Corrosion and Corrosion Control Booklet

INSPECTION & CORROSION DIV.
- MAB
Corrosion & Corrosion

Control Booklet
Prepared By:
Eng. Faisal Hashem AL-Refai
PREFACE
Corrosion and corrosion control guidelines hand book has
been prepared with the aim to provide the reader with a
brief out line of the corrosion phenomenon and corrosion
control methods.
The precise information has been provide in a simple way

to facilitate the understanding of corrosion phenomenon
which is useful for users at different levels in the subject
profession as well as those in without hands on experience
of such knowledge. We believe that readers will find this
hand book useful,instructive and enlightening. Our effort
is to understand and appreciate corrosion problems.
We hope that this Guidelines Hand book will continue

to guide the people who are interested in the field of
corrosion and corrosion control for many years to come.
Musaed M. AL-Arada
Team Leader, Insp. & Corroisn - MAB
2 Corrosion & Corrosion Control Booklet

FOREWORD
Corrosion is defined as the chemical or electrochemical
reaction between a material, usually a metal, and its
environment that produces a deterioration of the material
and its properties. Since corrosion is caused by chemical
and electrochemical reactions, the rate at which the
corrosion takes place will depend to some extent on the
temperature, PH and the concentration of the reactants
and products. Other factors such as mechanical stress and
erosion (velocity) may also contribute to corrosion. .
Most corrosion of materials refers to the electrochemical

attack, since metals have free electrons which are able to
set up electrochemical cells within the metals themselves.
The other metals are corroded by direct chemical attack
from chemical solutions (acids/ alkalines).
In addition to our everyday encounters with this form

of degradation, corrosion causes plant shutdowns, waste
of valuable resources, loss or contamination of product,
reduction in efficiency, costly maintenance, and expensive
over design. It can also lead to explosions, collapse, fire,
injuries and loss of human lives.
Corrosion & Corrosion Control Booklet

CONTENTS
Description Page
1. Cost of Corrosion 6
2. Cost of Corrosion Control Methods 7

3. Forms of Corrosion 8
3.1 Uniform Corrosion 8

3.2 Crevice Corrosion 9
3.3 Pitting Corrosion 10
3.4 Galvanic Corrosion 10
3.5 Erosion Corrosion 11
3.6 Cavitation 13
3.7 Intergranular Corrosion 15
3.8 Stress Corrosion Cracking 17
3.9 Corrosion Under Insulation 18
3.10 Fretting Corrosion 19
3.11 Atmospheric Corrosion 19
4. Roles of the Corrosion Section 21
4.1 On Stream Corrosion Control 21

4.2 Water Treatment 28
4.3 Material Selection 31
4.4 Failure Analysis & Prevention 32
4.5 Testing Material 32
4.6 Coating & Wrapping 35
4.7 Cathodic Protection 38
4.8 Cleaning of Equipment 43
4.9 Protection of the Equipment 44
During Idle Period
4.10 Protection of Austenitic 45
Stainless Steels & Other
Austenitic Alloys
from Polythionic Acid Stress
Corrosion Cracking
5. Roles of the Corrosion Engineer 47

During the Shutdown
6. Appendix 49
7. References 93
Sketch showing flow of current between an anode
& cathode in corrosion cell
1. Cost of Corrosion
Corrosion represents a tremendous economic loss and
much can be done to reduce it. Results of the study show
that the total annual estimated direct cost of corrosion in
the U.S. is a staggering $ 276 billion-approximately 3.1% of
the nation’s Gross Domestic Product. Costs are increasing
because of deeper wells and more hostile environments
– higher temperatures and corrosive sulfur.
The petroleum industry spends a million dollars per day
to protect underground pipelines. Corrosion of bridges
and high ways are a major problem as they age, affected
by deicing salt. Restoration of these structures is estimated
to cost USA, $150 billion/Year. Total annual costs of floods,
hurricanes, tornadoes, fires, lightning and earthquakes are
less than the costs of corrosion.
In fact in our economy will be drastically changed if there
is no corrosion.

