re-
constructed and installed. New double-
glazed wooden windows, set into the in-
sulation plane, complement these and
form a box-type window (fig. 10.65).
Venetian blinds have been fitted, protect-
ed from the weather, in the gap between
the steel and wooden frames. Natural
ventilation is provided by insulated vents
in the lower parts of the wooden frames.
Thanks to the their protected position,
behind the historic ventilation grilles, they
can even be used for night-time cooling 10.71
in summer.
Building data
Use
Building services
office
A fully enclosed central ventilation unit
Areas
with a heat recovery system has been
gross floor area (GFA) 981 m2 floor space index (FSI) 3.28
placed on the building’s roof. In the treated floor area (TFA) 806 m2 gross volume (V) 3153 m3
office zones, the air ducts are incorpo- thermal envelope area (A) 1220 m2 A / V ratio 0.39
rated in the suspended ceilings of the U-values [W/m2K]
corridors (fig. 10.71). Heat is distributed roof 0.120 W/m2K wall 0.230 W/m2K
using small conventional radiators fitted base slab 0.32 W/m2K window (Uw-value) 1.58 W/m2K (new)
glass-to-area ratio (glass/TFA) 26 %
below the windows (fig. 10.70). The light-
Energy performance data PHPP
ing system has been upgraded in terms
space heat demand 19.0 kWh/m2a (before: 263) heat load 14.0 W/m2
of energy efficiency. A dimmer system primary energy 48.0 kWh/m2a ventilation system central
adjusts the light intensity to match the heat provision ratio 90 % blower-door test 1/h (50 Pa) 1.3
requirements of the users. Presence Heat supply system
monitors switch all lights off as soon as energy carrier electricity/gas solar collectors –
rooms are no longer in use. photovoltaic plant 3.83 kWp
10.72
125
Building envelope components
Significance of the building envelope
Successful implementation of the Passive
House concept is heavily dependent on
the construction of the building envelope
while, in contrast, the interior components
have little or no bearing on performance.
In the context of the building envelope,
the quality requirements apply to stand-
ard components in the same way as to all
junctions and connection points. It follows
that the choice of building type and con-
struction system set the agenda for the
design. This is decisive not only for the
construction design but also for the final
appearance of the building, right down to
the last detail.
In order to supervise this process, it is
essential to understand the linkage
between construction and building phys-
ics. First and foremost, the architect must
be able to assess the strengths and
weaknesses of available systems in terms
of their suitability for the design. Due to
the growing popularity of the Passive
House concept, there are constantly new
developments in this field. Time and
again, the architect is challenged to
develop alternative methods of construc-
tion and incorporate new products into
the design.
11.1
126
Opaque envelope constructions
Today there are a number of building sys-
tems available on the market which ena-
ble the development of highly insulated
and airtight constructions.
Insulation materials
The good thermal performance typical of
Passive House buildings can only be
achieved by using insulation materials,
the thickness of which depends on their
thermal conductivity. The specific thermal
conductivity of traditional insulation mate-
rials is between 0.06 and 0.02 W / mK; in
the case of vacuum insulation panels, the
values are lower, reaching approximately
0.007 W/mK. Nevertheless, the suitability
of an insulation material is also depend-
ent on other material properties, such as
the sorption and thermal capacity, the
gross density, fire performance and water
diffusion resistance. Issues with regard to
workability and ease of installation are
also important.
From an ecological viewpoint, the envi-
ronmental impact and the energy
required to produce the material are also
relevant concerns (fig. 11.11, p. 129). The
assessment should include all energy
sources and environmental impacts of the
11.2
• Significance of the building
envelope
• Opaque envelope constructions
• Transparent components
• Other construction elements and
special components
• Building methods and construc-
tion systems
product during its entire life cycle (e.g.
the cumulated energy expenditure of 80
years). In this respect, insulation materials
show a clear result: as they have a long
life and result in major savings of energy,
the amount of energy required to produce
the material is usually of minor impor-
tance. Nevertheless, there is a significant
difference between insulation materials.
From an ecological viewpoint, heavy
materials, such as metals, concrete and
other solid construction materials, are
more problematic since their contribution
towards greater energy efficiency in the
building operation is negligible.
Airtight materials
In solid constructions, a coat of plaster is
the most suitable material to achieve air-
tightness. Concrete surfaces are gener-
ally airtight; however, all joints between
prefabricated elements must be properly
sealed. Wood-based panels (such as
OSB boards) are frequently used in light-
weight constructions to create an airtight
seal. The joints between the boards have
to be sealed with suitable adhesive tape.
Alternatively, the airtight layer can be pro-
duced by using foils or other sheet mate-
rials, which can, at the same time, func-
tion as a vapour barrier.
11.3
 Opaque envelope constructions

Exterior walls 3 3 1.5 35-45 1.5

The choice of exterior wall construction is 5
5
particularly relevant for the building
design. The decision determines, at an 1.5 20
early stage, the fundamental principles 5
1.5
concerning the blend and configuration of 10
materials in the further development of 10
the design. The following wall construc- 1.5 30 15 1.5 5
tions are those most frequently used in
3 3 1.5 30
Passive House buildings (fig. 11.5):
• solid masonry walls with exterior com- 1.5
posite thermal insulation system 5
• solid masonry walls with exterior insula- 3
20
tion and suspended rear-ventilated 20
facade cladding
• core insulated construction systems
20
• monolithic wall systems (e.g. masonry)
with cavities or infill insulation 1.5 30 15 1.5
4
• timber frame constructions with infill
insulation
• timber constructions with separate 6 1
5
load-bearing and insulation systems 3
5
• low-tech constructions, such as straw 2.5
30-35
bale walls
• element facades or framed glazing, 30
frequently applied in combination with
8 1.5
vacuum insulation panels (fig. 11.7 and 1.5
11.10, p. 128f.) 3 1.5 30 6
3 1.5 1.5

This is a good opportunity to clarify an

aspect which frequently leads to misun-
derstandings: a global U-value of
0.15 W/m2K, which is also applied in the
certification of these systems, is often
classified as being Passive House-com-
pliant. This may be the case in energy
efficiency refurbishments performed
according to the EnerPHit standard. How-
ever, in the case of new builds, the
requirements are very much dependent
on the design. The impact, for example,
of the degree of compactness, solar radi-
ation (orientation, overshadowing), the
proportion of window surface area and
the local climate should not be underesti-
mated. Depending on the design param-
eters, the necessary average U-values of
11.1 Fire station in Wolfurt (A) 2009, Hein – Troy
Architekten. Fair-faced concrete building with
22 cm-thick interior insulation of woodfibre pan-
els in the recreation rooms. Due to the tempo-
rary use of the building, the thermal mass of the
exterior walls has not been considered. The fine
vertical structure in the facade was achieved by
using rubber stencils.
11.2 Refurbishment of single family home in Egg (A)
2010, Georg Bechter. The solid construction
from the 1960s has been upgraded by adding a
timber framework with straw-bale insulation to
the exterior of the building. The whole roof is
made of prefabricated hollow box beams, which
were filled with straw bales before arriving on
site. The facade is clad with hand-made timber
shingles.
11.3 School in Hohen Neuendorf (D) 2012, IBUS
Architekten und Ingenieure. Germany’s first
plus-energy school building also includes a
building envelope completed according to
3
2.5 3
2
5-8
30
25
1.5
5 8
1.5
3 1.5 35 8
3
6
3
25-30 3
2
4
5
4
20 20
8 6 12
11.4 11.5 11.6
Passive House standard. For the zones with an- 11.5 Typical wall constructions in Passive House
cillary rooms (right) a solid construction method buildings (measurements in cm)
(reinforced concrete and concrete hollow a solid construction with composite thermal in-
blocks) was used with a cladding of clinker sulation system
brickwork; the access zones (at the rear) feature b solid construction with exterior insulation and
a triple-glazed post and rail facade with a tim- suspended rear-ventilated facade cladding
ber/aluminium framework construction. c timber frame construction with services void
11.4 Typical roof constructions in Passive House d solid timber construction (laminated veneer
buildings (measurements in cm) lumber) with exterior insulation
a steep-pitched roof with rafters made of timber e prefabricated element with core of vacuum
web beams or laminated veneer lumber insulation
b steep-pitched roof with solid structure and 11.6 Typical ground slab and basement ceiling
exterior insulation constructions in Passive House buildings
c flat roof made of timber with insulation accom- (measurements in cm)
modated above the load-bearing layer a ground slab on load-bearing insulation
d flat roof made of timber with insulation b solid basement ceiling with topside insulation
incorporated in the load-bearing layer and a c timber beam ceiling with integrated insulation
vapour barrier on the inside (moisture-adap- and screed finish
tive layer) d terrace roof using timber construction method
e solid flat roof with exterior insulation (warm, e terrace roof using solid construction method
non-ventilated roof structure) with vacuum insulation

127
Building envelope components
a
b 11.7
11.8
11.7 Construction study for a pre-fabricated facade
with integrated vacuum insulation and Passive
House windows. Total thickness: 15 cm;
Uwall = 0.15 W/m2K; Uwindow = 0.80 W/m2K.
Architects: Vallentin + Reichmann
a elevation
b detail (wall - window junction)
11.8 Single-family home in Sand in Taufers (I) 2006,
Stefan Hitthaler. Passive House facade with
composite thermal insulation system. The ex-
ternal render contains iron dust which oxidises
over time, making the building turn brown.
11.9 Passive House with punctuated facade: Court-
yard housing in Winterthur (CH) 2007, Dietrich
Schwarz Architekten
11.10 Passive House with framed glazing system:
apartment and office building in Wiesbaden
(D) 2002, A -Z Architekten
11.11 Embedded energy and energy savings during
the life cycle of different insulation standards
11.12 Energy parameters of different glazing systems
128
insulated opaque components range
between approx. 0.08 and 0.18 W / m2K.
Practice has shown that exterior walls
with, for example, insulation-filled blocks
can only achieve U-values of 0.13 to
0.15 W/m2K. Generally, these values do
not suffice for a single-family home built
according to Passive House standard.
Furthermore, the low pressure resistance
of the blocks does not allow them to be
used in multi-storey buildings. The suita-
bility of this product for Passive House
buildings is therefore extremely limited.
The same applies to all other insulation
systems, which are tied to a maximum
thickness either for reasons concerning
the production or technical approval. The
design process of a Passive House can
be hampered considerably if systems like
these are selected. Any difficulties
encountered later in the design process
can then only be counterbalanced by
alternative components (e.g. window
design, mechanical ventilation unit, roof
insulation). This opportunity, however, is
not always available, particularly in the
case of buildings that use standard com-
ponents and are not quite so compact. In
contrast, the use of construction systems
with variable thicknesses (e.g. composite
thermal insulation systems or timber
frame constructions) allow for a more
flexible design approach.
Interior insulation
For situations which do not qualify for
exterior insulation, interior insulation is
a strategically important alternative.
Existing buildings with facades worthy
of protection, but insufficient thermal pro-
tection, are a typical field of application
for interior insulation. Due to the loss of
floor area and remaining thermal bridges
(e.g. at points where ceilings and interior
walls tie into exterior walls), the thickness
of insulation usually ranges between
6 and 12 cm. In the case of interior insula-
tion, it is absolutely essential to make sure
that the panels are installed in an airtight
manner without air pockets. Furthermore,
moisture-relevant issues must be consid-
ered, such as measures to resist the pen-
etration of rain. With regard to the mois-
ture performance of walls, sorptive insula-
tion materials, like calcium silicate panels
and cellulose fibre insulation materials,
are usually more fault-tolerant and effec-
tive than other insulation materials.
Roof and terrace constructions
There is also a large variety of solutions
for roof constructions (fig. 11.6). The most
fundamental issue in this case is water-
proofing. The construction must ensure
that precipitation, penetrating rain and
blowing snow is shed off the roof; further-
more, it must be wind and airtight.
The installation of roof insulation tends to
be a lot more economical than that of
walls and basements. It is for this reason
that, within the entire building envelope of
Passive Houses, roofs usually feature the
lowest U-value. Questions concerning the
insulation thickness are closely related to
the structural system employed. Synergy
effects can be achieved if the large beam
heights (required to accommodate the
insulation thickness) are used to simplify
the load-bearing system, for example by
dispensing with bearing points and inter-
mediate supports. Roofs are usually
planned as timber constructions. Flat
roofs with timber joists and infill insulation
fitted into the load-bearing plane, which
currently appears to be the trend, require
utmost care in terms of building physics
and possibly confirmation of the water-
tightness by performing simulations [1].
Inclined roofs completed using solid con-
struction methods require shear-resistant
substructures or fixtures which penetrate
the insulation plane to support the dead
weight of the roof covering and transfer
the wind and snow loads. Flat roofs com-
pleted using solid construction methods,
in contrast, are beneficial in terms of
structure, building physics and costs.
It is extremely difficult to master the
demanding requirements of terrace insu-
lation if inside and outside are to be on
one level without a step. A change in
height can usually only be avoided by
using high performance insulation materi-
als, such as vacuum insulation panels.
Basement ceilings and ground slabs
All building components in contact with
the ground must be insulated. The most
common strategies include the use of in-
ground insulation either placed around
the perimeter of the building or, as load-
bearing insulation panels, below the
ground slab. Several manufacturers pro-
vide ready-made systems for ground
slabs, which remove not only the need for
erecting formwork but also solve the insu-
lation issue at the floor-to-wall junction.
Loose-fill insulation, such as foam glass,
can be used if the ground and groundwa-
ter conditions are suitable. In the case of
basement ceilings and timber buildings
without basements, it is frequently easier
and cheaper to fit the insulation on top of
the ceiling or ground slab. In this case, it
is important to ensure a good connection
to the exterior wall insulation.
 Transparent components

Transparent building components

The windows, including the glazing units

and frames or fixtures, are key compo-
nents in Passive House buildings. The
primary aim in this respect is to reduce
heat loss to a level well below that of cur-
rent standard systems. Other important
aspects include making effective use of
desired solar heat gain in winter, but limit-
ing the negative effects of heat input in
summer. No other field of building con-
struction has undergone a comparable
development in terms of improved energy
efficiency. Since this process is still on-
going, the following observations reflect
an intermediate stage.

