HA THI NGOC YEN

DAO TUAN ANH

LINEAR ALGEBRA
WORKSHEETS

HA NOI, 2022
1. Sets and mappings
1.1. Summary on Sets theory
1.1.1. Sets description
• Roster (Listing): A “ ta, b, c, d, . . . , x, y, zu.
• Set - builder: B “ tpx, yq P R2 | x2 ` y2 “ 1u.
• Venn diagram

1.1.2. Sets relation

• Subset and Superset: A Ă B ô @x P A, x P B ô B Ą A.
• Equal sets: A “ B ô A Ă B and B Ă A.

1.1.3. Sets operations

• Union: A Y B “ tx | x P A or x P Bu.
• Intersection: A X B “ tx | x P A and x P Bu.
• Subtraction (relative complement): AzB “ tx | x P A and x < Bu.
• Absolute complement: A Ă B, C B pAq “ BzA “ tx | x P B and x < Au.
If B “ X, the universal set, then we denote C X pAq “ A1 .
• Cartesian product: A ˆ B “ tpx, yq | x P A and y P Bu.

Proposition 1.1. The properties of sets operations:

• Commutative law:

A Y B “ B Y A, A X B “ B X A.

• Associative law:

A Y pB Y Cq “ pA Y Bq Y C, A X pB X Cq “ pA X Bq X C

• Distributive law:

A X pB Y Cq “ pA X BqpA X Cq, A Y pB X Cq “ pA Y Bq X pA Y Cq

• Subtraction:
AzB “ A X C X pBq “ A X B1

3
1.2. Summary on mappings theory
1.2.1. Mappings
• Mappings: An ordered triple pX, Y, f q is called a mapping if X, Y are
non-empty sets and f assigns each x P X to one and only one y P Y.

• Domains and Codomains (Range): Let pX, Y, f q be a mapping. X is called

the domain of the mapping f. Y is called the codomain (or the range) of the
mapping f.

• Images and Preimages (inverse image):

A Ă X, f pAq “ t f pxq | x P Au is called the image of A under f.
B Ă Y, f ´1 pBq “ tx P X | f pxq P Bu is called the preimage (or reverse
image) of B under f.

1.2.2. Composition
• Equal mappings: pX, Y, f q and pX 1 , Y 1 , gq are said to be equal if X “
X 1 , Y “ Y 1 and f pxq “ gpxq for every x P X.

• Injection: A mapping pX, Y, f q is said to be injective if for all x1 , x2 in

X, f px1 q , f px2 q.

• Surjection: A mapping pX, Y, f q is said to be surjective if for all y P Y

There is at least one x P X such that f pxq “ y.

• Bijection: A mapping pX, Y, f q is said to be surjective if it is injective and

surjective.
f g
• Composition: g f : X Ñ
Ý Y Ñ
Ý Z, pg f qpxq “ gp f pxqq.

• Inverse mapping: if pX, Y, f q is a bijective mapping then there is a mapping

pY, X, f ´1 q such that

g f “ idX and f g “ idY .

pY, X, f ´1 q is called the inverse mapping of pX, Y, f q.

Proposition 1.2. a. pX, Y, f q is injective if and only if the equation f pxq “ y

has no more than one solution in X for every y P Y.

b. pX, Y, f q is injective if and only if f px1 q “ f px2 q implies x1 “ x2 .

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 c. pX, Y, f q is surjective if and only if the equation f pxq “ y has at least one
solution in X for every y P Y.

d. pX, Y, f q is surjective if and only if f pXq “ Y.

e. pX, Y, f q is bijective if and only if the equation f pxq “ y has exactly one
solution in X for every y P Y.

1.3. Exercises
Ex 1.1.
a) Let A “ r3, 6q, B “ p1, 5q and C “ r2, 4s. Find pA X BqzC.
b) Let A “ tx P R : x2 ´ 4x ` 3 ď 0u, B “ tx P R : |x ´ 1| ď 1u and
C “ tx P R : x2 ´ 6x ` 5 ě 0u. Determine pA Y Bq X C and pA X Bq Y C.

Ex 1.2. Let A, B be sets. What does the statement ”A is not a subset of B” mean?

Ex 1.3. For any sets A, B, C and D, let us verify the followings:

a) A X pBzCq “ pA X BqzpA X Cq e) pAzBqYpBzAq “ pAY BqzpAX Bq

b) A Y pBzAq “ A Y B f) pAzBqXpCzDq “ pAXCqzpBYDq

c) pAzBqzC “ AzpB Y Cq g) pA Y Bq ˆ C “ pA ˆ Cq Y pB ˆ Cq

d) AzpAzBq “ A X B h) pA X Bq ˆ C “ pA ˆ Cq X pB ˆ Cq

i) Is it true that pA Y Bq ˆ pC Y Dq “ pA ˆ Cq Y pB ˆ Dq. If not, give a

counterexample.

j) If pA X Cq Ă pA X Bq and pA Y Cq Ă pA Y Bq, then C Ă B.

Ex 1.4. Let A be the set of male tennis players, B be the set of female tennis
players, and C be the set of possible pairs of male and female athletes. Determine
the relationship between the sets A, B, and C. Find C if

A “ tTuan, Hung, David, Michaelu, B “ tHuong, Hanh, Mayau.

Ex 1.5. Representing the set A ˆ B in the coordinate system:

a) A “ r1, 2s, B “ r2, 5s.

b) A “ tpx, yq | x2 ` y2 ď 1u, B “ r´1, 2s.

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 c) A “ p´1, 1q, B “ tpx, yq | y “ x2 , x P r´2, 2su.
1 2x
Ex 1.6. Let f : Rzt0u Ñ R, f pxq “ and g : R Ñ R, gpxq “ be
x 1 ` x2
mappings.

a. Determine f ˝ g and g ˝ f.

b. Find the image gpRq Is g injective? surjective? (Answer the same question
for f.)

Ex 1.7. Let φ : R2 Ñ R2 be a mapping defined by φpx, yq “ px5 ` 7xey , y ´ x4 q

for all px, yq P R2 . Prove that φ is bijective.

Ex 1.8. Let f : X Ñ Y be a mapping. Prove that the following statements holds:

a) f pA Y Bq “ f pAq Y f pBq for any A Ă X, B Ă X.

b) f ´1 pA Y Bq “ f ´1 pAq Y f ´1 pBq for any A Ă Y, B Ă Y.

c) f ´1 pA X Bq “ f ´1 pAq X f ´1 pBq for any A Ă Y, B Ă Y.

d) f ´1 pAzBq “ f ´1 pAqz f ´1 pBq for any A Ă Y, B Ă Y.

` ˘
e) A Ă f ´1 f pAq for any A Ă X.
` ˘
f) f f ´1 pBq Ă B for any B Ă Y.

g) f pA X Bq Ă f pAq X f pBq for any A Ă X, B Ă X. Give an example to

indicate that the inverse direction is not correct.

Ex 1.9.
a) Let f : R Ñ R with f pxq “ x2 ` 4x ´ 5 and A “ r´3, 3s. Find f pAq and
f ´1 pAq.
b) Let f : R2 Ñ R2 with f px, yq “ p2x, 2yq and B “ tpx, yq P R2 : px ´ 4q2 ` y2 “
4u. Determine f pBq and f ´1 pBq.
c) Let f : R2 Ñ R2 with f px, yq “ px ` y, x ´ yq and C “ tpx, yq P R2 : x2 ` y2 “
9u. Determine f pCq and f ´1 pCq.

Ex 1.10. In the following mappings, which one is injective, surjective, bijective?

6
a) f : R Ñ R, f pxq “ ´2x ` 3 3x ` 1
e) f : Rzt1u Ñ Rzt3u, f pxq “
b) f : p´8, 0s Ñ r4, 8q, x´1
f) f : R Ñ R, f pxq “ 3x ´ 2|x|
f pxq “ x2 ` 4 1`x
c) f : p1, 8q Ñ p´1, 8q, g) f : p´1, 1q Ñ R, f pxq “ ln
1´x
f pxq “ x2 ´ 2x 2x
d) f : r4, 9s Ñ r21, 96s, h) f : R Ñ R, f pxq “ 2
x `1
f pxq “ x2 ` 2x ´ 3 i) f : R2 Ñ R2 , f px, yq “ px2 ´ y, x ` yq

Ex 1.11.
1
a) Find g ˝ f where f : Rzt1u Ñ R, f pxq “ and g : R Ñ R,
x´1
2x
gpxq “ .
x2
`1
b) Determine f ˝ g and g ˝ f where f : R2 Ñ R2 , f px, yq “ px2 ´ y, x ` yq and
g : R2 Ñ R2 , gpx, yq “ px ` y, x ´ yq.

Ex 1.12. Let f : X Ñ Y and g : Y Ñ Z be two mappings for any sets X, Y and Z.

Prove that

a) If f and g are injective, then g ˝ f is injective.

b) If f and g are surjective, then g ˝ f is surjective.

c) If f and g are bijective, then g ˝ f is bijective.

d) If f is surjective and g ˝ f is injective, then g is injective.

e) If f is injective and g ˝ f is surjective, then g is surjective.

Ex 1.13. Let f : A Ñ B and g : C Ñ D be mappings. Consider the mapping

h : A ˆ C Ñ B ˆ D defined by hpa, cq “ p f paq, gpcqq for all pa, cq P A ˆ C.

a. Prove that f and g are both injective if and only if h is injective.

b. Prove that f and g are both surjective if and only if h is surjective.

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2. Algebraic structures and Complex numbers
2.1. Algebraic structures
2.1.1. Binary operation
• Definition: a mapping f : X ˆ X Ñ X, notation a ˚ b “ f pa, bq.
• Associative binary operation: pa ˚ bq ˚ c “ a ˚ pb ˚ cq @a, b, c P X
• Neutral element: e P X such that x ˚ e “ e ˚ x “ x @x P X.
• Inverse element: @x P X, Dx1 P X, x ˚ x1 “ x1 ˚ x “ e
• Comutative binary operation: a ˚ b “ b ˚ a @a, b P X.

2.1.2. Groups
• Group: Let G be a non empty set, ˚ be a binary operation on G such that ˚ is
associative, has neutral element and for every x P X, there exists an element
x1 P X : x ˚ x1 “ x1 ˚ x “ e. Then, pG, ˚q is called a group.
• Abelian group: Let pG, ˚q be a group, then if ˚ is commutative then (G,*) is
called an abelian group.

2.1.3. Rings
• Ring: Let R be a non empty set, an addition and a multiplication are binary
operations on R such that the following conditions are hold:
i. pR, `q is an abelian group.
ii. ˚ is associative.
iii. p`, ˚q is distributive

pa ` bq ˚ c “ a ˚ c ` b ˚ c @a, b, c P R,

c ˚ pa ` bq “ c ˚ a ` c ˚ b @a, b, c P R.
Then pR, `, ˚q is called a ring.
• If pR, `, ˚q is a ring and ˚ has a neutral element then the neutral element
is called the identity element 1R and R is said to be a ring within identity
element.
• If pR, `, ˚q is a ring and ˚ is commutative then R is said to be a commutative
ring.

8
2.1.4. Fields
If pF, `, ˚q is a commutative within an identity element and every nonzero
element has inverse then pF, `, ˚q is called a field.

2.2. Field of complex numbers

2.2.1. complex number ?
• Vector form: z “ pa, bq, |z| “ |pa, bq| “ a2 ` b2

• Canonical form: z “ a ` bi, Repzq “ a, Impzq “ b.

b
• Trigonometry form (Polar form): z “ rpcos φ ` i sin φq, r “ |z|, tan φ “ .
a
b
• Exponential form: z “ reiφ , r “ |z|, tan φ “ .
a
• Complex conjugate: z̄ “ a ´ bi, Repzq “ Repz̄q, Impzq “ ´Impz̄q.