2. Cost of Corrosion Control Methods
MATERIAL RANGE AVERAGE COST

AND SERVICES
($ x billion) ($ x billion) (%)
Protective Coatings
Organic Coatings 40.2-174.2 107.2 88.3
Metallic Coatings 1.4 1.4 1.2
Metals & Alloys 7.7 7.7 6.3
Corrosion Inhibitors 1.1 1.1 0.9
Polymers 1.8 1.8 1.5
Anodic & Cathodic 0.73-1.22 0.98 0.8

Protection
Services 1.2 1.2 1.0
Research & 0.020 0.02 <0.1

Development
Education & Training 0.01 0.01 <0.1
TOTAL $54.16-$188.65 $121.41 100%
Note: These costs are in 1998 in USA


3. Forms of Corrosion
1) General (or uniform) corrosion.
2) Crevice Corrosion.
3) Pitting Corrosion.
4) Galvanic corrosion.
5) Erosion Corrosion
6) Cavitation.
7) Intergranular corrosion.
8) Stress Corrosion Cracking.
9) Corrosion under insulation.
10) Fretting Corrosion
11) Atmospheric Corrosion
3.1 Uniform Corrosion
Uniform (or general) corrosion refers to the

relatively uniform reduction of thickness over the
entire exposed surface of a corroding material. It
is relatively easy to measure, predict and design
against this type of corrosion damage. While
uniform corrosion may represent only a small
fraction of industrial corrosion failures, the total
tonnage wasted is generally regarded as the

highest of all forms. Uniform corrosion can be
prevented or reduced by selecting proper materials,
using corrosion inhibitors, cathodic protection and
protective coatings. These methods can be singly or
in combination.
3.2 Crevice Corrosion
Crevice corrosion is a localized form of corrosion,

under the influence of "crevice geometries". Well-
known examples of such geometries include flanges,
gaskets, disbonded linings/coatings, fasteners, lap
joints and surface deposits. Stagnant solution plays
an important role in setting up of highly corrosive
micro-environments inside such crevices. A metallic
material tends to assume a more anodic character
in the stagnant crevice solution compared with the
bulk surface (exposed to the bulk environment). To
prevent crevice corrosion, use welded joints instead
of riveted or bolted joints in new equipment, weld
instead of rolling tubes in tube sheets, remove
accumulated deposits frequently and design
containment vessels to avoid stagnant areas as
much as possible.

3.3 Pitting Corrosion
The most common type of localized corrosion is

pitting, in which small volumes of metal are removed
by corrosion from certain areas on the surface to
produce pits. Pitting corrosion may occur on a metal
surface in a stagnant or slow moving liquid. Pits are
sometimes isolated or so close together look like a
rough surface.
To prevent pitting corrosion, materials, which do not
have pitting corrosion tendencies, should be used.
However, if this not possible for some cases, then
apply the same methods suggested for combating
crevice corrosion..
3.4 Galvanic Corrosion
Galvanic corrosion occurs when two dissimilar

metals are in physical contact or otherwise
electrically connected, and is immersed in a
corrosive or conductive solution such as seawater.
An electrical potential different exists between the
two metals in these circumstances and electrons
flow between them. Corrosion of the metal,

which becomes the anode in this battery like
circuit increases while the attack on the cathodic
metal decreases. The actual rate of attack in
service depends upon a number of factors such
as the type of materials, the environment and the
potential different between them. To prevent such
problem, joining of noble metals (Au, Pt & Cu) and
active metals (Fe, Zn & Mg) directly to each other
in conductive flow should be avoided and using of
coating ,also, will be helpful.
Galvanic Corrosion
3.5 Erosion-Corrosion
Erosion is destruction of metals by the abrasive

action of moving fluids usually accelerated by the
presence of solid particles in suspension. When
corrosion occurs simultaneously, the term erosion-
corrosion is often used.
Erosion- corrosion occurs when otherwise

protective films (e.g. passive films, corrosion-
products layers) are mechanically removed by the
11
action of a flowing fluid environment, continuously
exposing the metallic substrate to a high initial rate
of attack.
This type of corrosion can be mitigated by the
following ways:
1) Use material with better resistance to erosion

corrosion (use hard material)
2) Reduce flow velocity
3) Avoid turbulence by changing the design.
4) Coating
5) Cathodic Protection (iron anodes are used in the
heat exchangers handling sea water to reduce
the tube end attack)
Mechanisms of the erosion