Glazing systems
The most important milestone towards
energy-efficient glazing systems has been
the development of thermal insulation
glass. The cavity between the panes is,
in this case, filled with a noble gas, such
as argon or krypton, which has a lower
thermal conductivity than air. Furthermore,
different coatings are used which allow
greater penetration of solar radiation, but
limit the amount of radiant heat. From a
thermal point of view, the weakest point in
every window is the window spacer.
Instead of using spacers made of alumin- 11.9 11.10
ium, so called warm-edge spacers, which
Cumulative energy demand (80 years) [kWh/m2]

25,000
are either made of thin stainless steel or a operating energy embedded energy
electricity (80a) building services (80 a)
thermoplastic material, are indispensable gas (80a) basement/ carport (80 a)
in Passive House buildings. 20,000 building structure (80 a)
For reasons of comfort and energy effi-
ciency, triple glazing is a necessity in
15,000
Passive House buildings located in Cen-
tral Europe. Recommendations concern-
ing the importance of thermal perfor- 10,000
mance (low Ug - value) and energy trans-
mittance (high g- value) can only be made
for each project individually. Over the last 5,000
years, improvements have been made in
both respects, which means that it is pos-
0
sible to obtain both, glazing systems with Thermal Insulation Regulation 1995 Passive House
a Ug - value of 0.7 and a g-value of 0.7 or solid structure lightweight structure solid structure lightweight structure
ones with a Ug - value of 0.45 and a 11.11
g-value of 0.5 (fig. 11.12). Glazing sys-
Energy parameters of different glazing systems
tems with four panes of thermal insulation
glass (quadruple insulation glazing) have Description infill gas short form Ug-value g-value τ-value
even lower Ug - values. These are required standard double glazing 90 % argon 4:/16/:4 1.10 0.65 0.80
in particularly cold climates, such as standard triple glazing 90 % argon 4:/16/4/16/:4 0.70 0.50 0.71
Scandinavia and Russia. Double glazing, high-performance triple glazing 90 % krypton 4:/18/4/18/:4 0.53 0.51 0.72
on the other hand, may suffice in South- high-performance solar protective triple 90 % argon 4:/16/4/16/:4 0.44 0.48 0.71
ern Europe and other milder climates. It is glazing with krypton
also possible to achieve very low U - val- high-performance triple glazing 90 % argon 4:/18/4/18/:4 0.64 0.61 0.73
ues with glazing systems separated by quadruple glazing with improved 90 % argon 3:/12/3/12/3/12/:3 0.35 0.47 0.64
vacuum. However, issues concerning U-value
technical specifications and high costs quadruple glazing with improved 90 % argon 3:/12/3/12/3/12/:3 0.45 0.58 0.68
g-value
must be resolved before these are availa-
ble for practical application. double vacuum glazing (prototype) vacuum 4/0.7/:4 0.50 0.54 0.73
11.12
129
Building envelope components
a b
c d
e f
g h
i j
130
Window frames
Window frames commonly feature Uf-val-
ues of 1.5 – 2.0 W/m2K. If the aim is to
remove the need for a heat source below
the window, without restricting comfort
levels close to the facade, high-perfor-
mance frames with Uf-values of 0.8 to 0.7
W/m2K are required to achieve a whole-
window installed U-value of less than or
equal to 0.85 W/m2K. In developing Pas-
sive House-compliant frame systems,
there are various strategies which help
achieve good results (fig. 11.13):
• installation of insulation strips into the
frame profile
• instead of insulation strips, hollow cavi-
ties in the frame profile can also help to
reduce heat loss through the frame
• window frames that are not insulated
can be upgraded to meet the require-
ments of Passive House windows by
wrapping the outside the window frame
with a thick layer of insulation on site.
Since it is not possible to wrap the bot-
tom edge of the frame with insulation,
due to the position of the window sill
and the vents for the supply and extrac-
tion of air to the glazing rebate, this part
of the window always tends to be the
weakest point in this frame.
All new Passive House windows devel-
oped over the last years feature mini-
mised frame widths in order to improve
solar heat gain and daylight performance.
The visible frame width is sometimes even
well below that of conventional frames. In
the case of some products, the window
sash appears to be integrated into the
frame with the effect that the window looks
less fussy and more pleasing to the eye.
Meanwhile, more than 80 window frames
have been certified. The frames tend to
be finished in wood, PVC, aluminium or
fibreglass; sometimes a combination of
materials is used for a different appear-
ance inside and outside.
Element facades and framed glazing
Framed glazing systems can be used to
create large glass surface areas with a
mixture of opening sashes and insulated
opaque elements. These systems have
been available in Passive House standard
for some time now. Some manufacturers
have even succeeded in developing very
narrow, Passive House-compliant sys-
tems with a minimum visible frame depth
of only 50 mm. These facade systems are
more expensive than conventional con-
structions due to their complicated pro-
files. In the case of certified products, the
heat loss caused by screw fittings and
11.13
glazing gaskets has also been reduced to
a minimum (fig. 11.13 h).
Solar shading
Effective solar shading devices are gen-
erally also required in Passive House
buildings. Since they should not substan-
tially reduce the solar heat gain in winter,
fixed systems are not always suitable.
Large, accurately dimensioned over-
hangs in south-facing facades, however,
are an exception.
For aesthetical reasons, facade inte-
grated shading devices are nowadays
often preferred to systems that are fixed
to the exterior of the building envelope.
However, in order to provide the neces-
sary space for the solar shading element,
the thickness of the wall insulation has to
be reduced. The position in the wall also
makes it difficult to wrap the frame with
insulation. The thinner the exterior wall
insulation, the more serious this conflict
becomes. Some manufacturers now pro-
vide ready-made insulated elements with
integrated boxes for roller shutters or
Venetian blinds suitable for use in Passive
House buildings.
The integration of shading devices tends
to be more straightforward in the case of
timber constructions since the necessary
cavities can be provided in the load-bear-
ing plane and it is easier to accommodate
the additional insulation or add an appro-
priate structure of battens.
Sliding doors
The construction of sliding doors for Pas-
sive House buildings is particularly chal-
lenging due to the weight of the glazing
units and the requirements concerning
airtightness. However, there are a few
window manufacturers who offer Passive
House-certified sliding doors (fig. 11.13 j).
In order to ensure their good working
order, the deformation of the door lintel
should be limited to a value well below
what is usually determined in structural
calculations.
Rooflights
Due to their position beyond the insulation
plane, Passive House-compliant rooflights
require not only high-performance glazing
units and frames but also special system-
designed solutions to provide a good
connection to the roof insulation. Special
criteria has been developed by the Pas-
sive House Institute for the certification of
rooflights. A few certified products with
ready-made insulated surrounds, as well
as special glazing units and coatings, are
available.

Other construction elements
and special components
In the meantime, standard components
are available for an increasingly large
range of special applications. In some
fields, construction elements are still in
their infancy stage, for example products
for fire protection or special components
for use in energy efficiency refurbish-
ments performed to meet the EnerPHit
standard.
Main entrance doors
The intensive use and the demanding
requirements concerning security, weath-
erproofness, thermal protection and air-
tightness mean that main entrance doors
designed to meet Passive House stand-
ard are high-performance components in
terms of construction and stability. Some
window manufacturers now offer certified
doors, which frequently also satisfy addi-
tional requirements, such as burglar and
noise protection, temperature stability
and resistance to pelting rain. In the case
of large non-residential buildings with
public business hours, solutions including
a porch or draught lobby at the main
entrance are recommended. The air
exchange caused by their use is then
generally no longer an issue.
Openings with special requirements
Due to the demanding requirements for
airtightness in Passive House buildings, it
is best to avoid vents that are constantly
open to the outside air. In conventional
buildings these include, for example,
chimneys, exhaust flues, elevators and
vent stacks. There are alternative solutions
for some of these situations:
• room air-independent air supply ducts
to combustion chambers that are posi-
tioned inside the building envelope
• chimney stacks with flaps or Passive
House-certified exhaust air systems
• stack vents with gravity valves, which
can occasionally be used as an alterna-
tive to roof stack vents [2]
• installation of insulated and darkened
openings for the provision of smoke
and heat extraction and elevator shaft
ventilation. If an elevator is planned, the
staircase and elevator should ideally
use a single smoke and heat extraction
vent, which should be opened on
demand only.
Structural penetrations and fixtures extend-
ing through the insulation plane
Thermal bridges are always an issue in
areas where structural loads penetrate
Other construction elements and special components
the thermal envelope. In these situations,
it is common practice to use products
with a low thermal conductivity, but a high
load-bearing capacity, or to distribute the
load of the necessary structural fixture
over a few high-strength point-fixed con-
nections.
The following list includes a selection of
certified standard components:
• offset blocks made of aerated concrete,
foam glass or recycled polyurethane
• mechanical fixings made of plastic or 11.14
stainless steel with a sophisticated
structural system for facade cladding or
connections with horizontal point loads
(fig. 11.14)
• pre-fabricated systems made of stain-
less steel with integrated insulation for
balconies, open access corridors and
roof parapets (fig. 11.15)
• cylindrical thermal insulation pads or
load-bearing brackets for the thermal-
bridge-free fixture of smaller loads in
connection with composite thermal
insulation systems, such as railings or
similar members
11.15
In most of these situations, it should be
possible to develop thermal-bridge free
constructions. In the case of very high
loads, though, it is often only possible to
achieve constructions with reduced ther-
mal bridging. These then have to be
taken into consideration in the energy bal-
ance.
Airtightness systems
In order to provide airtight connections,
junctions and penetrations through the
building envelope caused by pipes,
cables, fixtures or other members, some
manufacturers have developed airtight-
ness systems, which are designed to
meet a wide range of different applica-
tions (fig. 11.16):
• airtight sheet and sealing membranes 11.16
• airtight tapes and sealing compounds
to produce airtight junctions between
different materials and surface struc- 11.13 Frame profiles of Passive House windows
scale 1:20
tures a wood/aluminium window
• airtight grommets to produce airtight b wood window
c PVC/aluminium window
exit points of cables and ducts d wood/aluminium window
• airtight sockets and service cavities e aluminium window
f wood/GRP window with narrow mullion
g GRP window with very narrow frame
Not-yet-available components h pressure plate glazing system, visible
Alongside special components for frame width 50 mm
i main entrance door
energy-efficiency upgrades, there is a j push-up sliding door with wooden frame
severe lack of certified fire protection 11.14 Thermally broken bracket for the fixture of a
components. Ideally, these should make suspended, rear-ventilated facade
11.15 Pre-fabricated, insulated balcony reinforce-
it possible to fulfil not only Passive House ment connectors
but also fire protection requirements at 11.16 Different airtightness products: vapour and
airtightness membrane, airtightness tape, air-
difficult junctions (e.g. junctions at fire tight grommet for the sealing of cable/pipe
division and party walls). penetrations
131
Building envelope components
Building methods and construction
systems
In the case of every design, the decision
about the construction method deter-
mines the basis for the structural detailing
of the whole project. Sometimes it seems
that architects regard the question con-
cerning the type of building not as a
choice between almost equal options,
but, as a matter of principle, as a contro-
versial issue. On closer examination, how-
ever, there are good arguments in favour
and against all types of constructions.
And when developing constructions and
detail solutions to meet Passive House
standard, these demand particular con-
sideration. In any case, most buildings
are in fact completed as mixed construc-
tions, each with a different emphasis.
Sequencing as a design issue
Every building can be interpreted as a
configuration of layers [3]. The building
envelope incorporates several functional
layers, whereby a single one can some-
times fulfil more than one function
(fig. 11.17). Figures 11.18 – 11.20 illustrate
a variety of building methods as sche-
matic constructional sections to compare
the different configurations. The layers
providing thermal insulation, airtightness
and wind-tightness have been highlighted
in different colours. The task of detailed
design is to arrange the functional layers
according to their principles, without
interruptions in the building envelope
and, at the same time, taking into account
the various junctions and transition points.
The aim is to find a perfect agreement
between constructional needs and the
basic intention of the design.
Solid construction
In solid constructions, the load-bearing
structure, and usually also the non-load-
bearing elements, are made of solid
1 protection / cladding
(poss. rear ventilation)
2 wind tightness
3 insulation /load-bearing
structure
4 airtightness
services cavity
5 protection/finish
11.17
132
building materials, such as reinforced
concrete, cavity brick masonry, sand-lime
brick or aerated concrete. These are
either incorporated as panel elements
(wall, roof and floor slabs) or broken
down into point bearings (columns and
beams). The insulation is generally added
to the exterior using a thermal insulation
composite system or in the cavity of rear-
ventilated facade cladding. Special
masonry blocks with insulation-filled cavi-
ties, either using mineral wool or perlite,
are available today; however, their appli-
cation in Passive House buildings is lim-
ited (see p. 127f.).
Airtightness in new builds is provided by
the internal plastering. In the case of
energy efficiency refurbishments, it is
sometimes more suitable to use the exter-
nal rendering as the airtight layer. Any
installations integrated into components
of the building envelope require special
attention (e.g. installation of airtight sock-
ets) since they usually penetrate the air-
tight layer of plaster.
Concrete, in contrast, is already airtight in
itself; however, if prefabricated elements
are being used, the junctions have to be
sealed with airtight tape. When using
exterior insulation, it is important to
ensure a wind-tight construction in order
to prevent the insulation from being wind-
washed.
In solid constructions, it is sometimes dif-
ficult to avoid thermal bridges in areas
where load-bearing elements penetrate
the insulation plane, for example, at the
base of the building if the level below
ground is not insulated, where balcony
slabs protrude beyond the facade, and at
the tie-in areas of exterior and interior
walls in situations where the top side of
the basement ceiling slab has been insu-
lated. Effective solutions to avoid thermal
bridges in these circumstances include
using materials with a lower thermal con-
ductivity in the bottom brick course or
breaking down the load-bearing structure
into a few point bearings with a suitable
layer of insulation in between.
So long as the thermal mass remains
accessible in the interior and is not cov-
ered up, solid buildings are easier to
keep cool in summer than lightweight
constructions.
Timber constructions
In the case of timber constructions, the
load-bearing structure, including most of
the non-load-bearing elements, is made
of lightweight materials, such as solid tim-
ber members, I-beams or other wood
materials. The insulation is usually added
in a space-saving way as infill insulation
between the load-bearing timber compo-
nents. However, it is also possible to add
insulation to the outside of solid load-
bearing panel-shaped elements. A ser-
vices cavity is often included on the inner
side of these exterior walls to provide
space for electrical installations and to
allow for the fixing of airtight tapes, for
example at panel joints, behind angle
brackets and tie bars. In timber construc-
tion, it is possible to combine panel-
shaped elements (e.g. solid timber or tim-
ber-framed constructions) with wooden
posts and beams, the elements of a tim-
ber stud structure. From an economic
viewpoint, timber construction methods
are therefore ideally suited for designs
with large openings.
The stiffening board on the inside of light-
weight constructions is often used to pro-
vide airtightness. The joints between the
adjacent boards must, in this case, be
sealed with airtight tape. Alternatively, it is
possible to use vapour barriers or tear-
proof foils to provide airtightness. Wind-
tightness is ensured by cladding the
framework on the exterior with boarding
that is open to diffusion (e.g. plywood
sheathing, compressible bitumen-impreg-
nated fibreboard), or using a diffusion-
open facade system.
If the details at junctions are planned
accurately, there is no danger of thermal
bridges in timber constructions. In some
cases, it is worth calculating the thermal
bridges individually, since the result
may be a significant bonus which can
be used to reduce the insulation thick-
ness of standard building components.
The lack of available building mass in
lightweight constructions is a disadvan-
tage in summer. Double layers of board-
ing on the inside of walls, solid screed
floors and solid timber floor slabs (e.g.
Brettstapel or laminated veneer timber
floors, possibly with an additional layer
of concrete or a gravel infill) are recom-
mended to provide better thermal comfort
in summer.
Mixed construction methods
The benefits of solid and lightweight
building practices are combined in mixed
construction methods. In these buildings,
it is usually the interior load-bearing struc-
ture that is built using solid components
and the building envelope (e.g. exterior
walls and roofs) that is completed using
lightweight ones.
It is common to use timber construction
elements in solid constructions (e.g. in
the case of roofs) and solid members in

