Lingzhi (mushroom)

Lingzhi, Ganoderma sichuanense, also

known as reishi or Ganoderma lingzhi[3] is
a polypore fungus ("bracket fungus")
native to East Asia belonging to the genus
Ganoderma.
 Lingzhi

Scientific classification

Domain: Eukaryota

Kingdom: Fungi

Division: Basidiomycota

Class: Agaricomycetes

Order: Polyporales

Family: Ganodermataceae
Genus: Ganoderma
Species: G. sichuanense

Binomial name

Ganoderma sichuanense
J.D. Zhao & X.Q. Zhang (1983)[1]

Synonyms[2][3]

Ganoderma lingzhi Sheng H. Wu, Y. Cao &

Y.C. Dai (2012)
 Lingzhi
Mycological characteristics
Pores on hymenium

Cap is offset or
indistinct

Hymenium
attachment is
irregular or not
applicable

Stipe is bare or lacks

a stipe

Spore print is brown

Ecology is
saprotrophic or
parasitic
Edibility is too hard to
eat
 Lingzhi

Traditional Chinese 靈芝

Simplified Chinese 灵芝
 Transcriptions

Standard Mandarin

Hanyu Pinyin língzhī

Wade–Giles ling2-chih1

IPA [lǐŋ.ʈʂɻ̩́]

Yue: Cantonese

Yale Romanization lìhngjī

Jyutping ling4zi1

IPA [leŋ˩.tsiː˥]

Southern Min

Hokkien POJ lêng-chi

Its reddish brown varnished kidney-shaped

cap with bands and peripherally inserted
stem gives it a distinct fan-like
appearance. When fresh, the lingzhi is soft,
cork-like, and flat. It lacks gills on its
underside, and instead releases its spores
via fine pores (80–120 μm) in yellow
colors.[2]

The lingzhi mushroom is used in

traditional Chinese medicine.[2][4] There is
insufficient evidence to indicate that
consuming lingzhi mushrooms or their
extracts has any effect on human health or
diseases.[5][6][7]

In nature, it grows at the base and stumps

of deciduous trees, especially that of the
maple. Only two or three out of 10,000
such aged trees will have lingzhi growth,
and therefore its wild form is rare. Lingzhi
may be cultivated on hardwood logs,
sawdust, or woodchips.

Taxonomy and ecology

Lingzhi, also known as reishi from its
Japanese pronunciation, is the ancient
"mushroom of immortality", revered for
over 2,000 years (with some evidence
suggesting use in Neolithic China 6,800
years ago).[8] However, as of 2023 there is
an ongoing debate on which one of the
described Ganoderma species is the
lingzhi mushroom. It is also likely that a
few different common species were
considered interchangeable.

Under the scientific literature, the lingzhi

mushroom is ambiguously referred to as:

Ganoderma sichuanense — the current

name, described by Zhao and Zhang
(1983).[1]
Ganoderma lingzhi — described by Cao
et al. (2012)[2] as a novel species that is
also the best fit for the traditional
definitions of the lingzhi mushroom.
However, Du et al. (2023)[3] showed that
it is the same species as G.
sichuanense. It is now treated as a later
synonym.
Ganoderma lucidum — a type species of
Genoderma described by Karst (1881)
based on the European population. Early
records of chinese Genoderma
populations identified them as
G. lucidum, but it was later established
that Asian populations are distinct from
European both morphologically and
phylogenetically.[9][3] As the lingzhi
fungus is strongly rooted into culture,
the old name persists, even though it is
well established that G. sichuanense
and G. lucidum are distinct species. This
 leads to a lot of confusion in culture, as
well as in the scientific community,
when trying to codify and describe its
medicinal uses.

One of the sources employed to solved the

task of identifying the traditional lingzhi
mushroom is the 16th century Chinese
herbal compendium, the Bencao Gangmu
(1578). There, a number of different
lingzhi-like mushrooms were used for
different purposes and defined by color.
No exact current species can be attached
to these ancient lingzhi for certain, but
according to Dai et al. (2017),[10] as well as
other researchers, and based on molecular
work, red lingzhi is most likely to be
Ganoderma sichuanense.[11][2]

Ganoderma sichuanense is the most

widely found species in Chinese herb
shops today, and the fruiting bodies are
widely cultivated in China and shipped to
many other countries. About 7–10 other
Ganoderma species are also sold in some
shops, but have different Chinese and
Latin names, and are considered different
in their activity and functions. The
differences are based on concentrations
of triterpenes such as ganoderic acid and
its derivatives, which vary widely among
species. Research on the genus is
ongoing, but a number of recent
phylogenetic analyses have been
published in the last number of years.[12]

Nomenclature

Petter Adolf Karsten named the genus

Ganoderma in 1881.[13] English botanist
William Curtis gave the fungus its first
binomial name, Boletus lucidus, in
1781.[14] The lingzhi's botanical names
have Greek and Latin roots. Ganoderma
derives from the Greek ganos (γανος;
'brightness'), and derma (δερμα; 'skin;
together; shining skin').[15] The specific
epithet, sichuanense, comes from the
Sichuan Chinese province. The synonym's
specific name, lingzhi, comes from
Chinese, meaning 'divine mushroom'.