Erosion-Corrosion
3.6 Cavitation
Cavitation: is a form of erosion-corrosion that is

caused by the formation and collapse of vapor
bubbles in a liquid against a metal surface.
Cavitation occurs in hydraulic turbines, on pump
impellers, on ship propellers, and on many surfaces
in contact with high- velocity liquids subject to
changes in pressure.
Cavitation can occur if the pressure on a liquid is
reduced sufficiently to cause boiling even at room

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Cavitation Corrosion
Cavitation mechanisms
temperature, then; the bubbles of the formed

vapor collapse when suddenly hit the metal
surface resulting in the cavitation. Damaged due to
cavitation can be reduced by operating the rotary
pumps at the highest possible pressure in order

to avoid formation of bubbles. Also, the cavitation
damaged can be prevented by applying the
methods used in preventing erosion- corrosion.
3.7 Intergranular Corrosion
It is selective corrosion along the individual grain

boundaries, with the bulk of the grain being un-
attacked. It is caused by specific anodic areas in or
along the grain boundaries, which corrode more
rapidly than the grains themselves. These areas
may be inter metallic or be formed by heat induced
metallurgical changes, such as welding or stress
relief.
One of the most important examples of Intergranular
corrosion occurs in some austenitic stainless steels
(18% Cr-8% Ni) which are heated into or slowly cooled
through the 500-800°C (950-1450°F) temperature
ranges. In this range of temperature, chromium
carbides (Cr23C6) can precipitate at the grain
boundary interfaces. When chromium carbides have
precipitated along the grain boundaries in austenitic
stainless steels, these alloys are said to be in the
sensitized condition.
If an austenitic stainless steel (18% Cr-8% Ni)
contains more than about 0.03 wt% C, chromium
carbides (Cr23C6) can precipitate at the grain
boundaries of the alloy if heated in the 500-800°C
(950-1450°F) range for a long-enough time. Type
304 is an austenitic stainless steel with (18% Cr-
8%Ni-0.06 to 0.08% C). Hence this alloy if heated
in the 500-800°C (950-1450°F) range for sufficient
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time will be put into the sensitized condition and
be susceptible to Intergranular corrosion.
Intergranular corrosion of austenitic stainless steels
can be controlled by the following methods:
1) Use a high temperature solution heat treatment

after welding. By heating the welded joint at
1066-1121°C (1950-2050°F) followed by water
quenching, the chromium carbides can be
redissolved and returned to solid solution.
2) Add an element, which will combine with the
carbon in the steel so that chromium carbides
cannot form. Columbium and titanium additions
in alloy types 347 & 321, respectively, are used.
These elements have a greater affinity for carbon
than chromium.
3) Lower the carbon content to less than 0.03
wt%, so that significant amounts of chromium
carbides cannot precipitate. For example, S.S
304L.
Intergranular corrosion

3.8 Stress Corrosion Cracking
Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) is a cracking

process that requires the simultaneous action of
a corrodent and applied/residual tensile stress.
It is also a mechanical-chemical process leading
to the cracking of certain alloys at stress below
their tensile strength. Cracking may proceed
either intergranularly or transgranularly. Most SCC
mechanisms involve initiation and propagation
stages. In many cases the crack initiates at a pit or
other discontinuity on the metal surface. After the
crack has been started, the tip can advance. Pure
metals are considered less susceptible to stress
corrosion cracking.
Intergranular Stress
Corrosion Cracking
Transgranular Stress
Corrosion Cracking