wind-tight layer
airtight layer
insulation 11.18
timber constructions (e.g. floor slabs,
basement). In practice, mixed construc-
tion methods tend to be the rule, rather
than the exception. The junctions where
the two types of construction meet require
special attention.
• The airtight seals at the junctions
between solid and lightweight compo-
nents must also take into consideration
all secondary leakage paths. This sig-
nificantly increases the lengths of joints.
Furthermore, it is important to make
sure that the airtight tape used is suita-
ble for both material worlds. The insula-
tion filling the hollow spaces at junc-
tions, including their respective airtight
configuration, is a fundamental aspect
for noise and fire protection.
11.19
• The fire protection requirements speci-
fied for standard components also
apply to all junctions and other transi-
tion points in the construction. This fre-
quently requires more detailed planning
in the design and construction phase.
• In lightweight constructions, thermal
bridges often occur at the tie-in points
of solid components, such as floor
slabs and walls. The lengths of these
junctions are fundamental to reducing
thermal bridging heat loss and thus
achieving Passive House standard. This
especially applies to buildings that are
not quite so compact.
• The thermal conditions in summer of a
mixed construction type building are
very similar to those of a solid building.
Building methods and construction systems
11.20
Notes
[1] Borsch-Laaks, Robert: Tauwasserschutz von
Flachdächern aus Holz. DETAIL 1-2/2012,
pp. 76ff.
[2] In some cases, it is necessary to clarify the use
of these devices with the building services plan-
ner. They cannot be used, for example, in com-
bination with wastewater lifting systems.
[3] The concept of sequencing was derived by
Heinz Ronner and Emil Rysler (comp. Ronner,
Heinz et al.: Baustruktur: Baukonstruktion im
Kontext des architektonischen Entwerfens.
Basel/Berlin/Boston 1995)
11.17 The concept of sequencing is used to inter-
pret the configuration of functional layers with
each fulfilling a different task. In some cases,
a single layer may even be responsible for
several functions simultaneously.
11.18 Schematic section of a Passive House build-
ing with a solid construction
11.19 Schematic section of a Passive House build-
ing with a lightweight timber construction
11.20 Schematic section of a Passive House build-
ing with a mixed construction
133
Building services
Building services in Passive House
buildings
The high level of energy performance
expected of a Passive House requires
that the building services are tailored per-
fectly to the needs of the building. The
intention of the technical installations is to
complement and support the design cri-
teria in terms of energy efficiency. It is not
generally possible or, if so, only at great
expense, to compensate for weaknesses
in the design by means of these installa-
tions. The aim of the following pages is to
highlight the most important aspects of
technical building services and their char-
acteristic features in Passive House build-
ings. Due to the scope and complexity of
the subject, the descriptions have been
limited to residential buildings.
Ventilation
The mechanical supply and extraction of
air with a heat recovery system is a fun-
damental aspect of every Passive House.
The heat load criterion (pH < 10 W/m2) is
based on the idea that a Passive House
building can be heated almost entirely by
using the volume of supply air necessary
12.1 Rise of CO2 concentration in a room (floor area
16 m2, clear room height 2.50 m, air volume
40 m3) according to time and air supply rate
12.2 Necessary air exchange rate for different size
and use (number of residents) of dwelling units
12.3 Schematic diagrams of mechanical ventilation
systems
a central unit
b semi-central units
c decentralised units
d compact units
12.4 Exemplary layout of a decentralised ventilation
unit (refurbishment of a multi-family dwelling)
134
from a hygiene point of view. Unneces-
sary ventilation heat loss and very dry
indoor air conditions in winter are the
result of raising the air exchange rate
beyond this critical level.
Determination of air volumes
A person performing simple tasks in a
sedentary position produces approxi-
mately 18 litres of CO2 in one hour; at
night, asleep, this CO2 output is reduced
to approximately 12 litres per hour. In
order to meet the so-called Pettenkofer
limit (CO2 content of room air < 0.1 vol %),
a residential building and buildings with
similar functions require an average fresh
air volume of approximately 30 m3/h per
person (fig. 12.1). This air exchange is
also designed to remove the moisture
typically produced in homes. The air
volume required by persons in non-resi-
dential buildings can differ from what is
mentioned above. In schools and kinder-
gartens, for example, an air volume of 15
to 20 m3/h per person tends to suffice.
Two parameters are required to calculate
the necessary air exchange rate of a
dwelling unit: the person-related air flow
rate of 30 m3/(h • person) and the nominal
air exchange rate, which is related to the
floor area. The higher value is selected for
CO2 content of room air [Vol.-%]
0.6
range of acceptable
CO2 content
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0 Single 2 person 4 person 4 person 5 person
0 1 2 3
• Building services in Passive
House buildings
• Ventilation
• Space heating
• Heat supply concepts
• Energy-efficient cooling systems
the design of the ventilation system.
Particularly in the case of multi-storey
housing blocks, the number of residents
is rarely known at the time of construction;
furthermore, a change of tenant or owner
can also lead to alterations in the number
of occupants. Dependent on the
expected number of residents, the supply
of fresh air is distributed among the bed-
rooms and living rooms and extracted
from the rooms with the highest levels of
moisture or odour nuisance. The German
standard DIN 1946-6, includes details
concerning the specification of nominal
air exchange rates for dwelling units. The
standard specifies not only the minimum
air exchange rates for different-sized
dwelling units but also the minimum air
extract volumes for rooms from which air
must be removed. The distribution of the
supply air volume among the rooms des-
tined for air supply is also conducted
according to this principle by using
weighting factors.
Requirements for mechanical ventilation
units
In order to reduce the primary energy
consumption and, at the same time,
achieve a high level of comfort and thus
also user acceptance, the following
0.8
Air supply rate per person [m3/(h · p)]
Air exchnage [1/h]
0 range of basic air exchange
0.6
2.5
0.4
10
0.2
20
30
0
4 5 6 unit unit SFH unit unit
Time [h] 40 m2 60 m2 120 m2 70 m2 80 m2
12.1 12.2
 Ventilation

requirements must be observed for the

mechanical ventilation units in Passive
House buildings:
• effective heat provision ratio > 75 %
• supply air temperature of at least
16.5 °C
• power efficiency (fans, control mecha-
nism) pel < 0.45 ≈ W/m3h
• limit to air leakage < 3 %
• excellent insulation of the system
(better than 5 W/K)
• simple system for air mass flow control
• three settings
(70 %, 100 %, 130 %)
• high quality filters (outside air: F 7,
extract air: G 4)
• frost protection without disturbance to
a b
air flow balance
• noise prevention: ventilation
unit < 35 db(A), bedrooms/living
rooms < 25 dB(A)
• specification of air volumes according
to DIN 1946, part 6
• fresh air volume per person: 30 m3/h
(dwelling units)
• air extract volume (kitchen: 60 m3/h,
bathroom: 40 m3/h; shower/WC:
20 m3/h)
• average air exchange rate: in residen-
tial buildings not below 0.3 h-1; however,
also not a lot higher (prevention of dry
air conditions in winter)
• good insulation of cold pipes/ducts
within the thermal envelope and warm
pipes/ducts outside the thermal enve- — supply air
— extract air
lope
• basic insulation of air supply ducts c d 12.3

Mechanical ventilation system

In the case of mechanical ventilation
units, a differentiation can be made
between the following design concepts:
• Central systems incorporate a single
central unit which combines all techni-
cal functions in one device (fans, heat
recovery, in-duct heater coil, frost pro-
tection, air volume control). The central
system delivers fresh air to all functional
units (e.g. apartments). The extract air
is collected in the air extraction zones
of each dwelling unit and returned to
the central apparatus (fig. 12.3 a).
• In the case of semi-central systems, the MVHR unit
heat recovery system is centralised, but
each functional unit has its own decen-
tralised (additional) fan and in-duct
heater coil. This solution allows for an
individual control of the air volume and
temperature (fig. 12.3 b).
• A decentralised system requires that
each functional unit has its own
separate mechanical ventilation unit
(fig. 2.3 c and 12.4).
12.4
135
Building services

4
Air velocity [m/s]

• Compact units cater for one room only;

difficulties in terms of the arrangement
3.01 3.06 of ventilation zones are a disadvantage
3
2.76 2.65 of this system (alternating operation,
fig. 12.3 d).)

2 In the case of central and semi-central

systems, the planning process is more
elaborate due to the fact that vertical
Ø 100 mm Ø 125 mm Ø 160 mm Ø 200 mm
1 distribution ducts have to be integrated
for the supply and extraction of air, and
fire protection requirements have to be
0 considered wherever ducts penetrate
10 30 50 70 90 110 130 150 170 190 210 230 250 270 290 ceilings and walls. However, these dis-
Air volume flow [m3/h] advantages must be weighed against
12.5 investment costs which are lower than
those for a decentralised system. Further-
more, maintenance work, including the
exchange of filters, is less elaborate in the
case of central and semi-central systems.
When upgrading existing building stock
to meet Passive House standard, the
large amount of space required for the air
supply ducts in (semi-) central systems is
one of the most important considerations.
In the case of non-residential buildings,
planners usually opt for the installation of
a (semi-)central system. Decentralised
systems, in contrast, require a large num-
ber of penetrations through the building
envelope as well as room in each func-
12.6 12.7 tional unit to install the apparatus.
overflow vent overflow vent
in door frame in door frame
Air distribution and duct systems
Depending on the space available for the
air supply terminal installations, there is a range of different
jet diffuser
duct sections for the distribution of supply
air. In terms of costs, installation and
maintenance, round ducts are the most
air supply terminal
suitable (fig. 12.6). The supply branches
disc diffuser to the individual rooms of a dwelling unit
have a diameter of 100 mm; in apart-
ments with floor areas up to approxi-
mately 100 m2, the main trunks, responsi-
ble for the initial distribution at the
mechanical ventilation unit, are 125 mm in
diameter. The largest cross section in an
a b 12.8 average-sized single-family home is
160 mm. The space required for the air
delivery is mainly determined by the nec-
essary sound attenuators and unavoida-
ble duct crossover points (special space-
saving components are available for
these situations).
Where space is restricted, planners tend
to use rectangular sections, which must
be equivalent in terms of their air volume
capacity (fig. 12.7). Whereas the width
varies, the height of these ducts is only
50 mm.
The air ducts in new builds can be
embedded into the reinforced concrete
ceilings between the layers of reinforce-
12.9 12.10
136

ment. A range of flexible PVC ducts, with
cross sectional areas ranging between 65
to 75 mm, are available for this purpose.
The advantage of this air supply system is
that no further ductwork is required in the
rooms; the disadvantage is that it is no
longer possible to make any changes to
the room layout. Furthermore, the air
delivery system is not suitable for heating
purposes since the preheated air would
cool down too much in the concrete-
encased ducts. If, in the case of a refur-
bishment project, space is limited, the
vertical air supply and extract ducts can
be placed within or underneath the layer
of insulation in the facade. This solution is
suitable for situations where the room
height does not allow the installation of
ducts in the dwelling units.
Supply and extract air terminals
Air terminals are designed to introduce
fresh air or remove waste air from the
interior space. They should be selected
according to the following principles:
• effective balancing (adjustability of the
set air flow rate)
• variation of the air jet direction in the
case of the supply air terminal
• sound attenuation/self noise reduction
• air volume flow
• suitability for mounting/demounting
• cleanability
The supply air valve can be positioned
close to the air transfer path. This means
that the branches are fairly short if they
are connected to a main trunk in the cen-
tral corridor. To avoid short circuiting,
however, the supply air must be delivered
to the room with a higher velocity (e.g. by
using a jet diffuser, fig. 12.9). If the outlet
terminal is positioned in the ceiling or at a
sufficient distance to the transfer path,
then circular diffusers are most appropri-
ate (fig. 12.10). In the case of supply air
volumes greater than 40 m3/h (for
12.14
Supply and extraction of air
instance in living rooms or joined living
and dining areas), several supply air ter-
minals are required or one that is suitable
to cater for the calculated air volume. To
avoid draughts occurring in living rooms,
the supply air terminals tend to be
mounted in ceilings.
Frost protection
If the outside temperature is low and the
dew point on the air exhaust side of the
heat exchanger is undercut, condensa-
tion forms. At outside temperature below
0 °C, the condensate freezes on the heat
exchanger plates and causes the exhaust
air flow to become obstructed. A bal- 12.11
anced supply and extraction of air can
then no longer be maintained. The follow-
ing strategies can be applied to avoid the
freezing up of heat exchangers:
• Some mechanical ventilation units auto-
matically reduce the air supply volume
if there is a risk of freezing. This mecha-
nism increases the temperature in the
heat exchanger and reduces the risk of
freezing to outside temperatures of
almost –10 °C. However, this frost pro-
tection strategy is not suitable for ventila-
tion units in Passive Houses due to the
resulting alteration of air supply and
extract volumes, which inevitably leads
to additional ventilation heat loss. 12.12
• A ground source heat exchanger
(fig. 12.11 and 12.14) preheats the
fresh outside air that is drawn into the
air duct (laid approx. 1.20 – 2.00 m
below ground level) to temperatures
above 0 °C. Depending on the thermal
conductivity of the ground and the
depth of the ground source heat
exchanger, an average single-family
home requires a duct length of between
20 to 40 m at a diameter of 200 mm.
For good, long-term operation, it is
essential to filter the outside air before it
enters the ground source heat
exchanger. As condensation can form
12.13
12.5 Average duct sizes
(section dimensions according to the air vol-
ume flow and air velocity)
12.6 Round air ducts
12.7 Rectangular air ducts
12.8 Arrangement of air supply terminals and their
air supply properties
a jet diffuser
b disc diffuser
12.9 Jet diffuser
12.10 Disc diffuser
12.11 Schematic diagram of an air-to-air ground
source heat exchanger
12.12 Schematic diagram of a brine-to-air ground
source heat exchanger
12.13 Schematic diagram of preheating the air with
an electric heater coil
12.14 Air-to-air ground source heat exchanger
12.15 Mechanical ventilation unit with an electric
heater coil
12.15
137
Building services