Varieties

It was once thought that Ganoderma

lingzhi generally occurred in two growth
forms: a large, sessile, specimen with a
small or nonexistent stalk, found in North
America, and a smaller specimen with a
long, narrow stalk, found mainly in the
tropics. However, recent molecular
evidence has identified the former,
stalkless, form as a distinct species called
G. sessile, a name given to North
American specimens by William Alfonso
Murrill in 1902.[12][16]

Environmental conditions play a

substantial role in the lingzhi's manifest
morphological characteristics. For
example, elevated carbon dioxide levels
result in stem elongation in lingzhi. Other
formations include antlers without a cap,
which may also be related to carbon
dioxide levels. The three main factors that
influence fruit body development
morphology are light, temperature, and
humidity. While water and air quality play a
role in fruit body development morphology,
they do so to a lesser degree.[17]
Habitat

Ganoderma lingzhi is found in East Asia

growing as a parasite or saprotroph on a
variety of trees.[18] Ganoderma curtisii and
Ganoderma ravenelii are the closest
relatives of the lingzhi mushroom in North
America.[19]

In the wild, lingzhi grows at the base and

stumps of deciduous trees, especially that
of the maple.[20] Only two or three out of
10,000 such aged trees will have lingzhi
growth, and therefore it is extremely rare in
its natural form. Today, lingzhi is
effectively cultivated on hardwood logs or
sawdust/woodchips.[21]
Grown lingzhi mushroom

Depending on environmental or cultivation

conditions lingzhi may resemble antlers, with
no umbrella cap.
History

Tao Yuanming holding Lingzhi by

Chen Hongshou[22]

In the chronicles of Shiji (1st century CE

from Sima Qian), the initial use of nearby
separately related words with Chinese: 芝
and Chinese: 靈 are attested to in the
poems of Emperor Wu of Han. Later, in the
1st century CE through the poetry of Ban
Gu, occurred the first combination of the
characters 靈芝 together into a single
word, in an ode dedicated to Lingzhi.[23][24]

Since ancient times, Taoist temples were

called "the abode of mushrooms" and
according to their mystical teachings, the
use of woody mushrooms zhi
(Ganoderma) or lingzhi "spirits
mushroom", in particular making from it a
concentrated decoction of hallucinogenic
action,[23] gave followers the opportunity
to see spirits or become spirits
themselves by receiving the magical
energy of the immortals xians, located on
the "fields of grace" in the heavenly
"mushroom fields" (zhi tian.[25]
In the philosophical work Huainanzi, it is
said that the lingzhi mushroom is
personification of nobility; from which
shamans brewed a psychedelic
drink.[26][27]

The Shennong bencao jing (Divine

Farmer's Classic of Pharmaceutics) of
c. 200–250 CE classifies zhi into six color
categories, each of which is believed to
benefit the qi, or "life force", in a different
part of the body: qingzhi (青芝; 'green
mushroom') for the liver, chizhi (赤芝; 'red
mushroom') for the heart, huangzhi (黃芝;
'yellow mushroom') for the spleen, baizhi
( 白芝; 'white mushroom') for the lungs,
 黑芝; 'black mushroom') for the
heizhi (
kidneys, and zizhi (紫芝; 'purple
mushroom') for the Essence.
Commentators identify the red chizhi, or
danzhi ( 丹芝; 'cinnabar mushroom'), as the
lingzhi.[28][29]

Chi Zhi (Ganoderma rubra) is

bitter and balanced. It mainly
treats binding in the chest,
boosts the heart qi, supplements
the center, sharpens the wits,
and [causes people] not to forget
[i.e., improves the memory].
Protracted taking may make the
 body light, prevent senility, and
prolong life so as to make one
an immortal. Its other name is
Dan Zhi (Cinnabar Ganoderma).
It grows in mountains and
valleys.[30]

In the Taoist treatise of Baopuzi from Ge

Hong, the lingzhi is used for
immortality.[31][28][29]

The (1596) Bencao Gangmu

(Compendium of Materia Medica) has a
芝
Zhi ( ) category that includes six types of
zhi (calling the green, red, yellow, white,
black, and purple mushrooms of the
Shennong bencao jing the liuzhi ( 六芝; "six
mushrooms") and sixteen other fungi,
mushrooms, and lichens, including mu'er
( 木耳; "wood ear"; "cloud ear fungus",
Auricularia auricula-judae). The author Li
Shizhen classified these six differently
colored zhi as xiancao ( 仙草; "immortality
herbs"), and described the effects of chizhi
("red mushroom"):

It positively affects the life-

energy, or Qi of the heart,
repairing the chest area and
benefiting those with a knotted
and tight chest. Taken over a
 long period of time, the agility of
the body will not cease, and the
years are lengthened to those of
the Immortal Fairies.[32][33]

Stuart and Smith's classic study of

Chinese herbology describes the zhi.