17
3.9 Corrosion Under Insulation (CUI)
Generally, the phrase "corrosion under insulation"

is used to describe the rusting, general corrosion
and pitting of the external surface of carbon steel
pipe work and vessels under thermal insulating
materials. Thermal insulation is normally sealed
against moisture ingress when applied by the
sealing of joints, screw holes, penetrations, etc.
It is common to find that over a period of time
mechanical damage, field repairs following work
on components under insulation, weathering and
insufficient maintenance results in an inadequate
seal being provided, leading to water penetration.
Some insulating materials have the water retention
characteristic of a sponge, and once water has
entered the material, it makes its way rapidly to
the metal surface. The surface temperature of
the metal is important as if it is sufficiently high
to evaporate water away from the surface then
corrosion damage will be significantly reduced. If
the temperature is insufficiently high to achieve
this, or if a high temperature system operates
intermittently remaining at ambient temperature
for some of the time then surface rusting can be
very severe. Complete penetration of even heavy
wall components can occur if the process continues
undetected for some time.
The best way to control corrosion under insulation
is to paint the piping and equipment with suitable
type of coating.

Corrosion under insulation
3.10 Fretting Corrosion
This attack occurs when metals slide over each other

and cause mechanical damage to one or both. In
such case, frictional heat oxidizes the metal and this
oxide then wears away; because of the mechanical
removal of protective oxides results in exposure of
fresh surface for corrosive attack.
Fretting corrosion is minimized by using harder
materials, minimizing friction via lubrication, or
designing equipment so that no relative movement
of parts takes place.
3.11 Atmospheric Corrosion
Atmospheric corrosion is defined as the corrosion

or degradation of material exposed to the air and
its pollutants rather than immersed in liquid. This
has been identified as one of the oldest forms of
corrosion and has been reported to account for
more failures in terms of cost and tonnage than any
other single environment.
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Permanent solutions to atmospheric corrosion can
be accomplished by either changing the material
or by applying a coating. Organic, inorganic, and
metallic coatings have been effectively employed.
When using an alloy steel, the addition of small
amounts of copper, phosphorus, nickel and
chromium are particularly effective in reducing
atmospheric corrosion.
Atmospheric Corrosion

4. Roles of the Corrosion Section
The main objective of corrosion section is to protect the
equipment/pipes from any deterioration by applying
different methods of protection which lead to result in
extending the equipment/pipes life in the service. The
protection methods represent in the following activities:
1) On Stream Corrosion Control

2) Water Treatment
3) Material Selection
4) Failure Analysis & Prevention
5) Testing Material
6) Coating and Wrapping
7) Cathodic Protection
8) Cleaning of the Equipment
9) Protection of the Equipment During idle
period
10) Protection of Austenitic Stainless Steels and
Other Austenitic Alloys From POLYTHIONIC
ACIDS Stress Corrosion Cracking.
4.1 On Stream Corrosion Control
The aim of corrosion control is to monitor the

design life and any internal or external influences
that may adversely affect or compromise the
life, efficiency and service of that component or
components.
Corrosion control and the management of all
corrosion activities relies upon a number of

21
techniques, it is good practice not to rely on
one technique but to use a selection or suite of
techniques in order to gain a better overall picture.
The rate of corrosion dictates how long any process
equipment can be usefully and safely operated.
There are basically 5 main methods of corrosion
monitoring:
a) Corrosion Probes
b) Corrosion Coupons
c) Corrosion Inhibitors
d) Analysis of the Process Streams
e) Operational data (wash water, pressure, temp.,
velocity, ..etc)
These methods are used to asses changes in

corrosion activities with time and help in the
evaluating of the effectiveness of corrosion control.
a. Corrosion Probes
There are many types of corrosion probes but

the most popular used in the MAB Refinery are
Electrical Resistance Probe (ER)& Linear Polarization
Probe (LPR).
Electrical resistance probes measure metal loss by

a change in the electrical resistance of the probe
element, gives a direct measurement in real-time.
This type of probe usually used in the refinery in the
hydrocarbon streams.
Linear Polarization Probe provides a direct measure

of corrosion rate and a qualitative pitting tendency
of metals in the electrolytes. It is available which
utilizes either two or three electrodes for corrosion
rate measurements. It is generally used for a
conductive liquid. In MAB Refinery, this type of
probe used in the cooling tower and circulating
cooling water system.
ER Probe LPR Probe
Corrosion section recommends where these

probes are to be installed. Probe measurements are
taken weekly to make sure they are working well.
Moreover, the data collected from those probes
shall be used to calculate the corrosion rate and
recommends the remedial action to be taken to
eliminate any malfunctions in the system.
Taking Probe Reading