2.3. Operation
• Addition/ subtraction:

pa ` biq ˘ pa1 ` b1 iq “ pa ˘ a1 q ` pb ˘ b1 qi

• Multiplication/division

pa ` biqpa1 ` b1 iq “ paa1 ´ bb1 q ` pab1 ` a1 bqi.

rpcos φ ` i sin φqr1 pcos φ1 ` i sin φ1 q “ rr1 pcospφ ` φ1 q ` i sinpφ ` φ1 qq

z “ rpcos φ ` i sin φq ùñ z´1 “ r´1 pcosp´φq ` i sinp´φq

1 .
z{z1 “ zz´1

• Power:

z “ rpcos φ ` i sin φq ùñ zn “ rn pcospnφq ` i sinpnφqq

• Roots:
φ k2π φ k2π
ˆ ˆ ˙ ˆ ˙˙
? ?
z “ rpcos φ`i sin φq ùñ z “ r cos
n n
` ` i sin ` ,
n n n n

k “ 1, n.

9
2.4. Exercises
Ex 2.1.
a) Let Z4 “ t0, 1, 2, 3u be endowed with the binary operator ˚, defined by

a ˚ b ” pa ` bq mod 4

for any a, b P Z4 . Determine if pZ4 , ˚q is a group or not?

b) Let G be the set of mappings t f1 , f2 , f3 , f4 , f5 , f6 u, where

f j : Rzt0, 1u Ñ Rzt0, 1u, j “ 1, 6

are given by
1 1
f1 pxq “ x, f2 pxq “ , f3 pxq “ 1 ´ ,
1´x x
1 x
f4 pxq “ , f5 pxq “ 1 ´ x, f6 pxq “ .
x x´1
Show that pG, ˝q is a group but not an abelian group.

Ex 2.2. Whether the following sets equipped with the ordinary addition and mul-
tiplication are rings/fields or not?
?
a) A is the set of odd integers. c) X “ ta ` b 2 : a, b P Zu.
?
b) B is the set of even integers. d) Y “ ta ` b 3 : a, b P Qu.

Ex 2.3. Suppose that G is the set of all bijective functions from Z to Z with multi-
plication defined by the composition, i.e. f g “ f ˝ g. Prove that pG, ˝q is a group
but not an abelian group.

Ex 2.4. Suppose that G is the set of all real functions defined on the interval
r0, 1s. Define an addition on G by p f ` gqptq “ f ptq ` gptq for all t P r0, 1s and all
f, g P G. Show that pG, `q is an abelian group.

Ex 2.5. Show that multiplication of a complex number by i corresponds to a coun-

terclockwise rotation of the corresponding vector through the angle π{2.

Ex 2.6. Find modulus of the following complex numbers.

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 a. ´0.2i b. 1.5 ` 2i c. z4 d. cos θ `i sin θ

z̄ 5 ` 7i z`1 p1 ` iq6
e. f. g. h.
z 7 ´ 5i z´1 i3 p1 ` 4iq2
Ex 2.7. Represent in polar form.

a. 2i, ´ 2i b. 1 ` i c. ´3 d. 6 ` 8i
? ?
1`i i 2 ´3 2 ´ 2i 2 ` 3i
e. f. g. ? h.
1´i 4 ` 4i 2 ` 2i{3 5 ` 4i
Ex 2.8. Find all values of the following roots and plot them in the complex plane.
? ? ? ?
8
a. i b. ´8i c. ´7 ´ 24i d. 1
? ? ? ?
e. 4 ´7 ` 24i f. 4 ´1 g. 5 ´1 h. 3 1 ` i

Ex 2.9. Solve the equations:

a. z2 ` z ` 1 ´ i “ 0.

b. z2 ´ p5 ` iqz ` 8 ` i “ 0.

c. z4 ´ 3p1 ` 2iqz2 ´ 8 ` 6i “ 0.

d. pz ´ iq18 ` p7 ´ 7iqpz ´ iq9 ´ 25i “ 0.

e. pz ´ iq7 “ pz ` iq7
ˆ ˙10 ˆ ˙5
z`2 z`2
f. ´ p3 ´ 7iq ´ 20 “ 0.
z´3 z´3
Ex 2.10. Prove that |Repzq| ď |z| and |Impzq| ď |z|.
Ex 2.11. Verify the triangle inequality for z1 “ 4 ` 5i, z2 “ ´2 ` 1.5i and prove
the triangle inequality.
Ex 2.12. Show that |z1 ` z2 |2 ` |z1 ´ z2 |2 “ 2p|z1 |2 ` |z2 |2 q. This is called the
Parallelogram equality. Can you see why?
Ex 2.13. Represent the following complex numbers in their canonical forms:

11
 ´ π π¯ p1 ´ iq21
a) z “ 3 cos ´ i sin d) z “ ?
12 12
p 3 ` iq13
? a8 ?
b) z “ p1 ` i 3q9 e) z “ 1 ´ i 3
d
´1 ` i
? ? f) z “ 10 ?
c) z “ p2 ` i 12q5 p 3 ´ iq11 1`i 3

Ex 2.14. Solve the following equations on C:

a) z2 ` z ` 1 “ 0. 1024
h) z7 “ .
z3
b) z2 ` 2iz ´ 5 “ 0.
256
c) iz2 ´ p1 ` 8iqz ` 7 ` 17i “ 0. i) z6 “ .
z2
d) z4 ´ 3iz2 ` 4 “ 0.
6 3
j) z5 “ 16z.
e) z ´ 7z ´ 8 “ 0.
f) z6 ´ p1 ` iq28 “ 0. k) z5 ` 9z “ 0.
`? ˘2022
g) z8 3`i “ 1 ´ i. l) z4 ´ 6z3 ` 17z2 ´ 24z ` 52 “ 0.
pz ` 1q9 ´ 1
Ex 2.15. Consider the equation “ 0.
z
a) Solve the above equation.

b) Calculate the modulus of obtained solutions.

8
ź kπ
c) Compute sin
k“1
9
2n 2n
ź kπ ź kπ
d˚ ) Generally, let us calculate sin and cos for any n P N˚ .
k“1
2n ` 1 k“1
2n ` 1

Ex 2.16. a) Let f be mapping from C Ñ C defined by f pzq “ iz2 ` p4 ´ iqz ´ 9i.

Find f ´1 p7q.
b) Assume that z1 and z2 are solutions of the equation z2 ´ z ` mi “ 0, in which
m P R. Determine m fulfilling the equality |z21 ´ z22 | “ 2022.

12
Ex 2.17. a) Prove that the equality |z1 ` z2 |2 ` |z1 ´ z2 |2 “ 2p|z1 |2 ` |z2 |2 q holds
for any z1 , z2 P C. ˇ ˇ
ˇ z1 ´ z2 ˇ
b) Let z1 , z2 P C with z1 , z2 and |z1 | “ 2. Compute ˇˇ ˇ.
4 ´ z1 z2 ˇ

13
3. Matrices
3.1. About Matrices
• Definition: A rectangular array of numbers enclosed in brackets.

• Notation:

– A “ rai j smˆn : m by n matrix

– ai j : an entry at the ith row, jth column
– m ˆ n: the size of the matrix, m is the number of rows, n is number of
columns.
– Matpm ˆ n, Kq or Mmˆn pKq: a set of all m by n matrices with entries
in the field K.

• Square matrix: A “ rai j snˆn .

• Row vector: A “ rai j s1ˆn .

• Column vector A “ rai j snˆ1 .

• Upper triangular matrix and lower triangular matrix:

» fi » fi
a11 a12 . . . a1n b11 0 ... 0
— 0 a22 . . . a2n ffi —b21 a22 ... 0 ffi
A “ — .. .. . . .. ffi and b “ — .. .. .. ..
— ffi — ffi
– . . . . – . . . .
ffi
fl fl
0 0 . . . ann bn1 an2 . . . bnn

• m ˆ n zero matrix: a matrix whose all entries are zero.

• Diagonal matrix: A “ diagpa1 , a2 , . . . , an q is a square matrix with all entries

are zeros except the diagonal entries.

• Identity matrix: I “ diagp1, 1, . . . , 1q.

• Symmetric matrix: A “ rai j sn , ai j “ a ji @i, j.

• Skew symmetric matrix: A “ rai j sn , ai j “ ´a ji @i, j.

14
3.2. Matrices operation
3.2.1. Addition
• Definition:

A “ rai j smˆn , B “ rbi j smˆn ùñ A ` B “ rai j ` bi j smˆn

• Property: pMmˆn pKq, `q is an abelian group.

3.2.2. Scalar Multiplication

• Definition:
A “ rai j smˆn , ùñ αA “ rαai j smˆn

• Property:

– Association: pαβqA “ αpβAq

– Distribution: pα ` βqA “ αA ` βA and αpA ` Bq “ αA ` αB.
– Commutation: αA “ Aα (convention)

3.2.3. Matrix multiplication

• row ˆ column: » fi
b1
n
‰ —b2 ffi
—
ffi ÿ
. . . an — .. ffi “
“
a1 a2 a jb j
– . fl j“1
bn

• Multiplication of Amˆn and Bnˆk :

n
ÿ
A “ rai j smˆn , B “ rbi j snˆk ùñ C “ AB “ rci j smˆk , ci j “ ait bt j
t“1

• column ˆ row:
» fi » fi
b1 b1 a1 b1 a2 . . . b1 an
—b2 ffi “ —b2 a1 b2 a2 . . . b2 an ffi
— .. ffi a1 a2 . . . an “ — ..
‰
.. .. .. ffi
— ffi — ffi
– . fl – . . . . fl
bn bn a1 bn a2 . . . bn an

15
 • Multiplication of Amˆn and Bnˆk :
n
ÿ
A “ rai j smˆn , B “ rbi j snˆk ùñ C “ AB “ tth column of Aˆtth row of B
t“1

• Properties:
– Association: pABqC “ ApBCq and αpABq “ pαAqB “ ApαBq.
– Distribution: pA ` BqC “ AC ` BC and ApB ` Cq “ AB ` AC.
– pMn pKq, `, .q is a ring within identity element, but not commutative.
3.2.4. Transposition
• Definition: A “ rai j smˆn ùñ AT “ rc j,i snˆm , c ji “ ai j .
• Properties
+ AT ` BT “ pA ` BqT
+ pABqT “ BT AT
+ A is symmetric if and only if AT “ A.
+ A is skew symmetric if and only if AT “ ´A.
3.3. Exercises „ ȷ „ ȷ „ ȷ „ ȷ
3 2 0 ´2 3 0 2 6 1 ´5
Ex 3.1. Let A “ , B“ ,C“ , D“ .
4 1 4 5 4 0 1 5 ´2 13
Find the following expression or give the reasons why they are undefined.

a. A ` B, B ` A b. 2C ` 2D, 2pC ` Dq

c. A ` B ` C, C ´ D d. 4A, ´ 3C, 3A ´ 3B, 3pAB q

T
e. A ´ C, A ` 0C, C ` 0A f. A`AT , pA`BqT , AT `BT , pAT q

g. 4B ` 8BT , 4pB ` 2BT q h. p2CqT , 2C T , C ` C T , C T ´ 2DT

» fi » fi
1 ´3 2 2 1 1 „ ȷ
´1 1 2
Ex 3.2. Let A “ –2 1 ´1fl, B “ –´2 3 0fl and C “ .
2 4 ´2
0 3 ´2 1 2 4
In the following operations, which one is well-defined? If yes, determine the
corresponding results.
BC T , A ` BC, AT B ´ C, ApBCq, pA ` 3BqC T

16
 » fi » fi » fi » fi
4 1 0 0 2 ´8 2 9
Ex 3.3. Let K “ 1 3 2 , L “ ´2 0
– fl – 6 , a “ 1 , b “ 0fl .
fl – fl –
0 2 5 8 ´6 0 4 5
Find the following expression or give the reasons why they are undefined.

a. K ` L, K ´ L b. 3pa´4bq, 3a´12b, K `a, a`aT

d. 3K ` 4L, 6K ` 8L
c. K ´ K T , L ` LT , aT ` bT
f. 6aT ´ 9bT , 3p2a ´ 3bqT , 3p3bT ´
T T
e. K ` K ` L ´ L 2aT q

Ex 3.4. Show that the matrix K in Ex.3.3 is symmetric and the matrix L in Ex.3.3
is skew symmetric.