芝 (Chih) is defined in the

classics as the plant of
immortality, and it is therefore
always considered to be a
felicitous one. It is said to
absorb the earthy vapors and to
leave a heavenly atmosphere.
 For this reason, it is called 靈芝
(Ling-chih.) It is large and of a
branched form, and probably
represents Clavaria or
Sparassis. Its form is likened to
that of coral.[34]

The Bencao Gangmu does not list lingzhi

as a variety of zhi, but as an alternate
name for the shi'er ( 石耳; "stone ear",
Umbilicaria esculenta) lichen. According to
Stuart and Smith,

[The 石耳 Shih-erh is] edible, and

has all of the good qualities of
 the 芝 (Chih), it is also being
used in the treatment of gravel,
and said to benefit virility. It is
specially used in hemorrhage
from the bowels and prolapse of
the rectum. While the name of
this would indicate that it was
one of the Auriculariales, the
fact that the name 靈芝 (Ling-
chih) is also given to it might
place it among the
Clavariaceae.[34]

In Chinese art, the lingzhi symbolizes great

health and longevity, as depicted in the
imperial Forbidden City and Summer
Palace.[35] It was a talisman for luck in the
traditional culture of China, and the
goddess of healing Guanyin is sometimes
depicted holding a lingzhi mushroom.[33]
Regional names
Regional names

Historical name

Traditional Chinese 靈芝

Literal meaning spirit mushroom

Middle Chinese /leŋ.t͡ɕɨ/

Zhengzhang /*reːŋ.tjɯ/

Chinese name

Traditional Chinese 靈芝

Simplified Chinese 灵芝

Hanyu Pinyin língzhī

Wade–Giles ling2-chih1

Jyutping ling4 zi1

 Vietnamese name

Vietnamese linh chi

Chữ Nôm 靈芝
Thai name

Thai หลินจือ

RTGS lin chue

Korean name

Hangul 영지

Hanja 靈芝

Revised Romanization yeongji

McCune–Reischauer yŏngji

Japanese name

Kanji 霊芝
Hiragana れいし
Katakana レイシ
Revised Hepburn reishi

Look up 靈芝 영지 霊芝
, , or in
Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Chinese

The Old Chinese name for lingzhi 靈芝 was

first recorded during the Han dynasty (206
BC – 9 AD). In the Chinese language,
língzhī ( 靈芝) is a compound. It comprises
靈
líng ( ); "spirit, spiritual; soul; miraculous;
sacred; divine; mysterious; efficacious;
effective)" as, for example, in the name of
the Lingyan Temple in Jinan, and zhī ( 芝); "
(traditional) plant of longevity; fungus;
seed; branch; mushroom; excrescence").
Fabrizio Pregadio notes, "The term zhi,
which has no equivalent in Western
languages, refers to a variety of
supermundane substances often
described as plants, fungi, or
'excrescences'."[36] Zhi occurs in other
Chinese plant names, such as zhīmá ( 芝麻;
"sesame" or "seed"), and was anciently
used a phonetic loan character for zhǐ ( 芷;
"Angelica iris"). Chinese differentiates
Ganoderma species into chìzhī ( 赤芝; "red
mushroom") G. lingzhi, and zǐzhī (紫芝;
"purple mushroom") Ganoderma sinense.
Lingzhi has several synonyms. Of these,
ruìcǎo ( 瑞草; "auspicious plant") (ruì 瑞;
"auspicious; felicitous omen" with the
suffix cǎo 草; "plant; herb") is the oldest;
the Erya dictionary (c. 3rd century BCE)
defines xiú苬, interpreted as a miscopy of
jūn (菌; "mushroom") as zhī (芝;
"mushroom"), and the commentary of Guo
Pu (276–324) says, "The [zhi] flowers three
times in one year. It is a [ruicao] felicitous
plant."[37] Other Chinese names for
Ganoderma include ruìzhī ( 瑞芝;
"auspicious mushroom"), shénzhī ( 神芝;
"divine mushroom", with shen; "spirit; god'
supernatural; divine"), mùlíngzhī ( 木靈芝)
(with "tree; wood"), xiāncǎo ( 仙草;
"immortality plant", with xian; "(Daoism)
transcendent; immortal; wizard"), and
língzhīcǎo ( 靈芝草) or zhīcǎo (芝草;
"mushroom plant").

Since both Chinese ling and zhi have

multiple meanings, lingzhi has diverse
English translations. Renditions include "
[zhi] possessed of soul power",[38] "Herb of
Spiritual Potency" or "Mushroom of
Immortality",[39] "Numinous Mushroom",[36]
"divine mushroom",[40] "divine fungus",[41]
"Magic Fungus",[42] and "Marvelous
Fungus".[43]
English

In English, lingzhi or ling chih (sometimes

spelled "ling chi", using the French EFEO
Chinese transcription) is a Chinese
loanword. It is also commonly referred to
as "reishi", which is loaned from
Japanese.[44]

The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) gives

the definition, "The fungus Ganoderma
lucidum (actually Ganoderma lingzhi (see
Ganoderma lucidum for details), believed
in China to confer longevity and used as a
symbol of this on Chinese ceramic
ware.",[45] and identifies the etymology of
the word as Chinese: líng, "divine" + zhī,
"fungus". According to the OED, the
earliest recorded usage of the Wade–Giles
romanization ling chih is 1904,[46] and of
the Pinyin lingzhi is 1980.