23
b. Corrosion Coupon
Corrosion coupon is a piece of metal constructed

from the same material as the pipeline inserted
into the product stream. Prior to going into service,
the coupon is weighed to give a reference figure.
The corrosion rate is determined by the amount
of weight loss on the coupon which can then be
translated into a corrosion rate.
Corrosion Section installs corrosion coupons

to study the scaling and corrosion tendency in
the system. This technique is applicable in all
environments. In order to calculate the corrosion
rate, Corrosion Section provides the Laboratory
with the procedure to clean and weigh the coupons.
Consequently, it evaluates the coupon, calculates
the corrosion rate and provides the remedial action
to combat corrosion in the system.
Different Types of Corrosion Coupons

c. Corrosion Inhibitors
A corrosion inhibitor is usually defined as a

substance which inhibits or slow down the
corrosion (chemical reaction) by adding it in small
concentration to acids, cooling towers, steams
and any other environment (corrosive medium).
It is added either continuously or intermittently
to prevent serious corrosion. Inhibition is
accomplished by one or more of several
mechanisms. Some inhibitors retard corrosion
by adsorption to a thin, invisible film only a
few molecules thick; others form visible bulky
precipitates which coat the metal and protect it
from attack. Another common mechanism consists
of causing the metal to corrode in such a way that a
combination of adsorption and corrosion product
forms a passive layer.
Corrosion Section selects the critical locations

where corrosion inhibitors are required (such as
Distillation Tower Overhead in Crude Unit) and
recommends the corrosion inhibitor dose and
concentration. In order to increase the number
of the suppliers and find the best alternative
for some costly and non-environment friendly
chemicals, corrosion sections makes a trial on
the new corrosion inhibitors and evaluates their
performance, consequently selects the optimum
one.

25
Acid attack due to insufficient corrosion inhibitor dosing
Taking the Corrosion Inhibitor level Reading

d. Analysis of the Process Streams (Lab
Analysis)
Lab analysis is essential to give overview image

about the performance of the corrosion control
system used in the unit and helps corrosion
engineer in taking any action. Analyzing frequency
of the parameters such as (Cl-, PH, Fe, H2S ,NH3…etc)
depends upon the corrosion severity of the unit. It
is fluctuating from unit to other. Each parameter has
its critical limit and this limit varies from one unit to
another.
The Corrosion Section makes a daily follows-up

on the critical parameters (Iron, Chlorides, PH,
Na, MEA…etc ) through the technical computer
programme called (SQLIMS) directly connected
to the laboratory . Based on that, advises the
Operations and Process Departments to take the
corrective action to eliminate any abnormality.
e. Operational data
The operational data such as wash water,

temperature, pressure,…etc play a big role
in corrosion. Hence, corrosion section follows
such parameters in co-operation with Process
and Operation Departments to eliminate any
malfunctions in the process.

27
4.2 Water Treatment
The quality of water needed for industry depends

upon its intended use. Ultra-high purity water
is required for high-pressure steam generating
systems, for example, while relatively high
concentrations of impurities can be tolerated in
water used for open recirculating cooling system
(cooling tower).
a. Boilers
A boiler is an equipment in which water is

continuously vaporized into steam by the
application of heat. Boilers are used to produce low
and high pressure steam. Therefore, treatment of
water to produce high quality of water is required
in order to satisfy the following reasons:
1) Prevent or minimize deposition of solids in pre-

boiler and boiler section (Scales).
2) Minimize corrosion activity in pre-boiler section
(Oxygen attack)
3) To control carry over of boiler water in the after-
boiler.
Hence, the Corrosion Section is responsible on

preventing and combating such problems by using
the proper chemical treatment programme (Any
chemical treatment programme must be tested/
evaluated by the Corrosion Section ). The Corrosion
Section daily follows-up the critical parameters