in the underground pipes in summer, dwellings, the system should be operated

the system should slope (2 to 3 %)
towards the building and incorporate a
condensate drain at the lowest point.
• A brine-to-air system (fig. 12.12)
absorbs heat from the ground and
transfers it to the outside air in a heat
exchanger. Simple brine-to-air heat
exchangers consist of PE-HD pipes
with an outside diameter of 32 mm. The
pipes are laid on the base of the exca-
vation pit and wrapped twice around the
perimeter of the building. They are filled
with a mixture of water and glycol. The
brine circulation pump is activated auto-
matically at outside temperatures below
freezing. A brine-to-air heat exchanger
12.16
preheats the outside air to at least 0 °C.
• An electric heater coil preheats the
intake air to 0 °C before it enters the
heat exchanger in the mechanical ven-
tilation unit (fig. 12.15, p. 137). This
strategy is most beneficial in terms of
investment costs; however, the energy
consumption is higher than in the case
of all other strategies mentioned.
Hygiene, maintenance and cleaning
The fact that the air ducts require clean-
ing should already be considered during
the planning stage. Where appropriate, it
is possible to fit airtight inspection open-
ings into the air ducts.
In order to keep air ducts clean, air sup-
ply systems require filters. Mechanical
12.17
ventilation units incorporate F 6 or F 7 fil-
ters for the incoming outside air and G 4
Space requirement [m2]
on the lowest setting throughout the sum-
mer. Manufacturers also provide humidity
and CO2 sensors for mechanical ventila-
tion units, which adapt the air flow volume
automatically to the prevailing needs.
However, experience has shown that
manual control suffices and actually leads
to greater user acceptance.
A CO2-controlled air supply makes sense
in rooms that are only used temporarily by
a large number of people in non-residen-
tial buildings. In this case, each room
must be equipped with its own CO2 sen-
sor. In addition, air ducts require the fit-
ting of air volume control dampers.
Position and space requirements
The decentralised mechanical ventilation
units in apartments in multi-unit buildings
can either be incorporated into sus-
pended ceilings, or accommodated as a
wall-mounted fixture in, for example, a
storage room (fig. 12.16).
Since mechanical ventilation units are a
source of noise, insulation against solid
and airborne sound transmission must be
provided. In single-family homes, ventila-
tion units tend to be wall-mounted in the
cellar (fig. 12.17). This position has the
advantage that the air can be preheated
by an air-to-air or brine-to-air ground
source heat exchanger. If the mechanical
ventilation unit is installed in the attic, it is
easy to provide the connections for the
supply of fresh air and the removal of
waste air with short runs. In this case,

Room height [m]

300
required room height
space requirement:
supply + extract air; heating
supply + extract air; heating
+ cooling
200
100
0 2
0 50 100 150
Volume flow in 1000 [m3/h]
12.18
12.16 Ceiling-mounted mechanical ventilation unit for
an apartment with a floor area of approx.
120 m2; l ≈ w ≈ d = 1500 ≈ 560 ≈ 200 mm
12.17 Wall-mounted mechanical ventilation unit for
a single-family home with a floor area of
approx. 250 m2; l ≈ w ≈ d = 800 ≈ 600 ≈
1000 mm
12.18 Relationship between the necessary floor area
of the ventilation plant and the nominal air flow
of the system differentiated according to the
number of air handling functions
8
filters for the extract air. The supply air
ducts stay fairly clean since they only
transfer filtered air. To prevent too much
dust accumulating in the extract ducts,
6 each extract air terminal should be fitted
with a pocket filter. Depending on the
position and the quality of the supply air,
all filters in mechanical ventilation units
4 should be changed at intervals of
between six to twelve months.
Ventilation system control
In residential buildings, it should be pos-
sible for each dwelling unit to adjust the
intensity of air flow individually. Systems
with three to four settings are considered
user-friendly. Depending on the nominal
air flow (equal to 100 %, level 3), users
should be able to reduce the air flow to
level 2 (equal to approx. 70 %) or level 1
(e.g. 40 %) when occupancy levels are
low or all persons are absent.
In non-heating periods, the mechanical
ventilation unit can be switched off. How-
ever, particularly in the case of higher
occupancy levels, such as multi-family
however, the outside air has to generally
be preheated by an electric heater coil.
The space requirements for a mechanical
ventilation unit in a single-family home are
only approximately 0.5 m2. However, suffi-
cient space must also be provided in
front of the unit (approx. 0.80 ≈ 0.80 m) to
open the cover, exchange the filters and
service the apparatus.
The roof has been determined the most
suitable position for central and semi-cen-
tral units in multi-family dwellings, since
this solution does not require the installa-
tion of cold air supply ducts in the apart-
ments or of any horizontal ducts in the
building. Depending on the necessary air
output, the space requirements for a roof-
mounted ventilation plant range between
5 and 15 m2.
If it is either not possible or not suitable to
install a roof-mounted plant, the ventila-
tion unit can alternatively be positioned in
the cellar. In this case, however, the hori-
zontal ducts, which take up a lot of
space, must be taken into account at a
very early planning stage.

138
 Heating and heat transfer

Heating and heat transfer

Despite their low space heat demand,

Passive House buildings require a solu-
tion for the transfer of heat. This aspect
must be considered carefully due to the
very low capacity of the heating system.

Heat transfer
In Passive House buildings, it no longer
a b 12.19
matters where the heat source is posi-
tioned or how the heat is delivered to the
space (supply air, convection heating,
radiator, surface heaters). Schemes with
fully glazed spaces that extend over sev-
eral storeys are an exception. In this case
radiators have to be placed below the
windows or in the middle of the facade to
minimise cold air drop.

Supply air heating

The mechanical ventilation unit in a Pas-
sive House building can deliver heat to
the rooms via the supply air. To prevent
dust sulphurisation, the heater coil should
not raise the temperature of the supply air
air temperature [°C]
beyond 52 °C. In accordance with the air
exchange rate necessary in terms of 19.5 19.8 20.1 20.4 20.7 21.0 21.3 21.6 21.9 22.2 22.5
12.20
hygiene and the thermal capacity of the
air, the maximum heat load which can be
100
Space heating energy consumption [kWh/(m2a)]

delivered by the supply air in residential PHPP calculated values

90
buildings is calculated as follows: measured
measured mean values
80 mean value:
ph, max = 30 m3/(h p) 0.33 Wh/(m3K) 30 K = 66 kWh/(m2a)
70
300 W/p
60
Based on the assumption that the specific 50
floor area is 30 m2 per person, the heat measured
output, which can be provided through 40 mean value:
measured
the supply air, is approximately 10 W per 30 13 kWh/(m2a) measured
mean value:
square metre of useful floor area. The 13 kWh/(m2a) mean value:
20 14 kWh/(m2a)
supply air ducts must be insulated to
ensure that the heat is distributed evenly 10
among all main rooms. To prevent 0
draughts, supply air terminals are best Niedernhausen Wiesbaden Hannover-Kronsberg Stuttgart-Feuerbach
located in or close to the ceiling. This Low Energy Houses 41 DU Passive House residential housing estates with a total of 106 DU

means that the heat in a Passive House 12.21

room can be supplied easily from a core
0.5
Air velocity [m/s]

in the building, e.g. above the entrance to height of glazing: 3.00 m 1.80 m 1.20 m 12.19 Thermographic images showing the supply of
heat to a room via a supply air heating system
the room (fig. 12.19 and 12.20). a jet diffuser
0.4 b disc diffuser
12.20 Temperature stratification in a Passive House
Limits of a supply air heating system room during an extremely cold period (outside
There are limits to the practicality of a temperature: –16 °C, supply air heating sys-
0.3 tem). Thermal comfort is ensured throughout
concept which solely relies on a supply
all main occupancy zones in the room.
air heating system. The following situa- 12.21 Measurements taken of the space heating
tions require the installation of additional 0.2
energy consumption in different dwelling units
critical level for cold air drop of a Passive House residential housing estate.
radiators: According to user behaviour, the values vary
• rooms with fully glazed facades higher between 3 and 32 kWh/m2a. Despite the
than 2.5 to 3.0 m (fig. 12.22) 0.1 extreme fluctuations, the mean value corre-
sponds with the space heating demand
• exposed rooms with large additional calculated according to the PHPP [1].
window areas 0
12.22 Cold air drop according to the height and
quality of glazing. If radiators are not installed
• open room layouts (open staircases, 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8 below windows or at the bottom of the facade,
voids, halls) U-value of glass [W/m2K] the air velocity must remain below 0.20 m/s.
12.22
139
 Building services

140
Primary energy demand [kWh/m2a]

• rooms for which the air volume flow Heat supply concepts
120 necessary from a hygiene point of view
does not suffice to heat the space using Passive House buildings often feature
100 the supply air only totally different heat supply concepts than
• air extract rooms which require a higher standard new builds. Due to the very low
80 Passive House
technology room temperature (e.g. bathrooms), or space heat demand of approx. 10 W/m2,
60 benchmark: living rooms which are positioned in the radiators or other heat emitters tend to be
< 40 kWh/m2a
intermediate zone when using a cas- much smaller. Sometimes it is even possi-
40 cade ventilation system ble to cover the heat load solely with the
20
• rooms and buildings with a low occu- air supply volume necessary for the provi-
pancy level and/or extremely low heat sion of hygienic air conditions. Moreover,
0 gains (e.g. basements which are used the heat radiating surfaces can be
LEH-gas LT
PH-direct
electric
PH-GSHP

PH-HPCU
PH-HPCU
+ solar
PH-gas CB
PH-gas CB
+ solar
PH-CHPU
PH-wooe
(pellets)

for residential purposes). located anywhere in the room without

impairing the level of comfort. Even the
These rooms require either a mixed con- time at which the heat is delivered in a
12.23 cept, including, for example, a supply air Passive House building is irrelevant. An
and a fixed surface heating system, or a interruption of several hours does not
clear separation of ventilation and space lead to a perceptible reduction in temper-
cold/ fluid
heating. The worksheet to calculate the ature.
5 °C 30°C
heat expansion valve heat load in the PHPP includes a tool to In the case of residential buildings, the
source building assess the possibility of heating individual heat demand for the production of hot
12 °C 36°C rooms or room zones in groups. It some- water is generally higher than that for
evaporator condenser
times makes sense to perform additional space heating. This feature of Passive
calculations to determine the heat load of Houses affects the heat generation sys-
8 °C 30°C individual rooms. tem significantly. Special requirements
apply to the production of hot water in
compressor
11°C 40°C
Non-residential buildings large apartment blocks and non-residen-
gaseous Non-residential buildings are often only tial buildings. In order to avoid the growth
used temporarily. In contrast to the situa- of Legionella, the German drinking water
tion with residential buildings, an intermit- ordinance demands that, in the case of
12.24 tent operation of the ventilation and heat- large-scale plants (hot water storage
ing system is most suitable and usually tanks with a content of more than 400
February May August November
0
also essential in non-residential buildings litres or plants which contain more than
Depth [m]

to limit the primary energy demand. This 3 litres of water in the pipes between the
5
mode of operation has an impact on the storage tank and the water outlet), the
10 space heating concept and the specifica- water temperature must be at least 60 °C
15 tion of the air exchange rate. Calculations at the exit of the hot water storage tank.
to determine the heat load must also take
20
the heating-up period into consideration. Heat pumps
50 The preliminary ventilation, prior to the Heat pumps absorb thermal energy from
100
use of the respective space, usually suf- the environment through the evaporation
200 fices for this purpose. In all other cases, it of a refrigerant, for example ground heat,
300
is either necessary to supply an addi- groundwater or outside air. In a second
tional fixed surface heating system or step, they raise the temperature of the
400 separate the ventilation from the space gaseous refrigerant, through compres-
0 5 10
20 25 15 heating system. sion, to a higher level, one that is useful
Temperature [C] for heating purposes (fig. 12.24). The aim
12.25 Consideration of user behaviour is to achieve a large amount of thermal
12.23 Primary energy assessment of building servic- Passive House buildings have revealed a capacity with as little driving power for the
es solutions (heating/production of DHW/venti-
lation) for a single-family dwelling [2] clear dependence between the space compressor as possible.
LEH: Low Energy House; PH: Passive House heat demand and user behaviour The ratio between useful heat output to
gas LT: low temperature gas heating system
gas CB: gas condensing boiler
(fig. 12.21, p. 139). Ths is mainly due to energy input is referred to as COP (coeffi-
GSHP: ground source heat pump the different preferences of residents con- cient of performance). The higher the
HPCU: compact heat pump unit cerning room temperature. Experience temperature of the heat source, the
solar: solar collectors for the provision of DHW
(coverage rate of 50 %) has shown that the impact of additional higher the COP and therefore the effi-
CHPU: combined heat and power unit window ventilation in winter on the space ciency of the heat pump. On the other
12.24 Functional principle of a heat pump
12.25 Annual fluctuations of ground temperature ac-
heat demand is negligible. Nevertheless, hand, if the temperature of the heating
cording to the depth below ground the heating system should be able to pro- system is increased, the COP declines.
12.26 Compact heat pump unit vide the necessary heat load to generate Thus, the temperature of the heat genera-
12.27 Brine-to-water heat pump
12.28 Pellet stove higher room temperatures than the stand- tion system necessary to supply heat
12.29 Borehole drilling machine for energy piles ard required temperature. Cross heat flow should be kept as low as possible.
12.30 Installation of geothermal energy basket
12.31 Distribution well for energy piles or geothermal
between dwelling units must also be taken A further figure, the so-called annual per-
energy baskets into account. formance factor, defines the ratio