Ex 3.5. Write the matrix A and B in Ex. 3.1 as the sum of a symmetric and a skew
symmetric matrix.
1
Ex 3.6. Show that if A is any square matrix, then S “ pA ` AT q is symmetric,
2
1 T
T “ pA ´ A q is skew symmetric and A “ S ` T.
2
Ex 3.7. Find the matrix X satisfying the following relations:
„ ȷ„ ȷ „ ȷ
1 2 3 0 1 ´2
a) +2X=
´3 4 2 1 5 7
» fi » fi » fi
1 ´3 2 2 5 6 0 ´6 6
1
b) X ´ –3 ´4 1fl –1 2 5fl= –´2 9 2fl
2
2 ´5 3 1 3 2 ´4 ´8 6
„ ȷ „ ȷ
1 3 ´1 0
Ex 3.8. Let A “ and B “ .
´1 2 1 1

a) Calculate F “ A2 ´ 3A and f pAq with f pxq “ 3x2 ´ 2x ` 5.

b) Determine the matrix X satisfying pA2 ` 5IqX “ BT pA2 ´ 3Aq.

» fi
a 1 0
Ex 3.9. Compute An for any n P N˚ , where A “ –0 a 1fl pa P Rq.
0 0 a

17
 „ ȷ
2 0 0
Ex 3.10. Find the matrix X such that X “ .
0 0
» fi » fi
3 0 1
Ex 3.11. Let a “ –1fl , B “ –0 ´2fl , d “ 1 0 2 . Find those of the
“ ‰

4 2 3
following expressions that are defined.

a. CB, BT C T , BC T b. C 2 , C 3 , CC T , C T C

c. Ca, CdT , C T dT d. BT a, Bd, dB, ad

e. BT C, BT B f. BBT , BBT C, BBT a

g. aT a, aT Ca, dCdT h. ddT , dT d, adB, adBBT

Ex 3.12. Find real 2 ˆ 2 matrices (as many as you can) whose square is I, the unit
matrix.

Ex 3.13. A matrix A is said to be idempotent if A2 “ A. Give examples of

idempotent matrices, different from zero or unit matrix.

Ex 3.14. Show that AAT is symmetric.

Ex 3.15. Find all real square matrices that are both symmetric and skew symmet-
ric.

Ex 3.16. Show that the product of symmetric matrices A, B is symmetric if and

only if A and B commute, i.e. AB “ BA.

Ex 3.17. A network has branches (connections) and nodes (points where two or
more branches comes together). We number all nodes (except grounded node in
electrical network) and number and direct the branched. Therefore, the network
can now be described by a matrix A “ ra jk s, where
$
&`1 if branch k leaves node j
’
a jk “ ´1 if branch k enters node j
’
0 if branch k does not touch node j
%

A is called the nodal incidence matrix of the network. Find the incidence matrix
of the following network.

18
 Figure 1: Nodal Network

Ex 3.18. Show that the linear transformation y “ Ax where

cos θ ´ sin θ
„ ȷ „ ȷ „ ȷ
x1 y
A“ and x “ , y“ 1
sin θ cos θ x2 y2

is a counterclockwise rotation of the Cartesian x1 x2 -coordinate system in the

plane about the origin where θ is the angle of the rotation.
„ ȷ
cos nθ ´ sin nθ
Ex 3.19. Show that An “ where A is defined in Ex. 3.19.
sin nθ cos nθ
What does this result mean geometrically?

Ex 3.20. To visualize a three dimensional object with plane faces (e.g., a cube)
we may store the position vectors of the vertices with respect to a suitable x1 x2 x3
coordinate system (and a list of connecting edges) and then obtain a two dimen-
sional image on a video screen by projecting the object onto a coordinate plane,
for instance, onto x1 x2 plane by setting x3 “ 0 to change the appearance of the
image, we can impose a linear transformation on the position vector store. Show
that a diagonal matrix D with main diagonal entries 3, 2, 1{2 give an x the new
position vector y “ Dx, where y1 “ 3x1 (stretch in the x1 direction by a factor
3), y2 “ x2 (unchanged), y3 “ x3 {2 (contraction in the x3 direction). What effect
would a scalar matrix have?

Ex 3.21. What effect would a following matrices have in the situation described
in Ex. 3.20.

19
 cos φ 0 ´ sin φ cos ψ ´ sin ψ 0
» fi » fi » fi
1 0 0
–0 cos θ ´ sin θfl , – 0 1 0 fl , – sin ψ cos ψ 0fl
0 sin θ cos θ sin φ 0 cos φ 0 0 1

20
4. System of linear equations (part 1)
4.1. Linear system
4.1.1. Forms of a linear system
• General form: a system of m equations and n variables.
$
’
’ a11 x1 ` a12 x2 ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` a1n xn “ b1
’
’
&a21 x1 ` a22 x2 ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` a2n xn “ b2
.. (4.1)
’
’
’ .
’
%a x ` a x ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` a x “ b
m1 1 m2 2 mn n m

• Matrix form: Ax “ b, (or xT AT “ bT ) where

‰T ‰T
A “ rai j smˆn , b “ b1 b2 . . . bm , x “ x1 x2 . . . xn
“ “

» ˇ fi
a11 a12 . . . a1n ˇˇ b1
— a21 a22 . . . a2n ˇˇ b2 ffi
• Augmented form: rA|bs “ — .. .. . . .. ˇ .. ffi
— ffi
– . . . . ˇ . fl
ˇ
am1 am2 . . . amn ˇ bm
• Vector form: x1 A1 ` x2 A2 ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` xn An “ b, where
‰T ‰T
Ak “ a1k a2k . . . amk , b “ b1 b2 . . . bm .
“ “

4.1.2. Definition and notation

• Coefficient matrix of the system (8.1): A “ rai j smˆn .
• Augmented matrix of the system (8.1): rA|bs.
• Solutions: A column vector x̄ is called a solution of (8.1) if it fulfills the
system.
• Variables: x is called unknown variable vector, b is called free vector.
• Solutions set of a system is the set of all solutions of the system.
• Consistence: (8.1) is said to be consistent if its solutions set is not empty.
• If b “ 0 then (8.1) is said to be homogenous, if not, the system is called
non-homogenous.

21
4.2. Gauss’s elimination method
• Step 1: Determine the augmented matrix.

• Step 2 (Gauss’s elimination): Use the row elementary operations to trans-

form into echelon form:

+ Li ÐÑ L j
+ αLi ÐÝ Li , α , 0.
+ Li ` αL j ÐÝ Li , j , i.

• Step 3 (Back subtitution): Write the system corresponding to the matrix

obtained from step 2 and then rewrite each nonzero equation such that the
its one basic variable is expressed in terms of free variables appearing in the
equation.

4.3. Exercises
Ex 4.1. Determine if the system has a nontrivial solution. Describe all solution in
parametric vector form
$ $
2x
& 1
’ ´ 5x2 ` 8x3 “ 0 & x1 ´ 3x2 ` 7x3 “ 0
’
a) ´2x1 ´ 7x2 ` x3 “ 0 b) ´2x1 ` x2 ´ 4x3 “ 0
’ ’
4x1 ` 2x2 ` 7x3 “ 0 x1 ` 2x2 ` 9x3 “ 0
% %
# #
´3x1 ` 5x2 ´ 7x3 “ 0 ´5x1 ` 7x2 ` 9x3 “ 0
c) d)
´6x1 ` 7x2 ` x3 “ 0 x1 ´ 2x2 ` 6x3 “ 0

Ex 4.2. Let us solve the following systems of linear equations:

$ $
’
’ 3x1 ´ x2 ` 3x 3 “ 1 ’
’ x1 ` 2x2 ´ x3 ` 3x4 “ 12
’
&´4x ` 2x ` x “ 3 ’
&2x ` 5x ´ x ` 11x “ 49
1 2 3 1 2 3 4
a) c)
’
’
’ ´2x1 ` x2 ` 4x3 “ 4 ’
’
’ 3x1 ` 6x2 ´ 4x3 ` 13x4 “ 49
% %
10x1 ´ 5x2 ´ 6x3 “ ´10 x1 ` 2x2 ´ 2x3 ` 9x4 “ 33
$
$ ’
’ x1 ` 2x2 ` 3x3 ` 4x4 “ ´4
’
&3x1 ´ 5x2 ` 2x3 ` 4x4 “ 2 3x1 ` 7x2 ` 10x3 ` 11x4 “ ´11
’ &
d)
b) 7x1 ´ 4x2 ` x3 ` 3x4 “ 5 ’ x1 ` 2x2 ` 4x3 ` 2x4 “ ´3
’
’ ’
5x1 ` 7x2 ´ 4x3 ´ 6x4 “ 3
% %
x1 ` 2x2 ` 2x3 ` 7x4 “ ´6

22
 $
’
’ x1 ` 2x2 ´ x3 ` mx4 “ 4
’
&´x ´ x ` 3x ` 2x “ k
1 2 3 4
Ex 4.3. Let us consider the system where
’
’
’2x1 ´ x2 ´ 3x3 ` pm ´ 1qx4 “ 3
%
x1 ` x2 ` x3 ` 2mx4 “ 5
m, k are real parameters.

a) Solve the above system when m “ 2 and k “ 5.

b) Determine m and k such that the system has a unique solution.

c) Determine m and k such that the system has infinitely many solutions.

d) Determine m and k such that the system has no solution.

Ex 4.4. Balance the chemical equations using the vector equation approach.

a) B2 S 3 ` H2 O Ñ H3 BO3 ` H2 S

b) Na3 PO4 ` BapNO3 q2 Ñ Ba3 pPO4 q2 ` NaNO3

c) NaHCO3 ` H3C6 H5 O7 Ñ Na3C6 H5 O7 ` H2 O ` CO2

d) K MnO4 ` MnS O4 ` H2 O Ñ MnO2 ` K2 S O4 ` H2 S O4

Ex 4.5. Suppose an economy has four sectors, Agriculture (A), Energy (E), Man-
ufacturing (M), and Transportation (T). Sector A sells 10% of its output to E, 25%
to M and retain the rest. Sector E sells 30% of its output to A, 35% to M, 25% to
T and retain the rest. Sector M sells 30% of its output to A, 15% to E, 40% to T
and retain the rest. Sector T sells 20% of its output to A, 10% to E, 30% to M and
retain the rest.

a) Construct the exchange table for the economy.

b) Find a set of equilibrium prices for the economy. (Each sector income
matches its expenses)

Ex 4.6.

23
 a) Find the general traffic pattern in the free-
way network shown in the figure 2.

b) Describe the general traffic pattern when

the road whose flow x4 is closed.

c) When x4 “ 0, what is the minimum value

of x1 .
Figure 2: A traffic network

Ex 4.7. Solve the following systems of linear equations:

$ $ $
’
& x ` 2y ´ 8z “ 0 ’
& 3x ´ y ` z “ ´2 &7x ´ y ´ 2z “ 0
’
a. 2x ´ 3y ` 5z “ 0 b. x ` 5y ` 2z “ 6 c. 9x ´ y ´ 3z “ 0
’ ’ ’
3x ` 2y ´ 12z “ 0 2x ` 3y ` z “ 0 2x ` 4y ´ 7z “ 0
% % %
$ $ $
’
& x ` y ` z “ ´1 ’
& 7x ´ y ´ 2z “ 0 &4y ` 3z “ 13
’
d. 4y ` 6z “ 6 e. 9x ´ y ´ 3z “ 0 f. x ´ 2y ` z “ 3
’ ’ ’
y`z“1 2x ` 4y ´ 7z “ 0 3x ` 5y “ 11
% % %
# # #
7x ´ 4y ´ 2z “ ´6 x ´ 3y ` 2z “ 2 3x ´ 3y ´ 7z “ ´4
g. h. i.
16x ` 2y ` z “ 3 5x ´ 15y ` 7z “ 10 x ´ y ` 2z “ 3
$ $
’
& 3w ´ 6x ´ y ´ z “ 0 &4w ` 3x ´ 9y ` z “ 1
’
j. w ´ 2x ` 5y ´ 3z “ 0 k. ´w ` 2x ´ 13y ` 3z “ 3
’ ’
2w ´ 4x ` 3y ´ z “ 3 3w ´ x ` 8y ´ 2z “ ´2
% %

$ $
’
’ w`x`y“6 ’
’w ´ x ` 3y ´ 3z “ 3
’
&´3w ´ 17x ` y ` 2z “ 2 ’
&´5w ` 2x ´ 5y ` 4z “ ´5
l. m.
’
’
’ 4w ´ 17x ` 8y ´ 5z “ 2 ’
’
’´3w ´ 4x ` 7y ´ 2z “ 7
% %
´5x ´ 2y ` z “ 2 2w ` 3x ` y ´ 11z “ 1

Ex 4.8. Using Kirchhoff’s laws find the currents in the following networks.