(Iron, Oxygen level, Phosphate, Oxygen Scavenger
level and PH) through the technical computer
programme called (SQLIMS) directly connected to
the laboratory which helps the corrosion engineer
to take instant action.
b. Cooling Tower
Cooling water is used in the refinery for condensing

steam and removing excess heat from any process
stream. It is considered a utility at most refineries.
The cooling tower is a unit operation that provides
for cooling water recovery thus decreasing water
and power requirements. Water is cooled in a
cooling tower by evaporation. The driving force
for this phenomenon is related to the difference
between the hot influent water temperature and
the wet bulb temperature of the surrounding air.
In cooling tower operations, the water cascades

over and down the tower, where evaporative heat
transfer takes place. Make-up water is added to
replace the evaporation losses. Additional make-
up water replaces the intentionally discharged
water (blowdown) to maintain an acceptable level
of dissolved minerals and suspended solids in the
cooling water.
Open recirculating cooling systems are oxygen

saturated and may contain a high level of
29
dissolved solids. In addition, there may be a larger
temperature differential across the exchanger.
These factors can significantly affect the build-up
of deposits and deterioration of the heat transfer
equipment.
As a result, a successful cooling water treatment

programs are required to control corrosion, scale,
deposit formation and microbiological fouling.
All of these problems are interrelated, and no one
problem can be isolated from the others.
Hence, the Corrosion Section is responsible on
preventing and combating such problems by
using the proper chemical treatment programme
(Any chemical treatment programme must be
tested/evaluated by the corrosion department).
The Corrosion Section daily follows-up the
critical parameters (Iron, Chlorides, Phosphate,
Zinc, Ca hardness, Chlorine level, TDS, Sulphur
Reducing Bacterial (SRB) and PH) through the
technical computer programme (SQLIMS) directly
connected to the laboratory and by installing
corrosion probes/coupons that give the corrosion
engineer indication about the corrosion rate and
the amount/type of deposition in the system.
Based on that, the Corrosion Section advises the
Operations and Process Departments to take the
corrective action to eliminate any abnormality.

Failures due to poor water treatment programme
4.3 Material Selection
Material selection is one of the most important

factors in material study, which helps the corrosion
engineer to select the proper materials for certain
environments. It is correlated with other factors
such as pressure, temperature and environment.
Cost is not a property of a material, but it may be
the overriding factor in selection of a material for
engineering use, based on economic considerations
and therefore should always be kept in mind. Proper
material selection will ensure that the expectation
of the designer for safety, reliability and economy
are actually realized. On the other hand, improper
material selection can result in unexpected
equipment failures which can lead to loses.
Corrosion Section studies the process and
recommends the suitable material for the certain
environment.

31
4.4 Failure Analysis & Prevention
A part or assembly is considered to have failed

under one of three conditions:
(a) when it becomes completely inoperable, (b) when
it is still operable but is no longer able to perform
its intended function satisfactorily, (c) when serious
deterioration has made it unreliable or unsafe for
continued use, thus necessitating its immediate
removal from service for repair or replacement.
The fundamental sources of failure include many
aspects of design, material selection, material
imperfections, fabrication and processing,
reworking, assembly, inspection, testing, quality
control, storage and shipment, service conditions,
maintenance, and unanticipated exposure to
overload or mechanical or chemical damage in
service. Often, more than one source contributes to
the occurrence of a given failure.
Corrosion Section makes a failure analysis report

to establish the reason for failure and recommends
suitable material in the service and to prevent any
premature failure in the future.
4.5 Testing Material
Many materials, when in service, are subjected to

forces or loads. In such situations, it is necessary to
know the mechanical properties of the material and
to design the member from which it is made such
that any resulting deformation will not be excessive

and fracture will not occur. The mechanical
behavior of a material reflects the relationship
between its response or deformation to an applied
load or forces. Important mechanical properties
are strength, hardness, ductility, toughness and
resilience.
The Corrosion Section usually checks the integrity of

the material by testing the material microstructure,
measures the hardness of the material to see
whether there is any deformation due thermal
expansion or not, tests the material chemically
and mechanically to check its compatibility, and
examines the material toughness. Moreover,
the Corrosion Section provides services to other
departments, such as material identification,
hardness checking….etc.
Positive Material Identification (PMI)