140

12.26
between the power consumption and the
heat output of the heat pump over the
course of a year. In order to save primary
energy at today’s primary energy factor of
2.7 for the electricity mix in Germany, the
annual performance factor of a heat
pump should be higher than 3.0.
Compact heat pump unit
A compact heat pump unit is a combina-
tion of a mechanical ventilation system
and a heat pump in one apparatus (fig.
12.26). Initially, the system works like a
“normal” mechanical ventilation unit. As
soon as the building requires heat, the
heat pump absorbs the remaining thermal
energy contained in the extracted air.
Depending on the heat pump design, the
heat can either be used to supply warm
air, feed hot water into radiators or pro-
duce hot water for domestic use. On days
with greater heat demand, or an intensive
use of water, it may be necessary to
switch on an electric heater coil to cover
additional needs. Compact heat pump
units with a nominal thermal capacity of
approximately 1 kW are particularly well
suited to the requirements of single-family
Passive House homes. If a decentralised
solution is opted for, compact heat pump
units are also suitable for apartment
12.29
12.27
buildings, in which case each dwelling
unit has its own separate system.
Ground source heat pumps
Higher heat loads of heating and/or hot
water generation systems can be covered
by ground source heat pumps (fig.
12.27). Customary brine heat pumps gen-
erally have a nominal thermal capacity of
around 4 kW. A system of brine-filled PE
pipes is used to absorb the heat from the
ground. The thermal energy is then
extracted by a heat pump and raised to a
higher temperature level.
The temperature of the circulating brine
must be lower than the ground tempera-
ture so that it is possible in the first place
to absorb heat from the ground. Typical
systems for the use of ground heat
include geothermal energy piles (usually
reaching depths of 100 m), geothermal
energy baskets (placed approx. 1 m
below ground level) and ground-coupled
heat exchangers that are placed at
depths of around 1.50 m (fig. 12.29 and
12.30). Groundwater heat pumps are
available with nominal thermal capacities
of approximately 6 kW. Due to the costs
involved in accessing groundwater and
developing separate extraction and injec-
tion wells, these systems are only really
12.30
Heat supply concepts
12.28
feasible for multi-family dwellings and
non-residential buildings. In contrast to
brine heat pumps, groundwater heat
pumps have higher annual performance
factors of almost 10 to 15 % due to the
higher temperature of the heat source.
Drilling approval and a water supply per-
mit must be obtained prior to boring geo-
thermal energy piles and using groundwa-
ter as a heat source.
According to the German drinking water
ordinance, the temperature of domestic
hot water in large residential and non-res-
idential buildings with large-scale produc-
tion facilities must be at least 60 °C. Since
the maximum heating forward flow tem-
perature of brine and groundwater heat
pumps is between 55 and 65 °C, these
systems must be equipped with an elec-
tric heater coil or combined with an addi-
tional heat generator.
Biomass
The generation of heat using biofuels pro-
duces not only a very good carbon and
primary energy balance, it also meets the
frequent request for the use of renewable
energy technologies.
The use of pellet stoves with water jackets
or central heating pellet boilers is particu-
larly common in residential buildings.
12.31
141
Building services
Low-energy buildings
Low temperature gas boiler + air extraction system
CHP unit + air extraction system
Passive House buildings
Natural gas condensing boiler
HP compact unit (exhaust air as heat source)
HP compact unit (exhaust air) + radiators
HP compact unit (exhaust air) +
concrete core activation
HP compact unit, no ground source heat exchanger
HP compact unit (outside air as heat source)
HP compact unit (outside air ) + radiators
HP compact unit (outside air ) +
concrete core activation
HP compact unit (100 m energy pile as heat source)
HP compact unit (75 m energy pile as heat source)
HP compact unit (75 m energy pile as heat source) +
concrete core activation
HP compact unit (sub-slab heat exchanger as heat
source)
HP compact unit (sub-slab heat exchanger) + solar
production of DHW, 5 m2 collector surface area
Exhaust air heat pump + radiators
Exhaust air heat pump + concrete core activation
annual maintenance [€/a]
energy costs incl. basic charge [€/a]
annual capital costs [€/a]
Pellet stoves are usually positioned in
the living room. With the help of an
integrated heat exchanger, they can
transfer between 80 and 95 % of their
nominal heat output to a hot water circuit
(fig. 12.28, p. 141). To prevent overheat-
ing of the interior, the system is designed
to emit only a small amount of heat to its
immediate surroundings. Pellet stoves
have an integrated storage container
which is filled manually with pellets. Due
to the extremely airtight building envelope,
the combustion air cannot simply be
extracted from the surrounding space,
but a separate air supply duct must be
provided.
Central heating pellet boilers are usually
positioned in a plant room on a basement
level. The pellets can be stored in this
plant room, for example in a sack silo, or
in an adjoining pellet store. The smallest
pellet boilers have a nominal thermal
capacity of 4 kW. They can modulate
(increase or reduce) their thermal output
according to demand. Large-scale pellet
boiler plants are particularly suited for the
heat demand of large residential and non-
residential buildings.
Wood chip burners are even more effi-
cient in terms of operating costs. How-
ever, the initial investment is higher, and
they are therefore only really feasible for
very large buildings or local heat supply
systems.
142
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Total annual costs [€/a]
12.32
Solar thermal systems
A solar thermal system for the production
of domestic hot water with a collector
area of 1.0 to 1.5 m2 per resident can
cover 50 % of the annual demand for hot
water in a residential building. It is fairly
expensive and requires the installation of
a larger collector area and a buffer stor-
age tank to support the space heating
system with solar thermal energy.
In some situations, it may be necessary to
install a solar thermal system to meet the
requirements of the Passive House pri-
mary energy demand target of
< 120 kWh/m2a.
The following can be said about the actu-
ally completed heat supply solutions in
Passive House buildings [3]:
• Only 4 % of all Passive Houses are sup-
plied by a local or district heating sys-
tem.
• 47 % of all Passive House buildings are
equipped with a heat pump system.
The largest proportion of these use
compact heat pump units for the com-
bined provision of ventilation, space
heating and domestic hot water.
• With regard to fossil fuel-fired heating
systems, only those equipped with gas
boilers constitute a relevant proportion
of 12 %.
• Biomass heating systems are used in
Passive House buildings to burn pellets
(13 %) and logs (7 %).
• A fairly large proportion of Passive
House buildings (13 %) uses direct
electric heating systems. This solution
is used mainly in combination with
solar thermal collectors.
• More than 60 % of all Passive House
buildings are fitted with solar thermal
collectors. These are largely used for
the production of domestic hot water
and provide an average solar cover-
age rate of 56 %.
A fundamental assessment criteria is
the primary energy demand for building
services (space heating, production of
domestic hot water, ventilation, auxiliary
energy), which in total should not
exceed 40 kWh/m2a in a Passive House
building (fig. 12.23).
Economic evaluation of energy supply
systems
The total costs for the supply of heat,
including space heating and the pro-
duction of domestic hot water, is made
up of three parts:
• capital costs (investment spread out
over a number of years)
• energy costs (energy rate and possi-
bly also a basic price)
• maintenance costs
The following statements can be made
concerning the economic efficiency of
different building services systems
(fig. 12.32):
• Heat supply solutions with direct elec-
tric heating systems feature the lowest
investment costs. On the other hand,
these systems lead to the highest
energy costs.
• Heating technologies which are
expensive to buy (e.g. underfloor
heating systems, brine or groundwa-
ter heat pumps) have a considerable
impact on the annual costs.
• The comparably high investment
costs for solar thermal collectors
increase the total costs of the heat
supply system by approximately 10 %
• In the case of heat supply systems
using natural gas, the economic effi-
ciency is improved marginally by
using a gas cooker.
The energy costs in a Passive House
only amount to approximately 10 to
20 % of the annual total costs for the
provision of heat. This means that the
effect of rising energy costs on the total
annual costs for the provision of heat is
not nearly as pronounced as is the case
in a “conventional” building.

Energy-efficient cooling systems
Several factors are fundamental for the
thermal performance of a building during
heat waves. The internal cooling load is
composed of the heat input in a room or a
building from persons, office appliances,
such as computers, monitors and print-
ers, lighting and other electrical equip-
ment. The external cooling load includes
the radiant heat input through transparent
building components and the transmis-
sion heat gain through lightweight com-
ponents in the building envelope. In Pas-
sive House buildings, the annual cooling
demand is limited to 15 kWh/m2a.
Residential buildings in Central Europe
built according to Passive House stand-
ard do not require any active cooling sys-
tems. Exterior solar shading devices, suf-
ficient thermal storage mass in the build-
ing interior as well as intensive ventilation
during the night are passive measures
which lead to comfortable indoor temper-
atures. Despite the good initial conditions,
non-residential Passive House buildings
often have a cooling load which cannot
usually be removed by increasing the
ventilation.
Groundwater cooling
The temperature of groundwater is almost
constant throughout the year at 8 –12 °C.
It is therefore an ideal medium for cooling
purposes. The cold can be transferred to
the building either by installing an air-to-
water cooling coil into the mechanical
ventilation unit or by providing surface
cooling systems, such as concrete core
activation systems or cooling ceilings.
However, a water supply permit must be
obtained to develop a well and make use
of groundwater for cooling purposes.
Ground cooling
The heat from buildings can also be dissi-
pated into the ground by using brine-filled
ground probes or ground collectors.
Because the attainable forward flow tem-
perature is not much lower than 20 °C,
surface cooling systems are the only
really suitable method for distributing the
cold. The combination with a brine heat
pump for heating purposes in winter is
extremely beneficial since the ground
temperature is then re-established by
extracting the heat.
A further way of making use of the cold
ground temperature is to draw the outside
air in through a ground source heat
exchanger, which, through contact with
the ground, cools down the flow of out-
side air (fig. 12.34).
Energy-efficient cooling
Adiabatic cooling
In the case of an adiabatic cooling sys-
tem, the extract air is cooled by the
spraying and evaporation of water in the
flow of extracted air before entering the
heat exchanger (fig. 12.35 and 12.36).
The cold from the extract air (not the
moisture content) is then transferred to
the flow of supply air in the heat
exchanger.
Solar cooling
High cooling loads often occur at the
same time as intensive solar radiation.
Solar generated heat can be used in
refrigeration units, for example absorption 12.33
or, even better, adsorption cooling
systems, to produce cold air or water to
cool the building. These systems are
extremely beneficial in terms of their pri-
mary energy demand, however, not so in
terms of their investment costs.
Summary
In terms of technical systems, the differ-
ences between Passive Houses and con-
ventional buildings are only marginal.
Nevertheless, the planning and dimen-
sioning of components must be con-
ducted much more carefully in Passive 12.34
House buildings in order to meet the exhaust air
higher energy performance standards. extract
air
The architect must understand the spatial outside
integration of the building services sys- air
tems, in particular the mechanical ventila-
tion unit, as a fully-fledged process and supply
prepare an individual, design-related air
solution for each and every project. 12.35
From this perspective, technical installa-
tions cannot be dealt with as an add-on
measure, but must be an integral part of
the design from the outset. Cooperation
with specialist planners should be a mat-
ter of course; however, the responsibility
for the coordination and sequencing of
trades during the planning and construc-
tion stages rests with the architect. If
these principles are followed, the plan- 12.36
ning of a Passive House building can be
seen as an interesting challenge for the
creative application of technical building 12.32 Total annual costs for different heat
systems. supply systems [4].
Rates applied for the period 2006
to 2026 (incl. VAT):
natural gas: 6.6 ct/kWh
extra light heating oil: 6.6 ct/kWh
Notes heat pump electricity: 15.0 ct/kWh
[1] Feist, Wolfgang (ed.): Research Group for Cost- electricity mix: 18.0 ct/kWh
effective Passive Houses, Protocol Volume No. local heat: 6.0 ct/kWh
38. Darmstadt 2008, p. 92 pellets: 4.7 ct/kWh
[2] Feist, Wolfgang (ed.): Research Group for Cost- 12.33 Thermally activated concrete slab
effective Passive Houses, Protocol Volume No. 12.34 Air ground heat exchanger
20. Darmstadt 2000, p. 171 12.35 Schematic diagram of adiabatic cooling system
[3] see note. 1, p. 74 12.36 Mechanical ventilation unit with adiabatic
[4] ib. cooling
143
Outlook
Passive House and more
The Passive House standard has
become an established and widely
accepted design tool with criteria that
provide a sound basis for the develop-
ment of energy-efficient buildings and
urban districts. The standard is not a
set of haphazardly defined benchmarks,
but a concept based on clearly defined
physical parameters and comfort
requirements. Its technical and eco-
nomic viability has been tried and tested
on thousands of buildings over the last
20 years. The increasing number of Pas-
sive House-compliant building compo-
nents and technologies, as well as quali-
fied planners and craftspeople, are
together making it easier to plan and
develop Passive House buildings.
The Passive House concept, in common
with energy-conscious building gener-
ally, was first applied in single-family
homes. Given the fear of energy sources
becoming more scarce and driving up
the costs of energy, the Passive House
standard promised greater economic
independence. This has proved to be
the case: today’s energy prices far
exceed the pessimistic forecasts made
at the time of the introduction of the Pas-
sive House standard.
In the meantime, the Passive House
concept is used not only for individual
buildings but also for larger schemes,
such as residential housing estates,
urban quarters (e.g. “Bahnstadt” in
Heidelberg) and whole regions within
the EU [1]. This shows that improve-
ments to individual components or
buildings should not be considered
independently of urban, regional and
global developments. The energy turna-
round in Germany, in particular, high-
lights this phenomenon. It has brought
new building functions and uses into
play (e.g. museums, swimming pools,
144
canteens), which had, up until then, nei-
ther been thought about nor assessed in
terms of Passive House principles.
The path to a universal standard
From its origins in German-speaking
countries, the Passive House concept
has spread across Europe and now
beyond, because there is also growing
interest worldwide. However, this devel-
opment is somewhat ambivalent. Fasci-
nated by the seemingly unlimited
opportunities of modern technology, in
1930, Le Corbusier in his “Statements
on architecture and urban develop-
ment” envisaged identical buildings
throughout the world: cooled in summer
and heated in winter, like ships on the
high seas [2]. These thoughts, which
derived from a desire for social justice,
were formed without consideration of
regional characteristics and therefore
never came to fruition.
What can be learned today from the Le
Corbusier example?
It is fairly easy to translate the comfort
requirements and the idea of energy effi-
ciency, which is an integral part of the
Passive House concept, to other climate
zones. However, the situation is very dif-
ferent when it comes to the actual design
and technical implementation of Passive
House criteria in buildings, housing
estates and cities in other locations
because this is where socio-economic
and cultural conditions play an important,
if not the decisive role. This applies just
as much within Europe as worldwide.
Thus, it only makes sense to introduce
the Passive House concept into foreign
cultures and climate zones if the local
building traditions, as well as the living
and working patterns, are taken into
account. This can then lead to appropri-
ate onward development of the building
culture reflecting future ecological
needs in the particular locality.
As a consequence, the Passive House
concept would adapt and result in the
development of new variants. Interest-
ingly, it is not so much the energy con-
cepts themselves that become the driv-
ing force, but their interpretation in terms
of architecture and urban design.
In Germany, the gap between the statu-
tory requirements for new builds and the
Passive House standard is gradually
diminishing. As a result, the extra costs
formerly involved in meeting Passive
House standard are going down. The
requirements imposed on the energy
performance of new builds should con-
tinue to tighten further for all building
typologies. However, the most pressing
need is to increase the number of refur-
bishments. Every energy efficiency refur-
bishment is an opportunity that often
does not recur for decades. It is there-
fore necessary to put in place suitable
measures to encourage and promote
better ways of dealing with existing
building stock with the aim of reaching
higher refurbishment standards.
A holistic approach to energy efficiency
The Passive House concept is an
energy efficiency standard for the con-
struction and operation of a building,
which is generally independent of ethi-
cal and moral values and obligations.
How and which materials, constructions
and technologies are used to meet the
benchmarks is not an integral part of the
standard’s definition.
Thus, the Passive House standard could
theoretically be used for buildings that
are totally inefficient in terms of their
concept or even ones that are superflu-
ous. Furthermore, the improved effi-
ciency achieved through using Passive
House criteria can encourage consump-
tion of more energy than necessary if,
for example, savings are neutralised by
increased use of land. In order to pre-