24
 Figure 3: Electrical Networks

Ex 4.9. By definition, an equivalence relation on a set is a relation satisfying three

conditions:
(1) Each element A of the set is equivalent to itself
(2) If A is equivalent to B, then B is equivalent to A.
(3) If A is equivalent to B and B is equivalent to C, then A is equivalent to C.
Show that row equivalence satisfies these three conditions.
Ex 4.10. Solve the following system of linear equations (where m is a parameter):
$
’
’ x1 ´ x2 ` mx3 ´ 2x4 “ 1
’
&2x ´ x ` 2x ` 3x “ ´1
1 2 3 4
’
’
’ ´3x1 ` 3x2 ` p2m ´ 8qx3 ´ 12x4 “ 5
%
´7x1 ` 3x2 ` pm ´ 8qx3 ´ 14x4 “ 5.

25
5. Vector spaces
5.1. Summary
5.1.1. Linear space and subspace
Definition 5.1. Let V be a nonempty set and K is a field. On V, define an addition
and a scalar multiplication:

` : V ˆ V Ñ V and . : K ˆ V Ñ V

such that

S1. pV, `q is an abelian group.

S2. Association: pα1 α2 qu “ α1 pα2 uq, @α1 , α2 P K, @u P V.

S3. Distribution:
pα1 ` α2 qu “ α1 u ` α2 u and αpu ` vq “ αu ` αv, @α P K, @u, v P V.

S4. Multiple by one: 1u “ u, @u P V.

Then, V is called a vector space on K or a linear space on K, or a K-linear

space.

Definition 5.2. Let V be a K-linear space and let V 1 be a non-empty subset of V.

Then V 1 is called a subspace of V if V 1 is itself a vector space with the addition
and scalar multiplication on V.

Proposition 5.1. If V 1 is a subspace of the linear space V if and only if the fol-
lowing conditions hold:
V 1 Ă V, O P V 1 (5.1)
u ` v P V 1 @u, v P V 1 , (5.2)
αu P V 1 @u P V 1 , @α P K. (5.3)

Proposition 5.2. V 1 is a subspace of the linear space V if and only if the following
conditions are fulfilled.
V 1 Ă V, O P V 1
αu ` βv P V 1 @u, v P V 1 , @α, β P K. (5.4)

26
5.1.2. Linear combinations and spans
Definition 5.3. Let u, u1 , . . . , un be vectors in a K-linear space V. Then, the vector
u is called a linear combination of u1 , . . . , un if there are α1 , . . . , αn P K such that

u “ α1 u1 ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` αn un . (5.5)

The set of all linear combinations of u1 , . . . , un is called span of u1 , . . . , un , and

noted by spantu1 , . . . , un u.

Proposition 5.3. Let V be a K-linear space and let S be a nonempty subset of V.

The following assertions hold:

i. spanS is a subspace of V.

ii. If W is a subspace of V and W Ą S , then spanS Ă W (spanS is the smallest

subspace containing S .)

Definition 5.4. Let S be a nonempty subset of the K-linear space V. If V “ spanS ,

then S is called the spanning set of V (or S spans V).

5.2. Exercises
Ex 5.1. Show that for any scalar k and any vectors u and v of a vector space V, we
have kpu ´ vq “ ku ´ kv.

Ex 5.2. Let V be set of all functions from a nonempty set X into a field K. For any
functions f, g P V, any scalar k P K, let f ` g and k f be the functions in V defined
as follows:

p f ` gqpxq “ f pxq ` gpxq and pk f qpxq “ k f pxq, @x P X.

Prove that V is a vector space over K.

Ex 5.3. Show that W is a subspace of R3 where W “ tpa, b, cq | 2a`3b`5c “ 0u.

Ex 5.4. Let U and W be subspaces of a vector space V. We define the sum

U ` W “ tu ` w | u P U, w P Wu.

Show that:

a. U and W are each contained in U ` W.

27
 b. U ` W is a subspace of V, and it is the smallest subspace of V containing
U and W (i.e. if there is any subspace L such that L Ą U, L Ą W then
L Ą U ` W).

c. W ` W “ W

Ex 5.5. Let U and W be subspaces of a vector space V. We say that V is the

direct sum of U and W if V “ U ` W and U X W “ t0u. In this case, we write
V “ U ‘ W.

a. Let U “ tpa, b, cq P R3 | a “ b “ cu and W “ tpa, b, cq P R3 | a “ 0u.

Prove that R3 “ U ‘ W.

b. Show that V “ U ‘ W if and only if for all v P V, there exists a unique

pu, wq P U ˆ W such that v “ u ` w.

c. Let V “ M2 pRq, U and W are the subspaces of symmetric and skew sym-
metric matrices, respectively. Show that V “ U ‘ W.

Ex 5.6. Express v “ p1, ´2, 5q in R3 as a linear combination of the vector u1 , u2 , u3

where u1 “ p1, ´3, 2q, u2 “ p2, ´4, ´1q, u3 “ p1, ´5, 7q.

Ex 5.7. Express the polynomial v “ t2 ` 4t ´ 3 as a linear combination of the

polinomials p1 “ t2 ´ 2t ` 5, p2 “ 2t2 ´ 3t, p3 “ t ` 3.

Ex 5.8. Find a condition on a, b, c so that w “ pa, b, cq is a linear combination

of u “ p1, ´3, 2q and v “ p2, ´1, 1q (so that w P spanpu, vq).

Ex 5.9. Express the following vectors u as a linear combination of the correspond-

ing systems S .
␣ (
a) u “ p1, ´2, 5q and S “ v1 “ p1, ´3, 2q, v2 “ p2, ´4, ´1q, v3 “ p1, ´5, 7q
in R3 .
␣ (
b) u “ x2 ` 4x ´ 3 and S “ v1 “ x2 ´ 2x ` 5, v2 “ 2x2 ´ 3x, v3 “ x ` 3 in
P2 rxs.
" „ ȷ „ ȷ „ ȷ „ ȷ*
1 2 1 0 0 ´2 0 ´1
c) S “ V1 “ , V2 “ , V3 “ , V4 “
„ 1 ´2 ȷ ´1 2 ´3 ´1 ´1 0
2 ´3
and U “ in M2 pRq.
4 ´7

28
Ex 5.10. Determine the parameter m P R so that u “ p1, ´1, ´3, mq P span u1 , u2 , u3 ,
␣ (

where u1 “ p1, 3, ´2, 1q, u2 “ p´2, 3, 1, 1q and u3 “ p2, 1, 0, 1q.

Ex 5.11. Find a spanning set of the subspace V 1 of V if

a) V 1 “ tax2 ` b | a, b P Ru and V “ P3 rxs.

b) V 1 “ tpx1 , x2 , x3 q P R3 | x1 ` x2 ` x3 “ 0u and V “ R3 .

29
6. Basis and Coordinate
6.1. Summary
6.1.1. Linear dependence and independence
Definition 6.1. Let S “ tu1 , u2 , . . . , un u be a nonempty subset of the vector space
V. Then, S is said to be linearly independent if

α1 u1 ` α2 u2 ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` αn un “ 0 ô α1 “ α2 “ ¨ ¨ ¨ “ αn . (6.1)

S is said to be linearly dependent if it is not linearly independent, i.e.

Dpα1 , . . . , αn q , p0, . . . , 0q : α1 u1 ` α2 u2 ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` αn un “ 0 (6.2)

Proposition 6.1. Properties of linearly independent or dependent sets

i. If O P S , then S is linearly dependent.

ii. If S is linearly independent, then every nonempty subset of S is linearly

independent.

iii. If S is linearly dependent, then every superset of S is linearly dependent.

Theorem 6.1. If S “ tu1 , u2 , . . . , un u is a set of nonzero vectors and linearly

dependent, then there exists a vector uk be a combination of the preceding vectors

uk “ α1 u1 ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` αk´1 uk´1 .

6.1.2. Bases
Definition 6.2. Let S be a nonempty set of the vector space V. Then, S is said to
be a basis of V if S is a spanning set of V and S is linearly independent.

Theorem 6.2. Every basis of the same linear space has the same number of vec-
tors.

Definition 6.3. If V “ tOu, then the dimension of V is zero, written as dim V “ 0

otherwise, the dimension of V is n, the number of its basis, says dim V “ n. If
n is finite, then we say V is a finite dimensional space otherwise, V is infinite
dimensional space.

Theorem 6.3. S is a basis of the finite dimensional space V if and only if every
vector u in V can be uniquely expressed as a linear combination of S .

30
Theorem 6.4. Let V be a K-linear space of n-dimension. The following assertions
hold:

i. Any subset of n ` 1 or more vectors is linearly dependent.

ii. Any linearly independent set of n vectors in V is a basis of V.

iii. Any spanning set of V with n elements is a basis of V.

iv. If S is a linearly independent set of k vectors in V, k ă n, then S can be

extended to a basis of V containing S .

v. If T is a spanning set of V then the maximum linearly independent subset of

T is a basis of V.

6.1.3. Coordinate
Definition 6.4. Let S “ tu1 , . . . , un u be a basis of V. Suppose that u “ x1 u1 `
x2 u2 `¨ ¨ ¨`xn un is the unique expression u as a combination of S . Then, x1 , x2 , . . . , xn
is called the coordinates of u in S , (or with respect to S), and
‰T
rusS “ x1 x2 . . . , xn
“
(6.3)

is called the coordinate vector of u in S (or with respect to S). The matrix contain-
ing coordinate vectors in S of the vector set B “ tv1 , v2 , . . . , vk u is called a matrix
of B in S . » fi
x11 x12 . . . x1k
— x21 x22 . . . x2k ffi
rBsS “ v1 v2 . . . vk S “ — ..
“ ‰
.. . . .. ffi (6.4)
— ffi
– . . . . fl
xn1 xn2 . . . xnk
If B is a basis of V, rBsS is called the change-of-basis matrix from S to B.

6.2. Exercises
Ex 6.1. Determine whether the following systems of vectors are linearly indepen-
dent or linearly dependent.
␣ (
a) S “ v1 “ p1, ´2, 1q, v2 “ p2, 1, ´1q, v3 “ p7, ´4, 1q in R3 .
␣ (
b) S “ v1 “ x3 `4x2 ´2x`3, v2 “ x3 `6x2 ´ x`4, v3 “ 3x3 `8x2 ´8x`7
in P3 rxs.

31
 " „ ȷ „ ȷ „ ȷ*
1 1 1 0 1 1
c) S “ V1 “ , V2 “ , V3 “ in M2 pRq.
1 1 0 1 0 0
d) S “ tv1 ptq “ sin t, v2 ptq “ cos t, v3 ptq “ tu in the vector space of functions
from R into R.
Ex 6.2. Suppose u, v, and w are linearly independent vectors. Show that u`v, u´
v, u ´ 2v ` w are also linearly independent.
Ex 6.3. Show that the vectors v “ p1 ` i, 2iq, w “ p1, 1 ` iq P C2 are linearly
dependent over the complex field C but are linearly independent over the real field
R.
Ex 6.4. Let V be the vector space of 2 ˆ 2 symmetric matrices over K. Show that
dim V “ 3.
Ex 6.5. Find a basis and the dimension of the subspace W of R3 , where:
a. W “ tpa, b, cq | a ` b ` c “ 0u.

b. W “ tpa, b, cq | a “ b “ cu.

c. W “ tpa, b, cq | c “ 3au.
Ex 6.6. Let W be the subspace of R4 spanned by the vectors:

u1 “ p1, ´2, 5, ´3q, u2 “ p2, 3, 1, ´4q, u3 “ p3, 8, ´3, ´5q.

a. Find a basis and the dimension of W.

b. Extend the basis of W to a basis of whole space R4 .