In addition to the transliterated loanwords,

English names include "glossy
ganoderma" and "shiny polyporus".[47]

Japanese

The Japanese word reishi ( 霊芝) is a Sino-

Japanese loanword deriving from the
灵芝; 靈芝). Its modern
Chinese língzhī (
Japanese kanji, 霊, is the shinjitai ("new
character form") of the kyūjitai ("old
character form"), 靈. Synonyms for reishi
are divided between Sino-Japanese
borrowings and native Japanese coinages.
Sinitic loanwords include literary terms
such as zuisō (瑞草, from ruìcǎo;
"auspicious plant") and sensō (仙草, from
xiāncǎo; "immortality plant"). The
Japanese writing system uses shi or shiba
(芝) for "grass; lawn; turf", and take or
kinoko (茸) for "mushroom" (e.g., shiitake).
A common native Japanese name is
mannentake ( 万年茸; "10,000-year
mushroom"). Other Japanese terms for
reishi include kadodetake ( 門出茸;
"departure mushroom"), hijiridake ( 聖茸;
"sage mushroom"), and magoshakushi ( 孫
杓子; "grandchild ladle").
Korean

The Korean name, yeongji ( 영지; 靈芝) is

also borrowed from, so a cognate with, the
Chinese word língzhī (灵芝; 靈芝). It is
often called yeongjibeoseot (영지버섯;
"yeongji mushroom") in Korean, with the
addition of the native word beoseot ( 버섯)
meaning "mushroom". Other common
names include bullocho ( 불로초, 不老草;
"elixir grass") and jicho (지초; 芝草).
According to color, yeongji mushrooms
can be classified as jeokji ( 적지; 赤芝) for
 자지; 紫芝) for "purple", heukji (흑
"red", jaji (
지; 黑芝) for "black", cheongji (청지; 靑芝)
for "blue" or "green", baekji (백지; 白芝) for
"white", and hwangji (황지; 黃芝) for
"yellow". South Korea produces over
25,000 tons of mushrooms every year.

Thai

The Thai word het lin chue (เห็ดหลินจือ) is

a compound of the native word het (เห็ด)
meaning "mushroom" and the loanword lin
chue (หลินจือ) from the Chinese língzhī ( 灵
芝; 靈芝).
Vietnamese

The Vietnamese language word linh chi is

a loanword from Chinese. It is often used
with nấm, the Vietnamese word for
"mushroom", thus nấm linh chi is the
equivalent of "lingzhi mushroom".

Uses

Clinical research and phytochemistry

Ganoderic acid A, a compound

isolated from lingzhi
Ganoderma lucidum contains diverse
phytochemicals, including triterpenes
(ganoderic acids), which have a molecular
structure similar to that of steroid
hormones.[48] It also contains
phytochemicals found in fungal materials,
including polysaccharides (such as beta-
glucan), coumarin,[49] mannitol, and
alkaloids.[48] Sterols isolated from the
mushroom include ganoderol, ganoderenic
acid, ganoderiol, ganodermanontriol,
lucidadiol, and ganodermadiol.[48]

A 2015 Cochrane database review found

insufficient evidence to justify the use of
G. lucidum as a first-line cancer
treatment.[5][6] It stated that G. lucidum
may have "benefit as an alternative adjunct
to conventional treatment in consideration
of its potential of enhancing tumour
response and stimulating host
immunity."[6] Existing studies do not
support the use of G. lucidum for
treatment of risk factors of cardiovascular
disease in people with type 2 diabetes
mellitus.[7]

Folk medicine

Because of its bitter taste,[50] lingzhi is

traditionally prepared as a hot water
extract product for use in folk medicine.[35]
Thinly sliced or pulverized lingzhi (either
fresh or dried) is added to boiling water
which is then reduced to a simmer,
covered, and left for 2 hours.[51] The
resulting liquid is dark and fairly bitter in
taste. The red lingzhi is often more bitter
than the black. The process is sometimes
repeated to increase the concentration.
Alternatively, it can be used as an
ingredient in a formula decoction, or used
to make an extract (in liquid, capsule, or
powder form).[52]

Other uses
Lingzhi is commercially manufactured and
sold. Since the early 1970s, most lingzhi is
cultivated. Lingzhi can grow on substrates
such as sawdust, grain, and wood logs.
After formation of the fruiting body, lingzhi
is most commonly harvested, dried,
ground, and processed into tablets or
capsules to be directly ingested or made
into tea or soup. Other lingzhi products
include processed fungal mycelia or
spores.[51] Lingzhi is also used to create
mycelium bricks.[53]