vent misuse of the Passive House con-
cept, a holistic approach to energy effi-
ciency must be adopted (Fig. 13.1). In
this respect, the Passive House criteria
can be considered the cornerstone for
performing a comprehensive ecological
assessment of the construction work
(ecological footprint, cumulative energy
demand) or the entire living environment
(carbon footprint, 2000 Watt Society).
Reduced energy consumption is an
essential component of every sustainabil-
ity concept; nevertheless, it may not be
offset against other aspects. The assess-
ment criteria must be considered sepa-
rately and not in an additive manner.
Before going into detail about ecological
improvements and the energy balance
of buildings, a few fundamental aspects
should first be clarified. Among these
are a precise definition of wants and
needs, and possibly also the question of
whether there is really a necessity to
build. Requirements should always be
carefully questioned and unnecessary
frills and complications avoided. Depar-
ture from ways that are familiar, but not
necessarily always good, can often pro-
duce improved results.
Outlook for architects
Disciplined design and efficient use of
available means in order to satisfy a set
of predetermined requirements are fun-
damental characteristics of traditional
architecture. Artistic freedom, if it flies in
the face of the needs of climate and
environment, is counter to a responsible
approach to technology. From initial
concept through to completion, build-
ings should be examined according to
their practical value and all resources
should be used in such a way that maxi-
mum benefits are achieved. The design
criteria for a Passive House fulfil this
demand in a perfect way since they are
geared towards ensuring utmost comfort
in the interior space with a minimum
consumption of resources.
There are numerous ways to complete a
Passive House building. Worries that the
goal of improved energy efficiency might
cramp the design are justified to the
extent that haphazard and undisciplined
plans have a devastating effect on the
energy balance. It is true that construc-
tional and technical changes can per-
haps compensate for shortcomings;
however, this approach is not in line with
the principles of economic efficiency
and the rational use of materials and
technical equipment.
A number of successful projects, includ-
ing the ones presented in this book,
prove that it is possible to create sophis-
ticated architecture to Passive House
standard without extra effort and
expense. The path to success is not
necessarily all about practicing the art of
sacrifice. Nevertheless, the solutions do
convey the impression of being simple
and restricted to the bare necessities.
Outlook for architects
It follows that attitudes concerning
building culture need to change. This
is especially true with regard to the use
of resources, which must shift from
“more” (quantity) to “better” (quality),
hence usually less. This is about the
material world created by man, the
framework for the evolution of individuals
and the critical rethink of responsibilities
expected of, but not exclusively limited
to, energy-efficient architecture. The
argument that this limits imagination and
takes away artistic freedom is the feeble
excuse of all those who refuse to get
involved with the creative aspects of this
subject matter.
The history of architecture is full of exam-
ples which show how excellent quality
was achieved when intelligent minds
sought answers to complex questions.
The time of ifs and buts is over. Now that
solutions like the Passive House are
available, it is time to put the lessons
learned into practice.
Notes
[1] For example the EU project PassREg;
www.passreg.eu
[2] Le Corbusier: Précision sur un état présent de
l’architecture et de l’urbanisme. Paris 1930
(English: Precisions on the present state of
architecture and city planning. Berlin/Frankfurt
am Main/Vienna 1964)
13.1 Primary school in Hohen Neuendorf (D) 2011,
IBUS Architekten und Ingenieure. The first school
in Germany completed in plus-energy standard
meets the highest requirements of sustainability
in terms of construction and operation.
13.1
145
Appendix
Authors
Roberto Gonzalo
1958 born in Tucumán, Argentina
1982 studied architecture at Universidad Nacional
de Tucumán, Argentina
1982 – 1985 started own practice in Tucumán,
Argentina. Design and construction of projects
with an emphasis on climate-adapted architecture
1982 – 1985 research work for the National
Research Council for Science and Technology
1989 doctorate at Technische Universität München
for the subject passive use of solar energy
1989 – 1996 research assistant for building design
under Professor Schröder at Technische Univer-
sität München
1994 /95 supervisor of master class and speaker at
the International Solar Building School in Vorarl-
berg, Dornbirn/Austria
since 1996 joint practice with Clemens Pollok in
Munich (www.pollok-gonzalo.de). Design and
construction of projects with special consideration
of ecological aspects using energy-efficient build-
ing practices
since 2008 lecturer at the University of Applied
Sciences Munich for the subject energy-efficient
architecture
Author of several papers for conferences. Numerous
publications in architectural and technical journals,
i.a. Arquitectura Internacional, Sonnenenergie,
Thema, DETAIL, DBZ, BDA
Book publications:
Energiebewusst Bauen. Mainz 1994
Energieeffiziente Architektur: Grundlagen für
Planung und Konstruktion. Basel 2005
(with Karl Habermann)
146
Rainer Vallentin
1961 born in Kaufbeuren
1981/82 studied ancient and modern art history
at Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich
1983 – 1989 studied architecture at Technische
Universität München
1990 – 1992 employed at Architekturbüro Volker
Steiner und Moritz Hauser, Munich
1993 – 1996 started own practices in Erding and
Munich with an emphasis on ecological and
energy-efficient building and urban design
1996 – 2002 research architect at the chair for
urban design under Professor Dr. Krau at Tech-
nische Universität München
since 2002 self-employed architect in Munich
since 2008 advanced training courses at the
chambers of architects in Bavaria, Berlin and
Baden-Wuerttemberg covering the topics
energy-efficient building with Passive Houses
and zero-energy buildings and climate protec-
tion concepts in urban design
since 2009 lecturer at Technische Universität
München (Master Course ClimaDesign) and at
the University of Applied Sciences in Weihen-
stephan
2009 – 2011 participation in the research project
“INTENSYS” at the Leopold Franzen University in
Innsbruck; responsible for the subjects design
aspects of Passive Houses and zero-energy
buildings in urban design and residential
building
2010 doctorate at Technische Universität
München on energy efficient urban design with
Passive Houses – justification of reliable climate
protection standards in residential building
since 2011 joint practice with Alexander Reich-
mann (www.vraie.de) with a focus on climate
and resource protection concepts in architecture
and urban design, Passive Houses and plus-
energy buildings, energy efficiency refurbish-
ments, projects for building co-operatives and
timber construction methods
Author of numerous publications for Passive
House conferences in the protocol volumes of
the Research Group for Cost-effective Passive
Houses No. 19, 21 and 43 and other conferenc-
es. Publications in the architect journals DETAIL
Green and greenbuilding
Book publications:
Leitfaden zum Geschosswohnungsbau mit
Niedrigenergiestandard (with Stefan Heuss,
John Höpfner, Christoph Jensen, Ulrich Jung,
Andreas Lackenbauer and Wolfgang Nowak).
Munich 1999
BKI Konstruktionsatlas K 3 – Energiesparende
Baudetails mit Baupreisen. Stuttgart 2011
Energieeffizienter Städtebau mit Passivhäusern –
Begründung belastbarer Klimaschutzstandards
im Wohnungsbau. Göttingen 2011
• Authors
• Literature
• Links
• Illustration index
• Subject index
• Reference projects
Literature
General information on Passive Houses
Feist, Wolfgang: Passivhäuser in Mitteleuropa,
dissertation, Kassel 1992
Feist, Wolfgang (ed.): EnerPHit Planerhandbuch.
Darmstadt 2012
Gonzalo, Roberto; Habermann, Karl: Energieeffiziente
Architektur: Grundlagen für Planung und Konstruk-
tion. Basel 2005
Kah, Oliver et al.: Bewertung energetischer Anforder-
ungen im Lichte steigender Energiepreise für die
EnEV und die KfW-Förderung, BBSR online publica-
tion (www.bbsr.bund.de), No. 18/2008. Berlin 2008
Koschenz, Markus; Pfeiffer, Andreas: Potenzial
Wohngebäude. Zurich 2005
Oehler, Stefan: Große Passivhäuser. Stuttgart 2004
Austrian Institute for Building and Ecology (pub.):
Passivhaus-Bauteilkatalog Ökologisch bewertete
Konstruktionen. Vienna (1999) 2013
Ragonesi, Marco et al.: Minergie-P. Das Haus der
2000-Watt-Gesellschaft. Zurich 2010
Ralph, Johannes (pub.): Entwerfen. Hamburg 2009
Ronner, Heinz et al.: Baustruktur: Baukonstruktion im
Kontext des architektonischen Entwerfens. Basel /
Berlin /Boston 1995
Sommer, Adolf: Passivhäuser. Cologne 2008
Vallentin, Rainer: Energieeffizienter Städtebau mit
Passivhäusern – Begründung belastbarer Klima-
schutzstandards im Wohnungsbau. Göttingen 2011
Voss, Karsten; Musall, Eike: Nullenergiegebäude.
Munich 2011
Protocol volumes of the Research Group for
Cost-effective Passive Houses (only available in
German; purchase at www.passiv.de)
No. 2 Thermal insulation, thermal bridges,
airtightness
No. 4 Ventilation in Passive Houses
No. 7 Saving electricity in Passive Houses
No. 8 Material selection, ecology and room hygiene
No. 9 User behaviour
No. 13 Energy balances using the Passive House
Planning Package
No. 14 Passive House windows
No. 15 Passive Houses in summer
No. 16 Thermal bridge-free construction
No. 19 Town planning tools for the use of Passive
House buildings
No. 20 Passive House building services
No. 21 Reference projects
No. 22 Ventilation strategies for summer
No. 24 Use of Passive House technologies for the
refurbishment of existing building stock
No. 25 Temperature differences in dwelling units
No. 26 New Passive House technologies with heat
pumps
No. 28 Heat transfer and heat loss in Passive Houses
No. 30 Ventilation in refurbishment projects
No. 32 Factor 4 also for sensitive buildings
No. 33 Passive House schools