Ex 6.7.
a. Find all the number λ P R such that p1, ´7, λq P spantp1, ´1, 2q, p2, 1, ´2qu.

b. Find all the number λ P R such that the set S “ tp´1, ´2, 0q, p´6, 1, 4q, p9, ´8, λqu
is a basis of R3 .
Ex 6.8. Find the dimension and a basis of the solution space W of the system
$
& x ` 2y ` z ´ 3t “ 0
’
2x ` 4y ` 4z ´ t “ 0
’
3x ` 6y ` 7z ` t “ 0.
%

32
Ex 6.9. Let’s indicate that the following system S is a basis of the corresponding
vector space. Then, find rusS =?
␣ (
a) S “ v1 “ p1, 1, 1q, v2 “ p1, 1, 2q, v3 “ p1, 2, 3q and u “ p6, 9, 14q in R3 .
b) S “ v1 “ 1, v2 “ 1` x, v3 “ x` x2 , v4 “ x2 ` x3 and u “ 2`3x´ x2 `2x3
␣ (

in P3 rxs.
" „ ȷ „ ȷ „ ȷ „ ȷ*
1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
c) S “ V1 “ , V2 “ , V3 “ , V4 “ and U “
„ ȷ 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1
1 2
in M2 pRq.
3 4

d) 1 ` t, t ` t2 , t2 ` t3 , . . . , tn´1 ` tn in Pn rts.
Ex 6.10. Find a basis and the dimension of the subspace W spanned by the fol-
lowing systems of vectors:
␣ (
a) v1 “ p2, 1, 3, 4q, v2 “ p1, 2, 0, 1q, v3 “ p´1, 1, ´3, 0q in R4 .
␣
b) v1 “ p2, 0, 1, 3,
( ´1q, v2 “ p1, 1, 0, ´1, 1q, v3 “ p0, ´2, 1, 5, ´3q, v4 “
p1, ´3, 2, 9, ´5q in R5 .
c) v1 “ 1` x2 ` x3 , v2 “ x´ x2 `2x3 , v3 “ 2` x`3x3 , v4 “ ´1` x´ x2 `2x3
␣ (

in P3 rxs.
d) u1 “ p1, ´4, ´2, 1q, u2 “ p1, ´3, ´1, 2q, u3 “ p3, ´8, ´2, 7q in R4
Ex 6.11. Find a basis and the dimension of the following subspace W:
a) W “ px1 , x2 , x3 q P R3 ˇ 2x1 ´ 5x2 ` 3x3 “ 0 .
␣ ˇ (

$
& x ` 2y ` z ´ 3t “ 0
’
b) W is the solution space of 2x ` 4y ` 4z ´ t “ 0
’
3x ` 6y ` 7z ` t “ 0
%
$
&2x1 ´ x2 ` 3x3 ´ 2x4 ` 4x5 “ 0
’
c) W is the solution space of 4x1 ´ 2x2 ` 5x3 ` x4 ` 7x5 “ 0
’
2x1 ´ x2 ` x3 ` 8x4 ` 2x5 “ 0
%

Ex 6.12. Show that S is a basis of V and find the coordinate vector of v P V

relative to S , where

33
 a) V “ R2 , S “ tu1 “ p2, 1q, u2 “ p1, ´1qu, v “ pa, bq.

b) V “ P3 rts, S “ t1, 1 ´ t, p1 ´ tq2 , p1 ´ tq3 u, v “ 2 ´ 3t ` t2 ` 2t3 .

„ ȷ
2 3
c) V “ M2 pRq, S is the canonical basis, v “
4 ´7
"„ ȷ „ ȷ „ ȷ*
1 ´1 4 1 3 ´2
T
d) V “ tA P M2 pRq | A “ Au, S “ , , ,
„ ȷ ´1 2 1 0 ´2 1
1 ´5
v“
´5 5

Ex 6.13. Consider the following bases of R2 :

S 1 “ tu1 “ p1, ´2q, u2 “ p3, ´4qu and S 2 “ tv1 “ p1, 3q, v2 “ p3, 8qu

a) Find the coordinates of an arbitrary vector v “ pa, bq with respect to S 1 .

b) Find the change-of-basis matrix P from S 1 to S 2

c) Find the coordinates of an arbitrary vector v “ pa, bq with respect to S 2 .

d) Find the change-of-basis matrix P from S 2 to S 1

Ex 6.14. Consider the basis S “ tu1 “ p1, 2, 0q, u2 “ p1, 3, 2q, u3 “ p0, 1, 3qu of
R3 . Find the change-of-basis matrix P from the canonical basis E “ te1 , e2 , e3 u to
the basis S and from S to E.

34
7. Rank and inverse of a matrix
7.1. Summary
7.1.1. Rank of a set of vector and rank of a matrix
Definition 7.1. Let A be a m ˆ n matrix. The row space, column space and null
space of A are defined as follows:
• The row space of A is the subspace spanning by the set of all row vectors of
A, denoted by RowspA or RowA.
• The column space of A is the subspace spanning by the set of all column
vectors of A, denoted by ColspA or ColA.
• NullA “ tx P Rn | Ax “ 0u, solution space of A. dim NullA is called the the
nullity of A.
Definition 7.2. rankA, rank of a matrix A is the dimension of its row space.
Definition 7.3. Rank of the set of vector S is the number of vectors of the largest
linearly independent subset of S , written as rankS
Proposition 7.1. Rank of the matrix A is equal to the number of nonzero row of
its echelon form.
Proposition 7.2.
rankA “ dim RowspA “ dim ColspA (7.1)
Proposition 7.3. Let B be a basis of the vector space V and S be a subset of V.
Then
rankS “ rankrS sB “ dim spanS (7.2)
How to find rank of a matrix?
• Echelon matrix: the leading entry of the lower row stay at the right side of
the one above. All zero rows are below nonzero rows.
• Use elementary operations to transform a matrix into echelon form.
+ Li ÐÑ L j
+ αLi ÐÝ Li , α , 0.
+ Li ` αL j ÐÝ Li , j , i.
• Rank of a matrix is equal to the number of nonzero rows of its echelon form.

35
 7.1.2. Inverse of a matrix
Definition 7.4. Let A be a square matrix. A is said to be invertible (or nonsingu-
lar) if there is a square matrix B such that AB “ BA “ I. B is called the inverse
of A, denoted by A´1 .
GLpRn q is denoted as a set of all n´square nonsingular real matrix.
Proposition 7.4. Properties of the nonsingular A, B P GLpRn q :
i. DA´1 ðñ rankA “ n.
´1
ii. pA´1 q “A
iii. pABq´1 “ B´1 A´1
iv. AC “ AD ùñ C “ D

7.1.3. Gauss-Jordan method finding inverse matrix

row operations
rA | Is ÝÝÝÝÝÝÝÑ rI | A´1 s
Step 1. Arrange the augmented matrix rA|Is
Step 2. i = 1
Step 3. Rearrange rows from the ith to the nth such that ai i , 0 (if needed)
aki
Step 4. Eliminate xi from all other rows: Rk ´ Ri ÝÑ Rk , k , i
aii
Step 5. i “ i ` 1, back to step 3 until i ą n.
Step 6. Normalize rows and read the inverse rI | A´1 s.

7.2. Exercises
Ex 7.1. Determine whether the following matrices have the same row space:
» fi
„ ȷ „ ȷ 1 ´1 ´1
1 1 5 1 ´1 ´2
A“ , B“ , C “ –4 ´3 ´1fl .
2 3 13 3 ´2 ´3
3 ´1 3
» fi » fi
1 3 5 1 2 3
Ex 7.2. Show that A “ –1 4 3fl and B “ –´2 ´3 ´4fl have the same
1 1 9 7 12 17
column space.

36
Ex 7.3. Consider the subspace U “ spanpu1 , u2 , u3 q and W “ spanpw1 , w2 , w3 q
of R3 where u1 “ p1, 1, ´1q, u2 “ p2, 3, ´1q, u3 “ p3, 1, ´5q, and w1 “
p1, ´1, ´3q, p3, ´2, ´8q, w3 “ p2, 1, ´3q. Show that U “ W.

Ex 7.4. Given λ P R and two matrices:

» fi » fi
´3 ´3 ´4 2 1 ´1 2 ´2
A “ – 1 ´4 3 ´4 fl , B “ – 2 1 3 ´2 fl .
1 5 0 2 1 ´7 4 λ

Find the value of λ such that RowsppAq “ RowsppBq.

Ex 7.5. Find the rank of the matrix A, where:

» fi » fi
1 2 ´3 1 3
— 2 1 0 ffi — 0 ´2 ffi
a. A “ — ffi b. A “ — ffi
– ´2 ´1 3 fl – 5 ´1 fl
´1 4 ´2 ´2 3

Ex 7.6. Compute the rank of the following matrices:

» fi » fi
1 3 5 ´1 1 ´3 4 ´1 9
—2 ´1 ´1 4 ffi —´2 6 ´6 ´1 ´10ffi
a) A “ —–5 1 ´1 7 fl
ffi d) D “ —
–´3 9 ´6 ´6 ´3 fl
ffi

7 7 9 1 3 ´9 4 9 0
» fi
» fi 2 ´3 6 2 5
4 3 ´5 2 3 —´2 3 ´3 ´3 ´4ffi
—8 6 ´7 4 2 ffi e) E “ — ffi
— ffi – 4 ´6 9 5 9 fl
b) B “ — 4 3 ´8 2 7 ffi
—
–4 3 1 2 ´5fl
ffi ´2 3 3 ´4 1
8 6 ´1 4 ´6 »
1 1 ´3 7 9 ´9
fi
—1 2 ´4 10 13 ´12ffi
» fi — ffi
1 ´4 9 ´7 f) F “ —— 1 ´1 ´1 1 1 ´3 ffi
ffi
c) C “ –´1 2 ´4 1 fl –1 ´3 1 ´5 ´7 3 fl
5 ´6 10 7 1 ´2 0 0 ´5 ´4
» fi
1 ´1 1 2
g) Let G “ –´1 2 2 1 fl, determine m P R such that rankpGq “ 2.
1 0 4 m

37
Ex 7.7. Find a basis and ␣ the dimension of the subspace W (“ V1 ` V2 or W “␣ V1 X
V2 , where V1 “ span u1 “ ( p1, 0, 1, 0q, u2 “ p0, 1, ´1, 1q and V2 “ span u3 “
p1, 1, 1, 2q, u4 “ p0, 0, 1, 1q .
Ex 7.8. Suppose that R is a row vector and A and B are matrices such that RA and
RB are defined. Prove:
a. RB is a linear combination of rows of B.
b. The row space of AB is contained in the row space of B.
c. The column space of AB is contained in the column space of A.
d. rankpABq ď rankpBq and rankpABq ď rankpAq
Ex 7.9. Find the inverse and check the result, or state that the inverse does not
exist, giving reason.
» fi » fi » fi
´1 2 2 6 ´2 0.5 0 0 5
a. – 2 ´1 2 fl b. – 1 5 2 fl c. – 0 ´1 0 fl
2 2 ´1 ´8 24 7 3 0 0
» fi » fi » fi
0.5 0 ´0.5 7 9 11 1 0 0
d. – ´0.1 0.2 0.3 fl e. – 8 ´8 5 fl f. – 0.5 1 0 fl
0.5 0 ´1.5 4 60 29 1 5 2
» fi » fi » fi
0 2 0 1 4 8 10 0 0
g. – 4 0 0 fl h. – 0 5 2 fl i. – 0 9 17 fl
0 0 5 0 0 10 0 4 8
» fi » fi » fi
3 ´1 1 19 2 ´9 371 ´76 ´40
j. – ´15 6 ´5 fl k. – ´4 ´1 2 fl l. – 36 ´7 ´4 fl
5 ´2 2 ´2 0 1 ´176 36 19
Ex 7.10. Show that:
´1 T ´1
a. pA´1 q “ A, c. pA´1 q “ pAT q
´1 2
b. pABq´1 “ B´1 A´1 d. pA2 q “ pA´1 q
e. The inverse of a nonsingular symmetric matrix is symmetric.
Ex 7.11. Find the inverse of the following matrices:

38
 „ ȷ „ ȷ
3 4 5 7
a) A“ b) B“
5 7 ´3 ´6
» fi » fi
3 ´4 5 1 2 3
c) C “ –2 ´3 1fl d) D “ –4 5 6fl
3 ´5 1 9 8 7
» fi » fi
1 3 7 4 1 ´a 0 0
—0 5 9 6 ffi —0 1 ´a 0 ffi
e) E“— –0 0 2 8 fl
ffi f) F“— –0 0
ffi
1 ´afl
0 0 0 10 0 0 0 1
» fi » fi
´1 ´3 0 1 4 0 ´7 ´7
—3 5 8 ´3ffi —´6 1 11 9 ffi
g) G“— –´2 ´6 3 2 fl
ffi h) H“— – 7 ´5 10 19 fl
ffi

0 ´1 2 1 ´1 2 3 ´1

Ex 7.12. » fi
m ` 1 ´1 m
a) Determine m P R such that A “ – 3 m`1 3 fl is invertible.
m´1 0 m´1
» fi » fi
´1 2 1 ´1 2 „ ȷ
2 12 10
b) Let A “ – 2 3 4 fl, B “ – 3 4fl and C “ .
6 16 7
3 1 ´1 0 3
Find the matrices X and Y such that AX ` B “ C T and Y A ´ B ` C T “ 0,
respectively.

c) Prove that if A P Mn pRq fulfills ak Ak ` ak´1 Ak´1 ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` a1 A ` a0 I “ 0

with a0 , 0, then A is invertible.