See also
Medicinal fungi

References
1. Chao, Chi-ting. Taxonomic studies on the
 family Ganodermataceae of China II (htt
p://worldcat.org/oclc/80615364) .
OCLC 80615364 (https://www.worldcat.or
g/oclc/80615364) .
2. Cao, Yun; Wu, Sheng-Hua; Dai, Yu-Cheng
(2012). "Species clarification of the prize
medicinal Ganoderma mushroom
'Lingzhi' ". Fungal Diversity. 56 (1): 49–62.
doi:10.1007/s13225-012-0178-5 (https://d
oi.org/10.1007%2Fs13225-012-0178-5) .
S2CID 15239238 (https://api.semanticsch
olar.org/CorpusID:15239238) .
3. Du, Zhuo; Li, Yi; Wang, Xin-Cun; Wang, Ke;
Yao, Yi-Jian (2023). "Re-Examination of
the Holotype of Ganoderma sichuanense
(Ganodermataceae, Polyporales) and a
Clarification of the Identity of Chinese
Cultivated Lingzhi" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.
nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10051598) .
Journal of Fungi. 9 (3): 323.
doi:10.3390/jof9030323 (https://doi.org/1
0.3390%2Fjof9030323) . ISSN 2309-608X
(https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2309-608
X) . PMC 10051598 (https://www.ncbi.nl
m.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10051598) .
PMID 36983491 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nl
m.nih.gov/36983491) .
4. Kenneth, Jones (1990). Reishi: Ancient
Herb for Modern Times. Sylvan Press.
p. 6.
5. "Reishi mushroom" (https://www.drugs.co
m/npp/reishi-mushroom.html) .
Drugs.com. 12 December 2019. Retrieved
4 March 2020.
6. Jin, Xingzhong; Ruiz Beguerie, Julieta; Sze,
Daniel Man-yuen; Chan, Godfrey C.F.
(2015). "Ganoderma lucidum (Reishi
mushroom) for cancer treatment" (https://
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC
6353236) . The Cochrane Database of
Systematic Reviews. 4 (4): CD007731.
doi:10.1002/14651858.CD007731.pub3 (h
ttps://doi.org/10.1002%2F14651858.CD0
07731.pub3) . PMC 6353236 (https://ww
w.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC635
3236) . PMID 27045603 (https://pubmed.
ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27045603) .
7. Klupp, Nerida L.; Chang, Dennis; Hawke,
Fiona; Kiat, Hosen; Cao, Huijuan; Grant,
Suzanne J.; Bensoussan, Alan (2015).
"Ganoderma lucidum mushroom for the
treatment of cardiovascular risk factors"
(https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articl
es/PMC6486141) . The Cochrane
Database of Systematic Reviews. 2021
(2): CD007259.
doi:10.1002/14651858.CD007259.pub2 (h
ttps://doi.org/10.1002%2F14651858.CD0
07259.pub2) . PMC 6486141 (https://ww
w.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC648
6141) . PMID 25686270 (https://pubmed.
ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25686270) .
8. Sun, Guoping; Cao, Lijuan; Huang, Luqi;
Wang, Yajun; Yuan, Yuan; Han, Dong; Yuan,
Bing; Wang, Yeran; Shen, Yueming (2018-
05-01). "Archaeological evidence suggests
earlier use of <italic>Ganoderma</italic>
in Neolithic China" (https://doi.org/10.136
0%2Fn972018-00188) . Chinese Science
Bulletin. 63 (13): 1180–1188.
doi:10.1360/n972018-00188 (https://doi.o
rg/10.1360%2Fn972018-00188) .
ISSN 0023-074X (https://www.worldcat.or
g/issn/0023-074X) . S2CID 103581412 (ht
tps://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1
03581412) .
 9. Pegler, D. N.; Yao, Y. J. (1996). "Oriental
species of Ganoderma section
Ganoderma". Botany and Mycology for the
Next Millenium: Collection of Scientific
Articles Devoted to the 70th Anniversary
of Academician Sytnik KM. Kyiv: Kholodny
NG Institute of Botany, National Academy
of Sciences of Ukraine: 336–347.
10. Dai, Y.-C. (2017). "Ganoderma lingzhi
(Polyporales, Basidiomycota): the
scientific binomial for the widely
cultivated medicinal fungus Lingzhi".
Mycological Progress. 16 (11–12): 1051–
1055. doi:10.1007/s11557-017-1347-4 (ht
tps://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11557-017-134
7-4) . S2CID 38561105 (https://api.seman
ticscholar.org/CorpusID:38561105) .
11. Dai, Yu-Cheng; Zhou, Li-Wei; Hattori,
Tsutomu; Cao, Yun; Stalpers, Joost A.;
Ryvarden, Leif; Buchanan, Peter;
Oberwinkler, Franz; Hallenberg, Nils; Liu,
Pei-Gui; Wu, Sheng-Hua (December 2017).
"Ganoderma lingzhi (Polyporales,
Basidiomycota): the scientific binomial for
the widely cultivated medicinal fungus
Lingzhi" (http://link.springer.com/10.100
7/s11557-017-1347-4) . Mycological
Progress. 16 (11–12): 1051–1055.
doi:10.1007/s11557-017-1347-4 (https://d
oi.org/10.1007%2Fs11557-017-1347-4) .