No. 35 Thermal bridges and structural planning –
the limits of thermal bridge-free construction
No. 37 Improvement strategies for window construc-
tions and solar apertures
No. 39 Step-by-step refurbishment using Passive
House components
No. 46 Sustainable energy supply with Passive
Houses
Passive House information (only available in
German, purchase at www.passiv.de)
PHI-1997/1 Primary energy and CO2 balances of
Passive Houses with different building services
concepts
PHI-1999/2 Heat load design in low-energy and
Passive House buildings
PHI-1999/5 Thermal bridge-free construction
PHI-1999/6 Airtight construction of Passive Houses –
planning tools
PHI-1999/7 Air duct design in Passive Houses –
guidelines and experience
PHI-2001/9 CEPHEUS: Scientific support and
assessment – final report
Passive House Planning Package (PHPP), 8th edition,
Darmstadt 2013
Preliminary Passive House Planning Package (PHVP),
Darmstadt 2002
Basics
ASHRAE 55-2010: Thermal Environmental Conditions
for Human Occupancy. Atlanta 2010
Fanger, Ole: Thermal Comfort. New York 1970
Feist, Wolfgang: Passivhäuser in Mitteleuropa,
dissertation, Kassel 1992
Meinshausen, Malte: Emission & Concentration Impli-
cations of Long-Term Climate Targets, dissertation,
Zurich 2006
Meyer, Aubrey: Contraction and Convergence,
The Global Solution to Climate Change, London
2000
Schulze-Darup, Burkhard: Bauökologie, Wiesbaden /
Berlin 1996
Sterner, Michael et al.: Energiewirtschaftliche und
ökologische Bewertung eines Windgasangebots,
Onlinepublikation, IWES/Greenpeace, Hamburg
2011
Twarowksi, Mieczyslaw: Sonne und Architektur,
Munich 1962
Vallentin, Rainer: Energieeffizienter Städtebau mit
Passivhäusern, Göttingen 2011
Vallentin, Rainer: Nachhaltige Energieversorgung:
Lösungsansätze für den Sektor der privaten Haus-
halte in Deutschland bis 2050. In: Protocol Volume
of the Research Group for Cost-effective Passive
Houses No. 46, Darmstadt 2012, p. 9 – 98.
German Advisory Council on Global Change (WBGU):
Welt im Wandel – Gesellschaftsvertrag für eine
Große Transformation, Berlin 2011
German Advisory Council on Global Change (WBGU):
Welt im Wandel – Zukunftfähige Bioenergie und
nachhaltige Landnutzung, Berlin 2009
Zürcher, Christoph; Frank, Thomas: Bauphysik –
Bau & Energie, Zurich 2010
Passive House planning
Feist, Wolfgang: Bauen im Passivhausstandard und
Wärmeschutz. In: Hestermann, Ulf; Rongen, Ludwig
(pub.): Frick/Knöll Baukonstruktionslehre 1. Wies-
baden 2010, p. 671– 681 and p. 728 – 799
Feist, Wolfgang: Energiekonzepte – Das Passivhaus
im Vergleich. In: Conference Proceedings: 17th
International Passive House Conference, Frankfurt
am Main 2013, pp. 611ff.
Feist, Wolfgang et al.: Passive House Planning Pack-
age PHPP, Version 8, Darmstadt 2013
Feist, Wolfgang (pub.): EnerPHit design manual,
Darmstadt 2012
Krick, Benjamin: Nearly Zero Energy Building – Das
Passivhaus gibt eine Antwort. In: Conference Pro-
ceedings: 17th International Passive House Confer-
ence, Frankfurt 2013, pp. 521ff.
Schnieders, Jürgen: CEPHEUS – Wissenschaftliche
Begleitung und Auswertung, project information
no. 22. Darmstadt 2001
Swiss Engineer and Architects Association (pub.):
SIA Effizienzpfad Energie. Zurich 2006
Voss, Karsten; Musall, Elke: Nullenergiegebäude.
Munich 2011
Design and planning principles
Feist, Wolfgang: Passivhäuser in Mitteleuropa, disser-
tation, Kassel 1992
Feist, Wolfgang (pub.): Bauvorbereitendes Forschun-
gsprojekt Passivhaus Darmstadt-Kranichstein,
Darmstadt 1992
Friedell, Egon: Kulturgeschichte der Neuzeit, Vol. 1.
Munich 1986
Feist, Wolfgang et al.: Preliminary Passive House
Planning Package (PHVP), Darmstadt 2002
Passive House Institute (pub.): Protocol volume of the
Research Group for Cost-effective Passive Houses,
No. 16 Thermal bridges, Darmstadt 2000
Passive House Institute (pub.): Protocol volume of the
Research Group for Cost-effective Passive Houses
No. 19 Town planning tools for Passive Houses,
Darmstadt 2000
Vallentin, Rainer: Energieeffizienter Städtebau mit
Passivhäusern. Göttingen 2011
Urban design
Goretzki, Peter: GOSOL (urban planning and energy
efficiency simulation program), for further informa-
tion see www.gosol.de
Vallentin, Rainer: Passivhäuser – Impulse zur Weiter-
entwicklung städtebaulicher Themen. Conference
Proceedings: 2nd International Passive House
Conference 27 to 28 Feb. 1998 in Düsseldorf,
p. 207– 232
Vallentin, Rainer: Städtebauliche Spielräume und
Grenzen beim Entwurf von Passivhäusern. Confer-
ence Proceedings: 5th International Passive House
Conference 16 to 18 Feb. 2001 in Böblingen.
p. 29 – 42
Vallentin, Rainer: Energieeffizienter Städtebau mit
Passivhäusern – Begründung belastbarer Kli-
maschutzstandards im Wohnungsbau, dissertation
at TU München. Göttingen 2011
Vallentin, Rainer: Nachhaltige Energieversorgung:
Lösungsansätze für den Sektor der privaten Haus-
halte in Deutschland bis 2050. In: Protocol volume
of the Research Group for Cost-effective Passive
Houses No. 46, Darmstadt 2012, p. 9 – 98
Twarowski, Mieczyslaw: Sonne und Architektur.
Munich 1962
Non-residential buildings
Bavarian State Office for Environment (pub.): Büro-
gebäude – Klima schützen – viel sparen mit weniger
Strom, Munich, January 2004
Bavarian State Office for Environment (pub): Effiziente
Energienutzung in Bürogebäuden – Planungsleit-
faden, Munich, July 2008
Feist, Wolfgang (pub.): Protocol volume of the
Research Group for Cost-effective Passive
Houses No. 41: Summer behaviour of non-residen-
tial buildings constructed according to Passive
House standard; project experience and new
findings, Passive House Institute, Darmstadt 2012
Hausladen, Gerdhard et al.: ClimaDesign.
Munich 2005
Kah, Oliver et al.: Leitfaden für energieeffiziente
Bildungsgebäude, Passive House Institute,
Darmstadt 2010
Müller, Helmut; Schuster, Heide: Tageslichtnutzung.
In: Solares Bauen, Edition DETAIL, Munich / Basel
2003
Schittich, Christian (ed.): Solares Bauen, Edition
DETAIL. Munich/Basel 2008
Schulitz, Helmut: form follows performance.
Basel 2010
Ulrike Brandi Licht: Tageslicht Kunstlicht. DETAIL
Praxis. Munich 2005
Voss, Karsten et al.: Bürogebäude mit Zukunft.
FIZ Karlsruhe 2007
Literature
Refurbishment
German Federal Chamber of Architects (BAK) (pub.):
Energiegerechtes Bauen und Modernisieren.
Basel 1996
Feist, Wolfgang, Passive House Institute, (pub.):
Protocol volume of the Research Group for Cost-
effective Passive Houses:
No. 24: Application of Passive House technologies
in refurbishments of existing building stock, 2003
No. 32: Factor 4 also for sensitive buildings: Passive
House components + interior insulation, 2005
No. 39: Step-by-step refurbishment using Passive
House components
No. 48: Use of Passive House technologies for the
refurbishment of non-residential buildings, 2013
Feist, Wolfgang (pub.): EnerPHit Planerhandbuch.
Darmstadt 2012
Gonzalo, Roberto: Energieeffiziente Sanierung:
Prinzipien – Aufgaben – Möglichkeiten. In: DETAIL
11/2006, p. 1224 – 1230
Gonzalo, Roberto: Nachhaltige Sanierung von Schul-
bauten. In: DETAIL 09/2009, p. 858 – 866
Giebeler, Georg et al.: Atlas Sanierung. Edition
DETAIL, Munich 2008
Richarz, Clemens; Schulz, Christina: Energetische
Sanierung, Munich 2011
Schulze Darup, Burkhard: Umweltverträgliches Bauen
und gesundes Wohnen – Bestand. Bavarian Minis-
try of the Interior (pub.). Munich 2004
Schulze Darup, Burkhard (pub.): Energetische
Gebäudesanierung mit Faktor 10. Osnabrück 2010
Wüstenrot Stiftung (pub.): Energieeffizienz von
Gebäuden. Stuttgart 2006
Components
Borsch-Laaks, Robert: Tauwasserschutz von Flach-
dächern aus Holz. In: DETAIL 1-2/2012, pp. 76ff.
Ronner, Heinz, et al.: Baustruktur: Baukonstruktion im
Kontext des architektonischen Entwerfens. Basel /
Berlin/Boston 1995
Vallentin, Rainer et al.; Building Cost Information
Centre (BKI) (pub.): BKI Konstruktionsatlas K3 –
Energiesparende Baudetails mit Baupreisen.
Stuttgart 2011
Thermal bridge catalogues
independent of products (selection)
Swiss Federal Office for Energy (BFE) (pub.): Thermal
bridge catalogue, Bern 2002 (www.bfe.admin.ch)
Minergie Verein (pub.): Thermal bridge catalogue for
Minergie-P buildings (www.minergie.ch)
Energieinstitut Vorarlberg (pub.): Thermal bridge
catalogue and window placement, Dornbirn 2012,
online publication (www.energieinstitut.at)
Passivhaus Kreis (pub.): Online Passive House ther-
mal bridge catalogue (www.passivhauskreis.de)
for specific products (selection)
Finnforest/Merk (Kerto) (www.metsawood.de)
Heidelberger Kalksandstein/Wiegand Fensterbau
(www.heidelberger-kalksandstein.de)
Kalksandstein (www.ks-orginal.de)
Leipfinger Bader (www.unipor.de)
Pavatex (www.pavatex.de)
Wienerberger (www.wienerberger.at)
Electricity efficiency
Niedrigenergieinstitut Detmold (pub.): Besonders
stromsparende Haushaltsgeräte 2012/13. Detmold
2013, online publication (www.nei-dt.de)
147
Appendix

Links
German language websites lantis, a network of several Swiss universities and www.passivehouseaustralia.org
www.2000watt.ch research institutes Australian Passive House Organisation (Australia)
Information for the planning of buildings and urban www.passipedia.de www.passivehouse-igua.com
quarters according to the 2000-Watt Society Passive House encylopedia; reference material on Passive House-IGUA (Ukraine)
guidelines for communities, companies and issues related to Passive Houses www.passivehouse-japan.org
private clients www.passiv.de Passive House Japan (Japan)
www.bak.de Website of the Passive House Institute www.passivhaus.org.uk
Information published by the German Federal www.passivhaus-info.de Building Research Establishment
Chamber of Architects (BAK) on energy and envi- All about Passive Houses: events, publications, (Great Britain)
ronmental issues general information www.passivhaus.pt
www.baunetzwissen.de/standardartikel/Nachhaltig- www.passivhausprojekte.de/projekte.php Associação Passivhaus Portugal (Portugal)
Bauen-Bauteilnetz-Deutschland_3081855.html Database with Passive House projects www.passivhaustrust.org.uk
General information on sustainable and energy- www.solarserver.de Passivhaus Trust (Great Britain)
efficient building practices and products. Sched- Internet forum on subjects surrounding the use of www.passzivhaznap.info
ule of events and links to the most important solar energy National Organisation of Passive House Builders/
sources www.umweltbundesamt.de PAOSZ (Hungary)
www.bine.info/hauptnavigation/publikationen/ Information published by the Federal Environmental www.passivhus.dk
projektinfos Agency (UBA) with regard to environment-related Passivhus.dk (Denmark)
Practical results in the field of energy research subjects www.passivhuscentrum.se
www.bmwi.de/DE/Themen/energie.html www.zae-bayern.de Passivhus Centrum Västra Götaland (Sweden)
Information published by the Federal Ministry for Website of the Bavarian Centre for Applied Energy www.passivhusdagarna.se
Economic Affairs and Energy (BMWi) on energy- Research (ZAE) Passivhusdagarna (Sweden)
related issues www.pasyvuspastatai.lt/mokymai
www.dena.de Nacionalinė pasyvaus namo asociacija (Lithuania)
Website of the German Energy Agency (dena) International information platforms and interest www.phai.ie
www.dgs-solar.org groups with regard to Passive Houses and com- Passive House Association of Ireland (Ireland)
Website of the German Society for Solar Energy parable energy standards www.pibp.pl
(DGS) www.passivehouse-international.org Polski Instytut Budownictwa Pasywnego (Poland)
www.energieinstitut.at Website of the International Passive House Associa- www.plataforma-pep.org
Website of the Energy Institute Vorarlberg tion (international) with numerous links to national Plataforma Edificación Passivhaus (Spain)
www.energiemanagement.stadt-frankfurt.de interest groups www.phinz.org.nz
City of Frankfurt am Main website on energy- www.aphnetwork.org Passive House Institute New Zealand (New
related issues including information on Passive American Passive House Network (USA) Zealand)
Houses www.asociatiacasapasiva.ro www.sepev.org
www.energielinks.de Asociatia Casa Pasiva (Rumania) Sıfır Enerji ve Pasif Ev Derneği (Turkey)
Collection of links for energy-related information www.breireland.ie www.tbz.bz
www.energiesparhaus.at/gebaeudehuelle/passiv BRE Ireland (Ireland) Centro di Fisica Edile (Italy)
haus/index.htm www.domy-pasywne.pl www.zephir.ph
Independent forum for energy-efficient building Dom Pasywny (Poland) Zero Energy and Passive House Institute of
www.enev-online.de www.eipak.org Research (Italy)
Information on energy saving orders and certifi- Greek Passive House Institute (Greece)
cates for buildings www.iepd.sk
www.enob.info/de Inštitút pre energeticky pasívne domy (Slovakia)
www.igpassivhaus.at
Information on research projects for energy-
Austrian Passive House Interest Group (Austria)
improved buildings sponsored by the Federal
www.igpassivhaus.ch
Ministry for Finance and Technology
Swiss Passive House Interest Group (Switzerland)
www.eza-allgaeu.de
www.igpassivhaus.it
Website of the Energy and Environment Centre
South Tyrolean Passive House Interest Group (Italy)
Allgäu
www.klimahausagentur.it
www.gre-online.de
KlimaHaus Ageny (Italy)
Website of the German Society for Rational Energy
www.lamaisonpassive.fr
Use (GRE)
La Maison Passive France (France)
www.hausderzukunft.at
www.maisonpassive.be
Passive House projects including various
Plateforme Maison Passive (Belgium)
approaches to the use of ecological building www.minergie.ch
materials and renewable resources in the con- Minergie Association (Switzerland)
struction industry www.minergie.fr
www.ibp.fraunhofer.de Minergie France (France)
Website of the Fraunhofer Institute for Building www.pasivnidomy.cz
Physics Centrum pasivniho domu (Czech Republic)
www.igpassivhaus.at www.passiefbouwen.nl
Website of the Passive House Interest Group, an Passief Bouwen (Netherlands)
independent interest group aiming at the wider www.passiefhuis.nl
distribution of the Passive House standard in PH Holland Stichting (Netherlands)
Austria www.passiefhuisplatform.be
www.ise.fraunhofer.de Passiefhuis-Platform (Belgium)
Website of the Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy www.passiivmajaliit.ee
Systems Eesti Passiivmajaliit (Estland)
www.iwu.de www.passiv.de
Website of the Institute for Living and Environment Passivhaus Institut (Germany)
(IWU) with information on energy saving building www.passiv-rus.ru
methods Passive House Institute Russia (Russia)
www.komfortlüftung.at www.passive.bg
Independent website with information on con- Bulgarian Interest Group Passive House (Bulgaria)
trolled ventilation www.passivehouse.ca
www.minergie.ch Canadian Passive House Institute (Canada)
All about the Minergie standard: events, publica- www.passivehouse.lv
tions, general information, links Passive House Latvija (Lettland)
www.novatlantis.ch www.passivehouse.us
Information on the 2000-Watt Society of Novat- Passive House Institute (USA)