39
8. Determinants
8.1. Summary
8.1.1. Definition of determinant
• Determinant of a matrix of the order 1: A “ ras, det A “ a

• Determinant of a matrix of the order 2:

„ ȷ ˇ ˇ
a11 a12 ˇa11 a12 ˇ
ˇ “ a11 a22 ´ a12 a21 .
det “ ˇˇ
a21 a22 a21 a22 ˇ

• Determinant of a matrix of the order 3:

ˇ ˇ
ˇa11 a12 a13 ˇ ˇ ˇ ˇ ˇ ˇ ˇ
ˇa22 a23 ˇ ˇa21 a23 ˇ ˇa21 a22 ˇ
ˇa31 a33 ˇ ` a13 ˇa31 a32 ˇ .
ˇ ˇ
det A “ ˇˇa21 a22 a23 ˇˇ “ a11 ˇˇ ˇ ´ a12 ˇ ˇ ˇ ˇ
ˇa31 a32 a33 ˇ a32 a33 ˇ

• Determinant of a matrix of the order n:

– Expansion of the first row:

n
ÿ
det A “ p´1q1`i a1i det A1i .
i“1

– Expansion of the kth row:

n
ÿ
det A “ p´1qk`i aki det Aki .
i“1

– Expansion of the first column:

n
ÿ
det A “ p´1qi`1 ai1 det Ai1 .
i“1

– Expansion of the kth column:

n
ÿ
det A “ p´1qi`k aik det Aik .
i“1

40
8.1.2. Properties of determinants
• If any two rows (columns) of a determinant are interchanged, then the value
of the determinant is multiplied by (-1).

• A determinant having two identical rows (columns) is equal to 0.

• If all the entries in a row (column) of a determinant are multiplied by the

same factor α, then the value of the new determinant is the product of the
value of the given determinant and α.

• If corresponding entries in two rows (columns) of a determinant are propor-

tional, the value of determinant is zero.

• A matrix and its transposition have the same determinant.

• If A, B P Mn then detpABq “ det A det B.

detrA1 , . . . , Ak´1 , Bk ` Ck , Ak`1 . . . , An s

• .
“ detrA1 , . . . , Ak´1 , Bk , Ak`1 . . . , An s ` detrA1 , . . . , Ak´1 , Ck , Ak`1 . . . , An s

8.1.3. Elementary operations

• Multiply a row (column) by a nonzero scalar t.

• Add a constant multiple of one row (column) to another row (column).

• Exchange two rows (columns.)

• Expand a row (column).

Remark 8.1. How to calculate determinants?

• Use rows and columns operations to transform the determinant to the trian-
gular determinant.

• Use rows and columns operations to make a row (or a column) with lots of
zero entries and expand that row (column).

41
8.1.4. Determinant and inverse matrix
+ DA´1 ðñ det A , 0.

+ DA´1 ðñ rankpAq “ n, A P Mn .

+ Complement matrix and inverse matrix:

1
C “ rci j s, ci j “ p´1qi` j det Ai j , A´1 “ CT
det A

+ Gauss - Jordan method finding inverse matrix:

row operations
rA | Is ÝÝÝÝÝÝÝÑ rI | A´1 s

8.1.5. Linear system

Consider the linear system
$
’
’ a11 x1 ` a12 x2 ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` a1n xn “ b1
’
’
&a21 x1 ` a22 x2 ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` a2n xn “ b2
.. (8.1)
’
’
’ .
’
%a x ` a x ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` a x “ b
m1 1 m2 2 mn n m

Definition 8.1. The system (8.1) is called a Cramer’s system if its coefficient ma-
trix has zero determinant det A , 0.
Theorem 8.1. The Cramer’s system has unique solution defined by the following
formula:
∆i
xi “ ,
∆
where ∆ is the determinant of the coefficient matrix A and ∆i is the determinant of
the matrix that created by replacing the ith column of A by the free vector b.
Theorem 8.2. (Kronecker - Capelli theorem) Consider the linear system (8.1).
• If rankrA|bs , rankpAq then (8.1) has no solution.

• If rankrA|bs “ rankpAq “ k, then (8.1) has at least one solution.

• Moreover, if k “ n, (8.1) has exactly one solution, otherwise, it has infinitely

many solutions.

42
8.2. Exercises
Ex 8.1. Evaluate the following determinants:
ˇ ˇ ˇ ˇ ˇ ˇ
ˇ 17 9 ˇ ˇ cos nθ sin nθ ˇ ˇ4.3 0.7 ˇ
1. ˇˇ ˇ 2. ˇˇ ˇ“ 3. ˇ ˇ
´4 13ˇ ´ sin nθ cos nθˇ ˇ0.8 ´9.2ˇ
ˇ ˇ 0, ˇ ˇ
ˇ1.0 0.2 1.6ˇ ˇ ˇ ˇ4 6 5 ˇ
ˇ ˇ ˇ 5 1 8ˇ ˇ ˇ
4. ˇ3.0 0.6 1.2ˇ
ˇ ˇ ˇ ˇ 6. ˇ0 1 ´7ˇ
ˇ2.0 0.8 0.4ˇ 5. ˇˇ15 3 6ˇˇ ˇ
ˇ0 0 6 ˇ
ˇ
ˇ10 4 2ˇ
ˇ ˇ ˇ ˇ
ˇ16 22 4ˇ ˇ
ˇa b c ˇ
ˇ ˇ1.1 8.7 3.6 ˇ
ˇ ˇ ˇ ˇ
7. ˇˇ 4 ´3 2ˇˇ 8.
ˇ
ˇc a bˇ
ˇ 9. ˇ 0 9.1 ´1.7ˇ
ˇ ˇ
ˇ12 25 2ˇ ˇ
ˇb c aˇ
ˇ ˇ0 0 4.5 ˇ
ˇ ˇ ˇ ˇ ˇ ˇ
ˇ2 8 0 0 ˇ ˇ3 2 0 0ˇ ˇ´6 4 5 6ˇ
ˇ ˇ ˇ ˇ ˇ ˇ
ˇ9 ´4 0 0 ˇ ˇ6 8 0 0ˇ ˇ 2 7 2 1ˇ
10. ˇˇ ˇ 11. ˇˇ ˇ 12. ˇ ˇ
ˇ0 0 7 1 ˇ
ˇ 0 0 4 7ˇ ˇ´1 7 2 4ˇ
ˇ ˇ ˇ ˇ
ˇ0 0 6 ´2ˇ ˇ0 0 2 5ˇ ˇ´7 4 5 7ˇ
ˇ ˇ ˇ ˇ ˇ ˇ
ˇ 4 3 9 9 ˇˇ ˇ4 3 0 0 ˇ ˇ12 6 1 11ˇ
ˇ ˇ ˇ ˇ ˇ
ˇ ´8 3 5 ´4ˇˇ ˇ´8 1 2 0 ˇ ˇ4 4 1 4ˇ
13. ˇˇ 14. ˇ
ˇ ˇ 15. ˇ ˇ
ˇ ´8 0 ´2 ´8ˇˇ ˇ 0 ´7 3 ´6 ˇ
ˇ
ˇ7 4 3 7ˇ
ˇ ˇ
ˇ´16 6 15 ´5ˇ ˇ0 0 5 ´5ˇ ˇ8 2 3 9ˇ

Ex 8.2. Calculate the following determinants:

» fi » fi
1 ´2 3 1 1 2 3
a) A “ –2 ´4 1fl —1 2 ´ x2 2 3 ffi
d) D “ — ffi
3 ´5 3 – 2 3 1 5 fl
2 3 1 9 ´ x2
» fi » fi
a ` b ab a2 ` b2 1`x 1 1 1
b) B “ –b ` c bc b2 ` c2 fl — 1 1´x 1 1 ffi
2 2 e) E “ — ffi
c ` a ca c ` a – 1 1 1`z 1 fl
1 1 1 1´z
» fi » fi
1 3 5 ´1 a b c d
—2 ´1 ´1 4 ffi —b a d c ffi
c) C “ —–5 1 ´1 7 fl
ffi f) F “ —
– c d a bfl
ffi

7 7 9 1 d c b a

43
Ex 8.3. Without using the expansion formula to compute determinants, let us
indicate the followings:
» fi » fi
a1 ` b1 x a1 ´ b1 x c1 a1 b1 c1
a) det –a2 ` b2 x a2 ´ b2 x c2 fl “ ´2x. det –a2 b2 c2 fl
a3 ` b3 x a3 ´ b3 x c3 a3 b3 c3
» fi » fi
1 a bc 1 a a2
b) det –1 b cafl “ det –1 b b2 fl
1 c ab 1 c c2
Ex 8.4. a) Prove that if A is a skew-symmetric (or antisymmetric/antimetric) ma-
trix of an odd order n, then detA “ 0.
b) Let A, B be two square matrices of order 2023 fulfilling AB ` BT AT “ 0. Show
that detA “ 0 or detB “ 0.
c) Prove that detpA2 ` B2 q ě 0 for any real square matrices of the same order A
and B.
d) If AB “ A ` B for two square matrices of the same order A and B, then
AB “ BA.
e) Let A be a square matrix such that A2 ` 2023I “ 0. Show that detA ą 0.
f) If A3 “ A ` I for a square matrix A, then det A ą 0.

Ex 8.5. Using cofactor matrices (complement matrices) find the inverse matrices:
„ ȷ „ ȷ „ ȷ
9 5 0.8 0.6 cos 3θ sin 3θ
1. 2. 3.
25 14 0.6 ´0.8 ´ sin 3θ cos 3θ
» fi » fi » fi
´3 1 ´1 1 0 0 2 5 4
4. – 15 ´6 5 fl 5. –´2 1 0fl 6. –0 1 8 fl
´5 2 ´2 3 ´4 1 0 0 10
» fi » fi » fi
0 ´0.4 0.2 0 1 0 19 2 ´9
7. – 0.1 0.1 ´0.1fl 8. –1 0 0fl 9. –´4 ´1 2 fl
´0.2 0.4 0 0 0 1 ´2 0 1

Ex 8.6. Solve by Cramer’s rule and by Gauss elimination:

#
4x ´ y “ 3
1.
´2x ` 5y “ 21

44
 $ $
& ´x ` 3y ´ 2z “
’ 7 & 2x ` 5y ` 3z “ 1
’
2. 3x ` 3z “ ´3 3. ´x ` 2y ` z “ 2
’ ’
2x ` y ` 2z “ ´1 x ` y ` z “ 0
% %

Ex 8.7. Using Cramer’s theorem show that the plane through three points pxi , yi , zi q, i “
1; 2; 3 and the circle through the three points pxi , yi q, i “ 1; 2; 3 are given by the
formula below, respectively.
ˇ ˇ ˇ 2 ˇ
ˇ x y z 1ˇ ˇ x ` y2 x y 1ˇ
ˇ ˇ ˇ 2 ˇ
ˇ x1 y1 z1 1ˇ ˇ x ` y2 x1 y1 1ˇ
ˇ “ 0, ˇ 12 1
ˇ x ` y2 x2 y2 1ˇ “ 0
ˇ ˇ
ˇ x2 y2 z2 1ˇ
ˇ ˇ ˇ 22 2 ˇ
ˇ x3 y3 z3 1ˇ ˇ x ` y2 x3 y3 1ˇ
3 3

Ex 8.8. Given a, b P R we consider the following system of linear equations

$
’
’ x1 ´ x2 ` ax3 ` 3x4 “ 2
’
& 2x
1 ` bx2 ` 6x3 ´ x4 “ 1
’
’
’ x1 ` pb ` 1qx2 ` p6 ´ aqx3 ´ 4x4 “ ´1
%
x1 ´ pb ` 3qx2 ` p3a ´ 6qx3 ` 10x4 “ 5

How many solutions does this system have?