ISSN 1617-416X (https://www.worldcat.or
g/issn/1617-416X) . S2CID 38561105 (htt
ps://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:38
561105) .
12. Zhou, Li-Wei; Cao, Yun; Wu, Sheng-Hua;
Vlasák, Josef; Li, De-Wei; Li, Meng-Jie; Dai,
Yu-Cheng (2015). "Global diversity of the
Ganoderma lucidum complex
(Ganodermataceae, Polyporales) inferred
from morphology and multilocus
phylogeny". Phytochemistry. 114: 7–15.
Bibcode:2015PChem.114....7Z (https://ui.
adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015PChem.11
4....7Z) .
doi:10.1016/j.phytochem.2014.09.023 (htt
ps://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.phytochem.201
4.09.023) . PMID 25453909 (https://pubm
ed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25453909) .
13. Karsten, PA. (1881). "Enumeratio
Boletinearum et Polyporearum
Fennicarum, systemate novo
dispositarum". Revue Mycologique,
Toulouse (in Latin). 3 (9): 16–19.
14. Steyaert, R. L. (1961). "Note on the
nomenclature of fungi and, incidentally, of
Ganoderma lucidum" (http://www.iapt-tax
on.org/historic/Congress/IBC_1964/nom_
fung.pdf) (PDF). Taxon. 10 (8): 251–252.
doi:10.2307/1216350 (https://doi.org/10.
2307%2F1216350) . JSTOR 1216350 (http
s://www.jstor.org/stable/1216350) .
15. Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert
(1980). A Greek-English Lexicon
(Abridged ed.). United Kingdom: Oxford
University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-910207-5.
16. "Ganoderma sessile" (http://www.mycoba
nk.org/Biolomics.aspx?Table=Mycobank&
MycoBankNr_=237038) . MycoBank.
International Mycological Association.
17. Yajima, Yuka; Miyazaki, Minoru; Okita,
Noriyasu; Hoshino, Tamotsu (2013).
"Production of Ginkgo Leaf−Shaped
Basidiocarps of the Lingzhi or Reishi
Medicinal Mushroom Ganoderma lucidum
(Higher Basidiomycetes), Containing High
Levels of α- and β-D-Glucan and Ganoderic
Acid A". International Journal of Medicinal
Mushrooms. 15 (2): 175–182.
doi:10.1615/IntJMedMushr.v15.i2.60 (http
s://doi.org/10.1615%2FIntJMedMushr.v1
5.i2.60) . PMID 23557369 (https://pubme
d.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23557369) .
18. Loyd, Andrew L.; Richter, Brantlee S.;
Jusino, Michelle A.; Truong, Camille;
Smith, Matthew E.; Blanchette, Robert A.;
Smith, Jason A. (2018). "Identifying the
"Mushroom of Immortality": Assessing the
Ganoderma Species Composition in
Commercial Reishi Products" (https://ww
w.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC605
5023) . Frontiers in Microbiology. 9: 1557.
doi:10.3389/fmicb.2018.01557 (https://do
i.org/10.3389%2Ffmicb.2018.01557) .
PMC 6055023 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.g
ov/pmc/articles/PMC6055023) .
PMID 30061872 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nl
m.nih.gov/30061872) .
19. Loyd, A. L.; Barnes, C. W.; Held, B. W.;
Schink, M. J.; Smith, M. E.; Smith, J. A.;
Blanchette, R. A. (2018). "Elucidating
"lucidum": Distinguishing the diverse
laccate Ganoderma species of the United
States" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pm
c/articles/PMC6051579) . PLOS ONE. 13
(7): e0199738.
Bibcode:2018PLoSO..1399738L (https://u
i.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018PLoSO..13
99738L) .
doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0199738 (http
s://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0199
738) . PMC 6051579 (https://www.ncbi.nl
m.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6051579) .
PMID 30020945 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nl
m.nih.gov/30020945) .
20. National Audubon Society (1993). Field
Guide to Mushrooms.
21. Veena, S. S.; Pandey, Meera (2011).
"Paddy Straw as a Substrate for the
Cultivation of Lingzhi or Reishi Medicinal
Mushroom, Ganoderma lucidum (W.Curt.
:Fr.) P. Karst. in India". International
Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms. 13 (4):
397–400.
doi:10.1615/intjmedmushr.v13.i4.100 (htt
ps://doi.org/10.1615%2Fintjmedmushr.v1
3.i4.100) . PMID 2164770 (https://pubme
d.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2164770) .
22. Философско-эстетический смысл так
называемого «божественного гриба»
(«линчжи») в искусстве Китая (https://li
brary.orientmuseum.ru/images/pdf/1977_
___9.pdf) / Завадская Е. В. // Научные
сообщения Государственного музея
искусства народов Востока // М.:
Наука, 1977. — Вып. 9. — (с. 40—46) — С.