148

Illustration index
The authors and editors wish to extend their sincere
thanks to all those who helped realise this book by
making illustrations available, granting permission to
reproduce them and supplying information. Photos
without credits are from the architects’ own archives
or the archives of DETAIL. Despite intensive efforts, it
was not possible to identify the copyright owners of
all photos and illustrations. However, their rights re-
main unaffected, and we request them to contact us.
The numbers refer to the figures in the text.
Title René Riller, Schlanders, Italy
Introduction
1.1 Jean-Luc Valentin, Frankfurt am Main
Principles
2.1 Thomas Eicken, Mühltal, Germany
2.2 – 2.5 Rainer Vallentin, Munich, Germany
2.6 Wolfgang Nowak, Munich, Germany
2.7 – 2.10 Rainer Vallentin, Munich, Germany
2.11 Jakob Schoof, Munich, Germany
2.12 Damir Fabijanic, Zagreb, Hungary
2.13 Passivhaus Institut, Darmstadt, Germany
2.14 Ignacio Martinez, Navia Asturias, Spain
2.15 Architekturwerkstatt Vallentin, Dorfen,
Germany
2.16 Pol Viladoms, Barcelona, Spain
2.17 Bruno Klomfar, Vienna, Austria
2.18 – 2.21 Rainer Vallentin, Munich, Germany
2.22 Rudolf Architekten, Stuttgart, Germany
2.23 – 2.31 Rainer Vallentin, Munich, Germany
2.32 Rainer Sturm/pixelio
2.33 – 2.34 Jakob Schoof, Munich, Germany
2.35 – 2.36 Rainer Vallentin, Munich, Germany
2.37 Norbert Stärz, Pfungstadt, Germany
Passive House planning
3.1 – 3.6 Rainer Vallentin, Munich, Germany
3.7 Passive House Institute, Darmstadt, Germany
3.8 – 3.10 Rainer Vallentin, Munich, Germany
3.11– 3.12
Benjamin Krick/Passive House Institute,
Darmstadt, Germany
3.13 Simon Wright Photography Ltd., London,
England
3.14 Passive House Institute, Darmstadt, Germany
3.15 Jakob Schoof, Munich, Germany
3.16 Minergie-Verein, Bern, Switzerland
3.17 SIA Energy Efficiency Path (SIA D 216)
3.18 Rainer Vallentin, Munich, Germany
3.19 Minergie-Verein, Bern, Switzerland
3.20 Gaston Wicky, Zurich, Switzerland
Design principles
4.1 Rainer Vallentin, Munich, Germany
4.2 Lisa Rastl, Vienna, Austria
4.3 Rainer Vallentin, Munich, Germany
4.4 Rainer Vallentin, Munich, Germany (based on
a diagram completed by Peter Goretzki,
Stuttgart)
4.5 Rainer Vallentin, Munich, Germany
4.6 – 4.7 Jakob Schoof, Munich, Germany
4.8 – 4.12 Rainer Vallentin, Munich, Germany
4.13 grab architekten, Altendorf, Switzerland
4.14 Willi Kracher, Zurich, Switzerland
4.15 Bruno Klomfar, Vienna, Austria
4.16 Energieinstitut Vorarlberg, Dornbirn, Austria
4.17 a Fiberline A/S, Middelfart, Denmark
4.18 a Ignacio Martinez, Navia Asturias, Spain
4.19 a Rene Riller, I-Schlanders/Sto AG, Stühlingen,
Germany
4.20 a Jakob Schoof, Munich, Germany
4.20 b Passivhaus Institut, Innsbruck, Austria
4.20 c Rainer Vallentin, Munich, Germany
4.21 – 4.28 Rainer Vallentin, Munich, Germany
4.29 –4.30 Christoph Theurer, Paris, France
4.31– 4.35 Rainer Vallentin, Munich, Germany
4.36 Benjamin Krick, Passive House Institute,
Darmstadt, Germany
4.37 Treberspurg & Partner Architekten, Vienna,
Austria
4.38 Rainer Vallentin, Munich, Germany
4.39 Matthias Ehbinger, Basel, Switzerland
4.40 Jürgen Eheim, Brixen, Italy
Reference buildings - residential
5.1, 5.2, 5.7
Thomas Drexel, Friedberg, Germany
5.8 Architekturwerkstatt Vallentin, Dorfen,
Germany
5.13, 5.14, 5.19, 5.20
Christine Blaser, Bern, Switzerland
5.26 – 5.29 Christoph Theurer, Paris, France
5.34, 5.35 Rainer Vallentin, Munich, Germany
5.40, 5.41 huberlendorff, Zurich, Switzerland
5.45 Heiko Hellwig, Stuttgart, Germany
5.49 Frank Aussieker, Hannover, Germany
5.50, 5.54, 5.57
Anja Schlamann, Cologne/Leipzig, Germany
Urban design
6.1 – 6.11 Rainer Vallentin, Munich, Germany
6.12 Architekturbüro Vallentin + Reichmann,
Munich, Germany
6.13 a Rainer Vallentin, Munich, Germany
6.14 Johannes Brucker, Stuttgart, Germany
6.15 a – c Trojan + Trojan, Darmstadt, Germany
6.16 a – c Christof Lackner/Neue Heimat Tirol,
Innsbruck, Austria
6.16 d Günter Laznia, A-Bregenz/Sto AG, Stühlingen,
Germany
Non-residential buildings
7.1 G2R Gäde Rückner Rückner Architekten-
partnerschaft, Lüneburg, Germany
7.2 Institute for Living and Environment, Darm-
stadt, Germany, www.iwu.de/fileadmin/user_
upload/dateien/energie/werkzeuge/leg-
standardnutzung.xls
7.3 Roberto Gonzalo, Munich, Germany
7.4 after Neufert, Ernst; Kister, Johannes: Bauent-
wurfslehre. Wiesbaden 2005, p. 497. In:
Hausladen, Gerhard; Tichelmann, Karsten:
Ausbau Atlas. Munich 2009, p. 48
7.5 Roberto Gonzalo, Munich, Germany
7.6 Drexel und Weiss GmbH, Dornbirn, Austria
7.7 Richarz, Clemens; Schulz, Christina; Zeiler,
Friedemann. In: DETAIL Praxis: Energetische
Sanierung. p. 19
7.8 after Zimmermann, Mark: Handbuch der
passiven Kühlung. Dübendorf 1999, p. 17
7.9 Jakob Schoof, Munich, Germany
7.10 – 7.11 Roberto Gonzalo, Munich, Germany
7.12 Angela Lamprecht/Hermann Kaufmann ZT
GmbH, Schwarzach, Austria
7.13 Jakob Schoof, Munich, Germany
7.14 a Hans-Jürgen Landes, Dortmund, Germany
7.15 a Laila Meyrick / Velour, Oslo, Norway
Reference buildings - non-residential
8.2, 8.7, 8.9, 8.13
Nikolaus Schletterer, Innsbruck, Austria
8.16, 8.17, 8.21, 8.22, 8.24
Bruno Klomfar, Vienna, Austria
8.28 Walter Scheibenpflug, Bischofshofen, Austria
8.29, 8.31, 8.34, 8.35
Rupert Steiner, Vienna, Austria
8.40, 8.41, 8.45, 8.46, 8.51
Barbara Bühler, Vaduz, Liechtenstein
8.50 Jakob Schoof, Munich
Refurbishment
9.1 from Hegger, Manfred et al.: Energie Atlas.
Munich 2007, p. 86
9.2 in-house illustration after Schulze Darup, Bur-
khard. Nürnberg 2002. In: Hegger, Manfred
et al.: Energie Atlas. Munich 2007, p. 63
9.3 b Jakob Schoof, Munich, Germany
9.4 b Robert Fessler, Lustenau, Austria
9.5 Roberto Gonzalo, Munich, Germany
Illustration index
9.6 a Roberto Gonzalo, Munich, Germany
9.6 b Ingenieurbüro Suess-Staller-Schmitt,
Gräfelfing, Germany
9.6 c Roberto Gonzalo, Munich, Germany
9.7a Tomas Riehle/artur
9.8 Roberto Gonzalo, Munich, Germany
9.9 in-house illustration after Passive House
Institute (pub.): EnerPHit design manual,
Darmstadt 2012, p. 279
9.10 René Riller, I-Schlanders/Sto AG, Stühlingen,
Germany
Reference projects - refurbishments
10.2, 10.7 – 10.9, 10.11
kämpfen für architektur ag/René Rötheli,
Baden, Switzerland
10.15, 10.19 –10.21, 10.25
Markus Löffelhardt, Berlin, Germany
10.31, 10.32, 10.42
Roberto Gonzalo, Munich, Germany
10.30 Robert Stark, Dachau, Germany
10.45, 10.50, 10.51, 10.56
Walter Luttenberger, Gratkorn, Austria
10.49. 10.52 PAUAT Architekten, Wels, Austria
10.59, 10.64 –10.66
Julie Willem, Brussels, Belgium
10.69 Roberto Gonzalo, Munich, Germany
Components
11.1 Jakob Schoof, Munich, Germany
11.2 Adolf Bereuter, Lauterach, Austria
11.3 IBUS Architekten, Bremen/Berlin, Germany
11.4 –11.6 Rainer Vallentin, Munich, Germany
11.7 Architekturbüro Vallentin + Reichmann,
Munich , Germany
11.8 Jürgen Eheim, Brixen, Italy
11.9 huberlendorff, Zurich, Switzerland
11.10 Jörg Hempel, Aachen, Germany
11.11 – 11.12 Rainer Vallentin, Munich, Germany
11.13 a, b, i, j Variotec GmbH & Co. KG, Neumarkt,
Germany
11.13 d Optiwin GmbH, Ebbs, Austria
11.13 e Schüco International KG, Bielefeld,
Germany
11.13 f Pazen GmbH, Zeltingen-Rachtig, Germany
11.13 g Xframe A/S, Skive, Denmark
11.13 h Raico Bautechnik GmbH, Pfaffenhausen,
Germany
11.14 Sto AG, Stühlingen, Germany
11.15 Schöck Bauelemente GmbH, Baden-Baden,
Germany
11.16 Moll bauökologische Produkte GmbH,
Schwetzingen, Germany
11.17 –11.20 Rainer Vallentin, Munich, Germany
Building services
12.1 in-house illustration after Ehrenfried, Heinz:
Kontrollierte Wohnungslüftung. Berlin 2000
12.2 in-house illustration after Research Group for
Sustainable Building in Munich: Leitfaden
zum Geschosswohnungsbau mit Niedrigen-
ergiestandard. Landeshauptstadt München
(pub.), Munich 1999
12.3 – 12.4 Wolfgang Nowak, Munich, Germany
12.5 DIN 1946-6: Ventilation and air conditioning -
Part 6: Ventilation of residential buildings,
Berlin 2009
12.6 – 12.17 Wolfgang Nowak, Munich, Germany
12.18 Hausladen, Gerhard et al.: Einführung in die
Bauklimatik. Berlin 2003
12.19 – 12.20 Wolfgang Nowak, Munich, Germany
12.22 Research Group for Sustainable Building in
Munich, City of Munich (pub.): Leitfaden zum
Geschosswohnungsbau mit Niedrigenergie-
standard. Munich 1999
12.23 in-house illustration after Feist, Wolfgang
(pub.): Research Group for Cost-effective
Passive Houses, Protocol Volume No. 20,
Darmstadt 2000, p. 171
12.25 after Richarz, Clemens; Schulz, Christina:
Energetische Sanierung, Munich 2011, p. 90
149
Appendix

Subject index

12.26 Drexel und Weiss GmbH, Dornbirn, Austria 2000-Watt Society 31 glare 78, 92, 105
12.27 Viessmann Werke GmbH, Allendorf (Eder) glazing units 38, 129
12.28 Wodtke GmbH, Tübingen, Germany adaptive model 13 gradual refurbishment 103
12.29 photolook/Fotolia adiabatic cooling 143 ground cooling 143
12.30, 12.31 Wolfgang Nowak, Munich, Germany aerogel insulation 109, 113 ground source heat pump 141
12.32 Feist, Wolfgang (pub.): Research Group for
air change rate 10, 134 groundwater cooling 143
Cost-effective Passive Houses, Protocol
airtight materials 126, 131
Volume No. 38, Darmstadt 2008, p. 74
12.33 Rehau AG, Rehau, Germany airtightness concept 37 heating 139
12.34 Staatliches Baumanagement Osnabrück- airtight systems 131 heating systems 9
Emsland air volumes 134 heat load 22
12.35, 12.36 Menerga GmbH, Mülheim an der Ruhr, air zones 42 heat loss 77, 103
Germany artificial light 79, 121 heat pumps 140
heat recovery 9
Outlook biomass 141 heat storage 79
13.1 IBUS Architekten, Bremen/Berlin, Germany blower-door test 24 heat transfer 139
box-type window 96
building conservation 101 improvement strategies 32
Reference projects building culture 19 influence of orientation 68
building envelope 77, 104, 114, 118, 126 influence of overshadowing 68
Residential buildings building services 76, 101, 134 insulation 104
Single-family home in Dorfen, Germany 48 building typologies 77, 80 insulation concept 37
Architekturwerkstatt Vallentin, Dorfen, Germany insulation materials 126
Multi-family home in Bern, Switzerland 52 cascade ventilation system 42 interior insulation 101, 104, 125, 128
Halle 58 Architekten, Bern, Switzerland cellulose insulation 115 internal heat sources 78f., 103, 105
Town terrace houses in Munich, Germany 56 central ventilation unit 91, 109, 113, 125
Rainer Vallentin, Munich, Germany certification of Passive House buildings 28 junction rule 37
Courtyard housing in Winterthur, Switzerland 60
certified building components 28
Dietrich Schwarz Architekten, Zurich, Switzerland
certified Passive House standard 28 lighting 78, 117
Residential and care home in Hannover, Germany 64
Pfitzner Moorkens Architekten, Hannover, certified technical components 28 loft conversion 106
Germany climate composition 13
climate protection 18 main entrance doors 131
Non-residential buildings climate protection standards 20 mechanical ventilation system 9, 134
School extension in Marburg, Germany 84 CO2 content 77 Minergie-P standard 30
Hess / Talhof / Kusmierz Architekten und CO2 emissions 18 mixed construction 132
Stadtplaner, Munich, Germany CO2 sensors 77, 81, 117 model urban design 72
University extension in Kuchl, Austria 88 cold air drop 102, 139
Dietrich  Untertrifaller Architekten,
compact building 70 natural lighting 78, 105
Bregenz, Austria
compact heat pump unit 141 natural ventilation 125
Office building in Krems, Austria 92
ARGE NÖHK – AllesWirdGut Architektur/ cooling 142 nearly-zero energy building 31
feld72 architekten/Fritsch, Chiari & Partner, cooling demand 22 non-residential building 14, 76
Vienna, Austria cooling unit 9
National Archives in Vaduz, Liechtenstein 96 cost-efficient Passive House buildings 17 orientation 38
Kaundbe Architekten, Vaduz, Liechtenstein coupling principle 19 overflow valve 95, 99
cross ventilation 79 overheating 78, 105
Passive House refurbishments overshadowing 39, 78
Refurbishment of multi-unit dwelling in 106 daylight 78, 95, 105, 121
Zurich, Switzerland
decentralised ventilation system 105, 117, 121 partial refurbishment 102
Beat Kämpfen/Kämpfen für Architektur,
degree of compactness 34, 110 Passive House components 8, 15, 103
Zurich, Switzerland
Apartment block refurbishment in Freiburg, 110 density 122 Passive House criteria 22, 144
Germany design-based energy balance 44 Passive House Planning Package 24
Roland Rombach, Kirchzarten, Germany design issues 32 Passive House technologies 42
Parish community centre refurbishment in 114 design principles of Passive House buildings 34 PCM elements 79
Dachau, Germany design process 32, 46 penetration rule 37
Pollok + Gonzalo, Munich, Germany design tools 72 perimeter insulation 104, 115
School refurbishment in Schwanenstadt, Austria 118 planning stage 37
PAUAT Architekten, Wels, Austria element facade 130 plant room 42
Office building refurbishment in Forest, Belgium 122
EnerPHit standard 28 power efficiency 43
A2M, Brussels, Belgium
energy balance 77, 103 prevention rule 37
energy concept 144 principle of homogeneity 36
energy consumption 100 principle of thermal envelope 34
energy costs 144
energy efficiency 8, 144 quadruple insulation glazing 129
energy efficiency refurbishment 15
energy-efficient electrical installations 10 refurbishment 100
energy-related sustainability 18 refurbishability 102
energy turnaround 144 regional climate 46
exterior insulation 101
seasonal storage facilities 21
feasibility 16, 76, 101f., 145 semi-central 86
form factor 34 sequencing 132
framed glazing 130 SIA Energy Efficiency Path (SIA D 216) 31
frost protection 137 site inspection 37
solar building design in Passive Houses 38

150
 Subject index

solar cooling 143

solar heat gain 105
solar protection 78, 91, 95, 105, 121, 125, 130
solar shading devices 86
solar urban design 70
solid construction 132
space heat demand 22, 103
space saving urban design 70
statutory requirements 144
summer time 13
summer time ventilation 79, 81
supply air distribution 136
supply air heating system 139
surface area 77
surface area to volume ratio 88, 104
surface temperature 103
sustainability concept 145

technical installations 76, 101, 134

thermal bridges 9, 37, 103f., 109, 113, 125
thermal capacity 79
thermal comfort 12, 100, 102, 144
thermal conductivity 79
thermal insulation 8, 77, 115
thermal insulation composite system 6, 113, 125
thermal mass 79
thermal protection standard 102
thermal solar collectors 142
transfer zone 86
transmission heat loss 103f.
timber construction 132

urban climate 46
urban densification 100
urban design 68
use of solar energy 77
user behaviour 76

vacuum insulation 109, 121

ventilation 77, 86, 104, 134

wellbeing 12
window placement 40
windows 130
window ventilation 10
wind-tightness 104
wind-tightness concept 37
winter time 13

zero energy standard 31

151