33
Tensile Testing
Microstructure Identification

4.6 Coating & Wrapping
Coatings are used mainly to protect metallic

structure from atmospheric corrosion. Deterioration
of metals caused by reaction with atmospheric
contaminants creates expensive maintenance
problem for industry (chemical plants, tank linings,
marine structures, above ground pipelines and
electric transmission towers).
Typical causes of failures are rainfall, water , vapor,
sunlight and temperature variations. Other less
prevalent causes include salt water and vapor,
chemicals and chemical fumes, air pollution,
and abrasive wear by traffic. Paint acts as a shield
protecting the substrate from these elements.
Proper paint choice and paint practices will
definitely extend the life of the painted structures
and markedly reduce repair cost.
Wrapping is a type of coating usually used for buried
(underground) structures to protect them from soil
attack.
Surface preparation is the essential first stage
treatment of a substrate before the application
of any coating & wrapping. The performance of
a coating is significantly influenced by its ability
to adhere properly to the substrate material. It
is generally well established that correct surface
preparation is the most important factor affecting
the total success of surface treatment. The presence
of even small amounts of surface contaminants,
oil grease, oxides ….etc. can basically impair and
reduce coating adhesion to the substrate.
35
Corrosion Due Improper Wrapping
Paint Deterioration

The surface preparation can be done by one of the
following methods:
1) Degreasing
2) Hand tool cleaning
3) Mechanical wire brush
4) Sand blasting
5) Grit blasting
Selection of the cleaning method (surface

preparation) depends on the situation of the
structure, application of the paint and the
environment that the coating to be applied.
The Corrosion Section inspects the structures to

be painted and advises the Maintenance Planning
Department to the proper coating/painting
procedure through inspection advice ticket (IAT).
The corrosion technician inspects the surface
preparation methods, checks that the coating
system applied in proper way, prepares a fiber
glassing procedure to protect the tank bottoms,
and recommends the appropriate painting
procedure to help for identification of hot spots
and internal insulation failures by exhibiting a
visual colour change in response to temperature
rise (Temperature Indicating Paint).

37
Checking DFT of the paint
4.7 Cathodic Protection
Metal that has been extracted from its primary ore

(metal oxides or other free radicals) has a natural
tendency to revert to that state under the action of
oxygen and water. This action is called corrosion and
the most common example is the rusting of steel.
The principle of cathodic protection is in connecting
an external anode to the metal to be protected and
the passing of an electrical DC current so that all
areas of the metal surface become cathodic and
therefore do not corrode. The external anode may
be a galvanic anode, where the current is a result
of the potential difference between the two metals,
or it may be an impressed current anode, where

the current is impressed from an external dc power
source. In electro-chemical terms, the electrical
potential between the metal and the electrolyte
solution with which it is in contact is made more
negative, by the supply of negative charged
electrons, to a value at which the corroding (anodic)
reactions are stifled and only cathodic reactions
can take place. In the discussion that follows it is
assumed that the metal to be protected is carbon
steel, which is the most common material used in
construction.
Cathodic protection can be achieved in two ways:
1) By the use of galvanic (sacrificial) anodes
2) By “impressed” current.
Galvanic anode systems employ reactive metals

as auxiliary anodes that are directly electrically
connected to the steel to be protected.The difference
in natural potentials between the anode and the
steel, as indicated by their relative positions in the
electro-chemical series, causes a positive current to
flow in the electrolyte, from the anode to the steel.
Thus, the whole surface of the steel becomes more
negatively charged and becomes the cathode. The
galvanic anode will corrode/consumed during the
process. The metals commonly used, as sacrificial
anodes are aluminum, zinc and magnesium. These
metals are alloyed to improve the long-term
performance and dissolution characteristics.
39
Impressed-current systems employ inert (zero or
low dissolution) anodes and use an external source
of dc power (Rectifier is used to convert alternating
current AC to direct current DC ) to impress a current
from an external anode onto the cathode surface.
The Corrosion Section makes a routine survey

(every 6 months) on the submerged buried
pipelines/structures such as small boat harbor, sea
island, under ground fire water lines , tank farm
bottoms and IRT lines to measure the efficiency
of the cathodic protection system. After that, the
Corrosion Section advises the Electrical Section
if there is any abnormality in the system such as
discontinuity in the cathodic protection circuit,
consumed anodes to be replaced and low cathodic
protection current to be increased. Also, Corrosion
Section reviews and gives their comments on any
new cathodic protection project.