44. (табл. III) С. 179.
23. Философско-эстетический смысл так
называемого «божественного гриба»
(«линчжи») в искусстве Китая (https://li
brary.orientmuseum.ru/images/pdf/1977_
___9.pdf) Archived (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20211117200910/https://library.ori
entmuseum.ru/images/pdf/1977____9.pd
f) 2021-11-17 at the Wayback Machine /
Evgeniya V. Zavadskaya // Научные
сообщения Государственного музея
искусства народов Востока // М.:
Наука, 1977. — Вып. 9. — С. 40—46.
24. Soma: Divine Mushroom of Immortality /
Wasson R. G. // New York: Harcourt Brace
Jovanovich, 1972. — P. 85. (https://archiv
e.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.449342/pa
ge/n121/mode/2up) — P. 89. (https://arc
hive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.449342/
page/n127/mode/2up)
25. Китай: колокольца в пыли. Странствия
мага и интеллектуала / Aleksey A.
Maslov // М.: Алетейа, 2005. — 376 с. —
ISBN 5-98639-025-3 — С. 74, 356, 367.
26. Философы из Хуайнани. Хуайнаньцзы /
Пер. Л. Е. Померанцевой. Сост. И. В.
Ушаков // М: Мысль, 2004. — 430 с. —
ISBN 5-244-00984-2 — С. 267. «Шаманок
(Ушань) — гора в пров. Сычуань. Из
гриба цзычжи (другое название —
линчжи) мудрецы делали дурманящий
напиток. О дереве гаося аналогичных
сведений как будто нет. Комментарий
говорит, что это высокое дерево с
плотной шелковистой древесиной
белого цвета и что гаося и цзычжи
символы благородства, а
чернобыльники и полынь — символы
ничтожества.» — С. 50: «На горе
Шаманок послушны ветру и покорны
огню как дерево гаося и гриб цзычжи,
 так и чернобыльник и полынь все
погибают вместе.»
27. Поздние даосы о природе, обществе и
искусстве («Хуайнаньцзы» — II в. до н.
э.) / Померанцева Л. Е. // М.:
Издательство Московского
университета, 1979. — 240 с. — С. 145,
220.
28. Ancient Chinese People's Knowledge of
Macrofungi during the Period from 220 to
589 (http://www.eastm.org/index.php/jour
nal/article/view/649/563) Archived (http
s://web.archive.org/web/2021111222031
0/http://www.eastm.org/index.php/journa
l/article/view/649/563) 2021-11-12 at
the Wayback Machine / Lu Di // «East
Asian Science, Technology, and Medicine»,
№ 37 (2013)/2014: 36-68.
29. Traditional uses, chemical components
and pharmacological activities of the
genus Ganoderma P. Karst.: a review (http
s://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelandin
g/2020/ra/d0ra07219b) / Li Wang, Jie-
qing Li, Ji Zhang, Zhi-min Li,b Hong-gao
Liu, Yuan-zhong Wang // RSC Advances:
Issue 69, 2020.
30. The Divine Farmer's Materia Medica: A
Translation of the Shen Nong Ben Cao
Jing (https://books.google.com/books?id
=NjC-eTffFeQC) . Translated by Yang,
Shouzhong. Blue Poppy Press. 1998.
pp. 17–18. ISBN 9780936185965.
31. Li Bo Unkempt (https://library.oapen.org/h
andle/20.500.12657/47515) / Kidder
Smith, Mike Zhai // Punctum Books, 2021.
— ISBN 9781953035417, 9781953035424;
doi:10.21983/P3.0322.1.00 (https://doi.or
g/10.21983%2FP3.0322.1.00) . — pp. 137,
405.
32. Li, Shizhen. 本草綱目 (https://en.wikisour
ce.org/wiki/zh:%E6%9C%AC%E8%8D%8
9%E7%B6%B1%E7%9B%AE/%E8%8F%9C%
E4%B9%8B%E4%B8%89) [Compendium
of Materia Medica] (in Chinese) – via
胸中結, 益心氣, 補中, 增智慧,
Wikisource. "
不忘。久食, 輕身不老, 延年神仙。"
33. Halpern, Georges M. (2007). Healing
Mushrooms (https://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=FlrpouUh740C) . Square One
Publishers. p. 59. ISBN 978-0-7570-0196-
3.
34. Stuart, G. A.; Smith, F. Porter (1911).
Chinese Materia Medica, Pt. 1, Vegetable
Kingdom (https://www.biodiversitylibrary.o
rg/item/66623) . Presbyterian Mission
Press. pp. 271, 274.
ISBN 9780879684693.
35. Smith, John; Rowan, Neil; Sullivan, Richard
(2001). "Medicinal mushrooms: their
therapeutic properties and current
medical usage with special emphasis on
cancer treatments" (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20090831052918/http://sci.cancer
researchuk.org/labs/med_mush/med_mu
sh.html) . Cancer Research UK: 28, 31.
Archived from the original (http://sci.canc
erresearchuk.org/labs/med_mush/med_m
ush.html) on 31 August 2009.
36. Pregadio, Fabrizio, ed. (2008). The
Encyclopedia of Taoism (https://books.go
ogle.com/books?id=MioRmEq2xHUC&pg=
PP1) . Routledge. p. 1271.
ISBN 9780203695487. "Zhi 芝 numinous
mushrooms; excrescences"
37. Bretschneider, E. (1893). Botanicon
Sinicum (https://books.google.com/book
s?id=t_UIAAAAIAAJ) . Kelly & Walsh.
p. 40.
38. Groot, Johann Jacob Maria de (1892–