Ex 8.9. For real parameters a and b we consider the system of linear equations:
$
& x1 ` 3x2 ´
’ ax3 “ 2
2x1 ` x2 ´ x3 “ b
’
8x1 ` 9x2 ´ p2a ` 3qx3 “ 3b ` 4.
%

Prove that the system always has a solution, then solve the system.

45
9. Linear mappings
9.1. Summary
Definition 9.1. Let V, V 1 be K´ vector spaces and f be a mapping from V to V 1 .
The mapping f is called a linear mapping if for all x, y P V, k P K, we have
f px ` yq “ f pxq ` f pyq (9.1)
f pkxq “ k f pxq (9.2)
1
Definition 9.2. Let V, V be K´ vector spaces and f be a linear mapping from V
to V 1 . The image of f is noted by
Im f “ t f puq | u P Vu. (9.3)
The kernel of f is noted by
ker f “ tu P V | f puq “ 0u. (9.4)
The rank of f is noted by
rank f :“ dim Im f (9.5)
Definition 9.3. Let V, V 1 be K´ vector spaces and f be a linear mapping from V
to V 1 . Assuming that B “ tu1 , u2 , . . . , un u is a basis of V and S “ tv1 , v2 , . . . , vm u
is a basis of V 1 . The coordinate matrix of the vector set f pBq with respect to the
basis S is called the matrix of f with respect to the couple of bases B, S .
A “ f pu1 q f pu2 q . . . f pun q
“ ‰
(9.6)
Proposition 9.1. The mapping f is a linear mapping from V to V 1 if and only if
f pαu ` βvq “ α f puq ` β f pvq for all u, v P V and for every α, β P K.
Proposition 9.2. Let V, V 1 be K´ vector spaces and f be a linear mapping from
V to V 1 . The following properties hold:
i. f p0q “ 0
ii. Im f is a subspace of V 1 .
iii. ker f is a subspace of V.
iv. If tu1 , u2 , . . . , un u is a basis of V then t f pu1 q, f pu2 q, . . . , f pun qu is a span-
ning set of Im f.
v. If A is the matrix of f with respect to a couple of bases B, S then rankA “
dim Im f “ rank f
vi. dim V “ dim Im f ` dim ker f “ rank f ` dim ker f

46
9.2. Exercises
Ex 9.1. Show that the following mapping is linear: F : R3 Ñ R defined by
Fpx, y, zq “ 2x ´ 3y ` 4z.
Ex 9.2. A mapping F : R2 Ñ R3 defined by Fpx, yq “ px ` 1, 2y, x ` yq. Is F
linear?
Ex 9.3. Let K be a field. Let V be a vector space of n´ square matrices over
K. Let M be an arbitrary but fixed matrix in V. Let T : V Ñ V be defined by
T pAq “ AM ` MA, where A P V. Show that T is linear.
Ex 9.4. (a) Let F : R2 Ñ R2 be the linear mapping such that Fp1, 2q “ p2, 3q and
f p0, 1q “ p1, 4q. Find a formula for F, that is find Fpa, bq for arbitrary a and b.
(b) Let f : Prxs Ñ Prxs be a linear mapping such that:
f p1 ´ x2 q “ ´3 ` 3x ´ 6x2 ,
f p3x ` 2x q2
“ 17 ` x ` 16x2 ,
f p2 ` 6x ` 3x2 q “ 32 ` 7x ` 25x2 .
Find the formula of f . Find m such that u “ 1 ` x ` mx2 P Im f
Ex 9.5. Let T : V Ñ U be linear and suppose that B “ tv1 , . . . , vn u Ă V has
linearly independent image. Show that B is also linearly independent.
Ex 9.6. Let F : R5 Ñ R3 be the linear mapping defined by Fpx, y, z, s, tq “
px ` 2y ` z ´ 3s ` 4t, 2x ` 5y ` 4z ´ 5s ` 5t, x ` 4y ` 5z ´ s ´ 2tq. Find a basis
and the dimension of the image of F.
Ex 9.7. Let G : R3 Ñ R3 be the linear mapping defined by Gpx, y, zq “ px ` 2y ´
z, y ` z, x ` y ´ 2zq. Find a basis and the dimension of the kernel of G.
Ex 9.8. (a) Consider the linear mapping A : R4 Ñ R3 which has the matrix
representation relative to the usual bases of R4 and R3 as
» fi
1 2 3 1
–1 3 5 ´2fl .
3 8 13 ´3
» fi
1 3 ´1
(b) Let A “ –2 0 5 fl be the matrix of the linear mapping f : P2 rxs Ñ P2 rxs
6 ´2 4
relative to the basis S “ tv1 “ 3x ` 3x2 , v2 “ ´1 ` 3x ` 2x2 , v3 “ 3 ` 7x ` 3x2 u.
Find f pv1 q, f pv2 q, f pv3 q, f p2 ` x2 q. Find a basis and the dimension of (a) the
image of A; (b) the kernel of A.

47
Ex 9.9. Find a linear map F : R3 Ñ R4 whose image is spanned by p1, 2, 0, ´4q
and (2,0,-1,-3).
„ ȷ
1 2
Ex 9.10. Let V be the vector space of 2 by 2 matrices over R and let M “ .
0 3
Let F : V Ñ V be the linear map defined by FpAq “ AM ´ MA. Find a basis and
the dimension of the kernel W of F.
Ex 9.11. Consider the linear operator T on R3 defined by T px, y, zq “ p2x, 4x ´
y, 2x ` 3y ´ zq.
(a) Show that T is invertible.
(b) Find formulas for T ´1 , T 2 T ´2 .
Ex 9.12. Let F : R3 Ñ R2 be the linear mapping defined by Fpx, y, zq “ p3x `
2y ´ 4z, x ´ 5y ` 3zq.
(a) Find the matrix of F in the following bases of R3 and R2 :
S “ tw1 “ p1, 1, 1q, w2 “ p1, 1, 0q, w3 “ p1, 0, 0qu
S 1 “ tu1 “ p1, 3q, u2 “ p2, 5qu.
(b) Verify that the action of F is preserved by its matrix representation; that is,
for any v P R3 , rFsSS 1 rvsS “ rFpvqsS 1 .
Ex 9.13. Let G be the linear operator on R3 defined by Gpx, y, zq “ p2y ` z, x ´
4y, 3xq. Find the matrix representation of G relative to the basis
S “ tw1 “ p1, 1, 1q, w2 “ p1, 1, 0q, w3 “ p1, 0, 0qu
Ex 9.14. Each of the sets (a) t1, t, et , tet u and (b) te3 t, te3 t, t2 e3 tu is a basis of a
vector space V of functions f : R Ñ R. Let D be the differential operator on V,
that is Dp f q “ d f {dt. Find the matrix of D in each given basis.
Ex 9.15. Find the matrix representation of each of the following linear mappings
relative to the usual bases of Rn and find their rank:
(a) F : R2 Ñ R3 , Fpx, yq “ p3x ´ y, 2x ` 4y, 5x ´ 6yq.
(b) F : R4 Ñ R2 , Fpx, y, s, tq “ p3x ´ 4y ` 2s ´ 5t, 5x ` 7y ´ s ´ 2tq.
(c) F : R3 Ñ R4 , Fpx, y, zq “ p2x ` 3y ´ 8z, x ` y ` z, 4x ´ 5z, 6yq.
Ex 9.16. Suppose that A P Mpm ˆ n, Rq, B P Mpn ˆ p, Rq. Prove that
rankpABq ď mintrankpAq, rankpBqu.

48
10. Eigenvalues, Eigenvectors
10.1. Summary
Definition 10.1. Let A be a n´square matrix. A number λ is called an eigenvalue
of A if there exists a nonzero vector u such that Au “ λu. Then, u is called an
eigenvector of A corresponding to λ.

Proposition 10.1.

1. The number λ is an eigenvalue of the matrix A if and only if detpA´λIq “ 0.

detpA ´ λIq is a polynomial of degree n and is called characteristic polyno-
mial of A.

2. The vector u is an eigenvector of A corresponding to λ if and only if u is a

nontrivial solution of the homogeneous system pA ´ λIqx “ 0.

Definition 10.2. The n´ square matrices A and B are said to be similar if there
exists a non-singular matrix P such that P´1 AP “ B. If A is similar to a diagonal
matrix, A is said to be diagonalizable.

Proposition 10.2. The n´square matrix A is diagonalizable if and only if the

maximum set of linearly independent eigenvectors of A has n vectors.

Definition 10.3. Let f be an transformation from V into V. The nonzero vector

v P V is called an eigenvector of f if and only if there exists a number λ such that
f pvq “ λv.

Proposition 10.3. Let A be the representation matrix of f relate to a basis B of

V. The vector u is an eigenvector of f corresponding to λ if and only if rusB is an
eigenvector of A corresponding to λ.

10.2. Exercises
Ex 10.1. Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the following matrices.
„ ȷ „ ȷ „ ȷ „ ȷ
1 0 ´5 2 1 0 2 0
1. 9. 6. 3.
0 ´4 ´9 6 0 1 4 5

„ ȷ „ ȷ „ ȷ „ ȷ
0 0 1 2 0 2 0 1
5. 2. 10. 7.
0 0 0 3 ´2 0 1 0

49
 „ ȷ „ ȷ „ ȷ „ ȷ
0 1 3 4 14 ´10 0.8 ´0.6
11. 4. 8. 12.
´1 0 4 ´3 5 ´1 0.6 0.8
» fi » fi » fi
4 0 0 3 0 0 ´1 1 0
13. –0 8 0fl 14. 5 4 0fl
– 15. –1 ´1 0fl
0 0 6 3 6 1 0 0 0
» fi » fi » fi
2 ´2 3 6 10 6 32 ´24 ´8
16. –´2 ´1 6fl 17. –0 8 12fl 18. –16 ´11 ´4 fl
1 2 0 0 0 2 72 ´57 ´18
» fi » fi » fi
8 0 3 5 0 ´15 1 2 ´3
19. –2 2 1fl 20. –´3 ´4 9 fl 20. –2 4 ´6fl
2 0 3 5 0 ´15 ´1 ´2 3
Ex 10.2. Let λ1 , λ2 , λ3 , . . . , λn be all eigenvalues of an n´square matrix A “
ra jk s. Prove the proposition and illustrate with an example in each case.
1. The trace of A, given by traceA “ a11 ` a22 ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` ann is equal to λ1 ` λ2 `
¨ ¨ ¨ ` λn . The constant term of |A ´ λI| equals det A.
2. If A is real, the eigenvalues are real or complex conjugates in pair.
3. The inverse A´1 exists if and only if λ j , 0, j “ 1, n.

4. 1{λ j , j “ 1, n are eigenvalues of the inverse A´1 .

5. If A is triangular, the entries on the main diagonal are the eigenvalues of A.
6. The matrix A ´ kI has eigenvalues λ j ´ k, j “ 1, n.