1910). The Religious System of China. Its
ancient forms, evolution, history and
present aspect. Manners, customs and
social institutions connected therewith (ht
tp://classiques.uqac.ca/classiques/groot_
jjm_de/religious_system_of_china/religiou
s_system.html) . Vol. IV. Leiden: Brill
Publishers. p. 307.
39. Arora, David (1986). Mushrooms
demystified: a comprehensive guide to the
fleshy fungi (https://archive.org/details/m
ushroomsdemysti00aror_0) (2nd ed.).
Ten Speed Press. ISBN 978-0-89815-169-
5.
40. Hu, Shiu-ying (2006). Food Plants of China
(https://books.google.com/books?id=2Oi
YydyrsygC&pg=PA268) . Chinese
University Press. p. 268.
ISBN 9789629962296.
41. Bedini, Silvio A. (1994). The Trail of Time
(https://books.google.com/books?id=xdV
kzs6iI1YC&pg=PA113) . Cambridge
University Press. p. 113.
ISBN 9780521374828.
42. Knechtges, David R. (1996). Wen Xuan or
Selections of Refined Literature (https://bo
oks.google.com/books?id=GYJi0OkKFJI
C) . Vol. 3. Princeton University Press.
pp. 201, 211. ISBN 9780691021263.
43. Schipper, Kristofer M. (1993). The Taoist
Body. University of California Press.
p. 174.
44. Rogers, Robert (2011). "Ganoderma
lucidum". The Fungal Pharmacy: The
Complete Guide to Medicinal Mushrooms
& Lichens of North America. BErkeley, CA:
North Atlantic Books. pp. 172–185.
ISBN 978-1-55643-953-7.
45. "ling chih". Oxford English Dictionary. 4.0
(CD-ROM ed.). 2009.
46. Bushell, Stephen Wootton (1904). Chinese
Art (https://archive.org/details/ost-art-chi
nese_art) . H.M. Stationery Office. p. 148
(https://archive.org/details/ost-art-chines
e_art/page/n316) . (Victoria and Albert
Museum); This context describes the
lingzhi fungus and ruyi scepter as Daoist
symbols of longevity on a jade vase.
47. "Names of a Selection of Asian Fungi" (htt
p://www.plantnames.unimelb.edu.au/Sorti
ng/Fungi_Asian.html) . Multilingual
Multiscript Plant Name Database.
University of Melbourne. 18 February
1999.
48. Paterson, R. Russell M. (2006).
"Ganoderma – A therapeutic fungal
biofactory". Phytochemistry. 67 (18):
1985–2001.
Bibcode:2006PChem..67.1985P (https://u
i.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006PChem..6
7.1985P) .
doi:10.1016/j.phytochem.2006.07.004 (htt
ps://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.phytochem.200
6.07.004) . hdl:1822/5522 (https://hdl.han
dle.net/1822%2F5522) . PMID 16905165
(https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/169051
65) .
49. Kohguchi, Michihiro; Kunikata, Toshio;
Watanabe, Hikaru; Kudo, Naoki; Shibuya,
Takashi; Ishihara, Tatsuya; Iwaki, Kanso;
Ikeda, Masao; Fukuda, Shigeharu;
Kurimoto, Masashi (2014). "Immuno-
potentiating Effects of the Antler-shaped
Fruiting Body of (Rokkaku-Reishi)" (https://
doi.org/10.1271%2Fbbb.68.881) .
Bioscience, Biotechnology, and
Biochemistry. 68 (4): 881–887.
doi:10.1271/bbb.68.881 (https://doi.org/1
0.1271%2Fbbb.68.881) . PMID 15118318
(https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/151183
18) .
50. Meuninck, Jim (2017). Foraging
Mushrooms Oregon: Finding, Identifying,
and Preparing Edible Wild Mushrooms.
Falcon Guides. p. 56. ISBN 978-1-4930-
2669-2.
51. Wachtel-Galor, Sissi; Yuen, John; Buswell,
John A.; Benzie, Iris F. F. (2011).
"Ganoderma lucidum (Lingzhi or Reishi): A
Medicinal Mushroom" (https://www.ncbi.n
lm.nih.gov/books/NBK92757/) . In Benzie,
Iris F. F.; Wachtel-Galor, Sissi (eds.). Herbal
Medicine: Biomolecular and Clinical
Aspects (2nd ed.). Boca Raton, FL: CRC
Press/Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-4398-
0713-2. PMID 22593926 (https://pubmed.
ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22593926) .
52. "How To Make A Medicinal Mushroom
Double-Extraction Tincture" (https://theher
balacademy.com/make-medicinal-mushro
om-double-extraction-tincture/) . Herbal
Academy. 2016-09-19. Retrieved
2021-01-05.
53. Andy Corbley (2020-12-10). "Stanford
Designer is Making Bricks Out of Fast-
Growing Mushrooms That Are Stronger
than Concrete" (https://www.goodnewsnet
work.org/phil-ross-invents-mycelium-mus
hroom-bricks-arch/) . Good News
Network. Retrieved 2021-01-05.

Media related to Ganoderma lingzhi at

Wikimedia Commons
Retrieved from
"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Lingzhi_(mushroom)&oldid=1179523338"

This page was last edited on 10 October 2023, at

17:56 (UTC). •
Content is available under CC BY-SA 4.0 unless
otherwise noted.