7. The matrix kA has eigenvalues kλ j , j “ 1, n.

8. The matrix Am , m P Z` has eigenvalues λmj , j “ 1, n.

9. The matrix km Am `km´1 Am´1 `¨ ¨ ¨`k1 A`k0 I which is called the polynomial
matrix, has the eigenvalues km λmj ` km´1 λm´1
j ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` k1 λ j ` k0 , j “ 1, n.
10. AB and BA have the same eigenvalues.
11. Similar matrices have the same traces.
Ex 10.3. Determine whether the following matrices are diagonalizable? For each
diagonalizable matrix, find the matrix P that diagonalizes it.

50
 „ ȷ „ ȷ „ ȷ „ ȷ
5 6 5 ´1 ´14 12 1 0
1. 2. 3. 4.
3 ´2 1 3 ´20 17 6 ´1

» fi 6. » fi 7. » fi 8. » fi
1 0 0 2 1 ´2 3 ´1 1 11 ´8 4
5. –0 1 1fl –0 3 1 fl –7 ´5 1fl –´8 ´1 ´2fl
0 1 1 0 0 3 6 ´6 2 4 ´2 ´4

Ex 10.4. Find the eigenvalues eigenvectors of the following linear transformation

in V. Determine a basis of V such that the representation matrix of f relate to it is
a diagonal matrix.

1. V “ R3 , f px, y, zq “ p2x ` 4y ` 4z, 4x ` 2y ` 4z, 4x ` 4y ` 2zq.

2. V “ P2 rxs, f pax2 ` bx ` cq “ p´2a ` cqx2 ´ p8a ` bqx ` 2a ` 6b ` 5c.

Ex 10.5. Find the principle directions and corresponding factors

„ of
ȷ extension or
3 2
contraction of the elastic deformation y “ Ax where A “ . What is the
2 3
new shape the elastic membrane takes, given the old shape is a circle?

Ex 10.6. Let f be a linear operator such that f p1, 2, ´1q “ p4, ´2, ´6q, f p1, 1, 2q “
p5, 5, 0q, f p1, 0, 0q “ p1, 2, 1q.

a. Determine m such that p6, ´3, mq P Im f .

b. Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of f .

Ex 10.7. Let f be a linear operators in V. Assume that λ2 is an eigenvalue of

f 2 “ f ˝ f . Show that either λ or ´λ is an eigenvalue of f .

51
11. Euclidean space
11.1. Summary
Definition 11.1. Let V be a linear space over K. A bilinear mapping f : V ˆ V Ñ
Kis a mapping such that: @u1 , u2 , v1 , v2 P V, @α1 , α2 P K,

f pα1 u1 ` α2 u2 , vq “ α1 f pu1 , vq ` α2 f pu2 , vq

(11.1)
f pu, α1 v1 ` α2 v2 , q “ α1 f pu, v1 q ` α2 f pu, v2 q

Definition 11.2. The bilinear mapping f on V is said to be symmetric if for all

u, v P V,
f pu, vq “ f pv, uq. (11.2)
Definition 11.3. The bilinear mapping f on V is said to be positively defined if
for all nonzero vector u P V,
f pu, uq ą 0. (11.3)
Definition 11.4. • A symmetric, positively defined bilinear mapping on V is
called an inner product on V, noted as x¨, ¨y.

• A linear space within an inner product pV, x¨, ¨yq is called an Inner Product
Space (shortly written as IPS).

• An IPS of finite dimension is called an Euclidean space.

Definition 11.5.
a
• Length of a vector: }u} “ xu, vy

• Orthogonality: u K v ðñ xu, vy “ 0.
xu, vy
• Angle between u, v: α “ pu,
z vq, cos α “ .
}u}}v}
Proposition 11.1. Cauchy - Schwatz inequality:

|xu, vy| ď }u}}v}. (11.4)

Definition 11.6.

• The set S “ tu1 , u2 , . . . , uk u is said to be orthogonal if xui , u j y “ 0 for all

i , j.

52
 • The set S “ tu1 , u2 , . . . , uk u is said to be orthonormal if it is orthogonal
and }ui } “ 1 for all i “ 1, k
• S K “ tu P V | xu, ui y “ 0 @ i “ 1, ku is called the orthogonal space of S .
• w is said to be the orthogonal projection of u onto W “ spanS if w P w and
u ´ w K W.
Proposition 11.2. Let S “ tu1 , u2 , . . . , uk u be a spanning set of the linear
subspace W of V and an arbitrary vector u P V.
• u K W if and only if u K ui for all i “ 1, k.
• w is the orthogonal projection of u onto W if and only if u ´ w K ui for all
i “ 1, k
• If W “ spantu1 u then
xu, u1 y
prW u “ pru1 u “ u1 (11.5)
xu1 , u1 y

• If S is orthogonal and ui , 0 @i “ 1, k then

prW u “ pru1 u ` pru2 u ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` pruk u (11.6)

• If S is orthonormal then

prW u “ xu, u1 yu1 ` xu, u2 yu2 ` ¨ ¨ ¨ ` xu, uk yuk (11.7)

Gram-Schmidt algorithm

S “ tu1 , . . . , uk u ÝÑ S 1 “ tv1 , . . . , vk u ÝÑ S ” “ tw1 , . . . , w s u, s ď k

such that S 1 is orthogonal, S ” is orthonormal.

Step 1. Orthogonalization.
v1 “ u1
if v1 , 0 then v2 “ u2 ´ prv1 u2
if v2 , 0 then v3 “ u3 ´ prv1 u3 ´ prv2 u3
..
.
if vk´1 , 0 then vk “ uk ´ prv1 uk ´ prv2 uk ´ ¨ ¨ ¨ ´ prvk´1 uk
If vi “ 0, eliminate ui from S and keep doing the algorithm without ui , vi

53
Step 2. Normalization.
Eliminate all zero vector from S 1 .
vi
wi “ .
}vi }
Quadratic form
‰T
Definition 11.7. Let B be a basis of Rn , rxsB “ x1 x2 . . . xn .
“

• w is said to be a quadratic form in Rn if

n
ÿ ÿ
wpx1 , ..., xn q “ aii xi2 ` 2ai j xi x j , ai j P R. (11.8)
i“1 iă j

• The symmetric A “ rai js, where ai j in (11.8), is call the matrix of the
quadratic form (11.8) with respect to B.
Transform a quadratic form to canonical form:
Step 1. Determine the matrix A of w with respect to a basis.

Step 2. Find all eigenvalues of A.

Step 3. Find bases Bi of the eigenspaces of A.

Step 4. Transform the bases Bi to an orthonormal basis of Rn using Gram-Schmidt

algorithm.

Step 5. Construct a orthogonal matrix P from the orthonormal basis found in Step
4.
PT AP “ diagtλ1 , λ, . . . , λn u (11.9)

11.2. Exercises
Ex 11.1. Verify that the following mapping is an inner product on R2 where u “
px1 , x2 q, v “ py1 , y2 q:

xu, vy “ x1 y1 ´ 2x1 y2 ´ 2x2 y1 ` 5x2 y2

Ex 11.2. Find the values of k so that the following mapping is an inner product
on R2 where u “ px1 , x2 q, v “ py1 , y2 q:

xu, vy “ x1 y1 ´ 3x1 y2 ´ 3x2 y1 ` kx2 y2

54
Ex 11.3. Show that xA, By “ trpBT Aq defines an inner product on Mpm ˆ n, Rq.
ş1
Ex 11.4. Show that x f, gy “ 0 f ptqgptqdt defines an inner product on P2 rts. Find
a basis of the subspace W orthogonal to hptq “ 2t ` 1.
Ex 11.5. Suppose that xu, vy “ }u}}v}. Prove that tu, vu is linearly dependent.
Ex 11.6. Find a basis of the subspace W “ tp1, ´2, 3, 4q, p3, ´5, 7, 8quK in R4 .
Ex 11.7. Find an orthogonal basis and an orthonormal basis of wK where w “
p1, ´2, ´1, 3q
Ex 11.8. Find an orthogonal basis and an orthonormal basis of W where W “
tp1, 1, 2, 2q, p0, 1, 2, ´1quK Ă R4 .
Ex 11.9. In R4 , consider W “ tp1, 1, 2, 2q, p0, 1, 2, ´1quK . Find an orthogonal
basis and an orthonormal basis for W.
Ex 11.10. Let S be the set of the following vectors in R4 :

u1 “ p1, 1, 1, 1q, u2 “ p1, 1, ´1 ´ 1q, u3 “ p1, ´1, 1, ´1q, u4 “ p1, ´1, ´1, 1q

a) Show that S is orthogonal and a basis of R4 .

b) Write v “ p1, 3, ´5, 6q as a linear combination of S .

c) Find the coordinate of an arbitrary vector v “ pa, b, c, dq in R4 relative to

the basis S .

d) Normalize S to obtain an orthonormal basis of R4 .

Ex 11.11. Find an orthogonal and an orthonormal basis of the subspace U of R4
spanned by the vectors tu “ p1, 1, 1, 1q, v “ p1, ´1, 2, 2q, w “ p1, 2, ´3, ´4qu.
Ex 11.12. Let V be the vector of polynomials f ptq with inner product x f, gy “
ş2 2
0 f ptqgptqdt. Apply the Gram-Schmidt algorithm to the set t1, t, t u to obtain an
orthogonal set t f0 , f1 , f2 u.
Ex 11.13. Suppose v “ p1, 2, 3, 4, 6q. Find the orthogonal projection of v onto W
(or find w P W which minimizes }v ´ w}) where W is the subspace of R5 spanned
by:
a) u1 “ p1, 2, 1, 2, 1q, u2 “ p1, ´1, 2, ´1, 1q.

55
 b) v1 “ p1, 2, 1, 2, 1q, v2 “ p1, 0, 1, 5, ´1q.

Ex 11.14.
a) Consider the Euclidean space R4 with the usual inner product. Let P : R4 ÝÑ
spantp1, 0, 2, 1q, p1, ´2, 0, 1qu be the orthogonal projection. Find Pp1, ´3, 1, ´2q.
b) Find the least square solution of the following system, then explain the meaning
of the least square solutions:
» fi » fi » fi
1 2 ´2 2 x1
–1 0 ´2fl X “ –4fl for X “ – x2 fl
2 8 ´4 1 x3

Ex 11.15. Orthogonally diagonalize the following symmetric matrix:

» fi
1 2 2
–2 1 2fl .
2 2 1

Ex 11.16. Consider the quadratic form qpx, y, zq “ 3x2 `2xy`3y2 `2xz`2yz`3z2 .

Find:

a) The symmetric matrix A which represents q and its characteristic polyno-

mial.

b) The eigenvalues of A.

c) The maximal set S of nonzero orthogonal eigenvectors of A.

d) An orthogonal change of coordinates which diagonalizes q.

Ex 11.17. On R3 consider the following quadratic form q “ 8x2 ` 8xy ´ 2xz ´

7y2 ` 8yz ` 8z2 . Find an orthogonal change of coordinates which diagonalizes q.
» fi » fi
1 3 ´1 ´2
Ex 11.18. Let A “ 2 ´4 1 , B “
– fl – 7 fl . Find a column vector X̃ P
6 8 ´3 5
M3ˆ1 pRq which minimizes the function f pXq “ }AX ´ B} defined for all X P
M3ˆ1 pRq.

Ex 11.19. Transform the following quadratic surfaces to the principles axes:

a) 3x2 ` 4xy ` 4xz ` 3y2 ` 4yz ` 3z2 ` 2x ´ y ` 3z “ 0.

56
 b) 2x2 ` 6y2 ` 14z2 ´ 6xy ` 2xz ` 6yz ` 2x ´ y ` z “ 0.

Ex 11.20. Let A, B be n´ square symmetric matrices on R. Prove that:

a) All the eigenvalues of A are positive if and only if X T AX ą 0 for all X P

Mnˆ1 pRqzt0u.

b) If all the eigenvalues of A and B are positive, then so are the eigenvalues of
A ` B.

Ex 11.21. Let A be an n´ square matrix such that A8 ` 5A4 ` 6I “ 0. Prove that

A does not have any real eigenvalue.

57