Galvanic Series of Some Metals & Alloys in Sea Water

41
Simple Galvanic System
Impressed current system

4.8 Cleaning of Equipment
Fouling of process equipment and piping in service

such as deposit and scales reduce efficiency and
may lead to premature failure.
Deposits are insoluble materials accumulated in
equipment and piping which impede heat transfer
or fluid flow, or cause product contamination. Scales
are type of deposits that precipitate in a system
due to chemical dissolution or corrosion. Deposits
maybe organic, inorganic or mixture of the two.
So, the cleaning is required to dissolve or remove
those deposits from process equipment and piping
in order to improve efficiency and prevent under
deposit corrosion.
There are four types of equipment cleaning:
1) Preoperational (Removing of any oil, debris,

loose paints and sand from piping/equipment
before starting-up the unit)
2) Chemical (acid cleaning, alkaline cleaning,
degreasing)
3) Mechanical (Roding, sand blasting, grit blasting,
hydro blasting)
4) Online ( such as side stream filtration and
chemical addition)
These must be evaluated for each job in order to

select the most cost-effective. To make a sound
evaluation, the deposit to be removed must be
thoroughly characterized.
43
Corrosion Section recommends the suitable cleaning
method in order to improve the process efficiency
(Chemical Cleaning for the boilers & hydroblasting
the exchangers to remove the scales) , reduce the
costs (use chemical cleaning to open chalked tubes
instead of retubing) , prevent fires ( Use Chemical
cleaning by Potassium Permanganate to the vessels/
towers contain self ignition compounds (Pyrophoric
iron) and reduce the shut down period (by increasing
the frequency of the equipment inspection and by
avoiding retubing of the exchangers).
4.9 Protection of the Equipment During

Idle Period (Mothballing)
Equipment and piping in a process industry are

subjected to faster deterioration during the period
of idleness. Carbon steel can be affected by pitting
type corrosion due to the presence of moisture,
oxygen, stagnant fluids, deposits or scales. Hence,
protection of the equipment during idle period is
a must to prevent such problems. Protection can
be done by different methods such as painting and
coating, greasing, wrapping, Internal Oil filling with
desulphurized Diesel and nitrogen purging under
positive pressure. In addition, the economical aspect
shall be considered to ensure that the expenditures
for preservation will be worth while when compared
to the actual estimated value of the equipment.
Corrosion Section is responsible to protect the
equipment to be isolated from the system by
recommending the proper mothballing procedure.

4.10 Protection of Austenitic Stainless Steels
and Other Austenitic Alloys From
POLYTHIONIC ACIDS Stress Corrosion
Cracking.
The austenitic stainless steel equipment involves

the risk of stress corrosion cracking (SCC) caused by
Polythionic acid during downtimes and contiguous
shutdown and start-up periods. Polythionic acid
can be formed by reaction of air and water with
sulfide corrosion products (sulfur, H2S, metal
sulfides). The danger of stress corrosion cracking
during shutdown period starts when oxygen
from atmosphere is admitted into stainless steel
equipment. The risk is minimized/eliminated when
recommended protection methods are applied
to prevent Polythionic Acid formation which
include appropriate material selection, avoidance
of oxygen entry, alkaline washing of surfaces and
the prevention of moisture/liquid water formation
by maintaining the operating temperature above
200°F.
Corrosion Section provides the Operation

Department with the list of the equipment to
be neutralized (protected), recommends the
protection procedure to be applied during the
shutdown period, checks the neutralization solution
parameters (PH, strength,…etc) and insures that
the neutralization (protection) process was done in
proper way.

45
5. Roles of the Corrosion Engineer
During the Shutdown
1) Prepares the shutdown equipment work list
in conjunction with the inspection engineer.
2) Provides the Operation Engineer with the
equipment to be neutralized.
3) Checks the neutralization solution (PH &
Soda ash strength)
4) Checks the PH of the equipment after the
neutralization.
5) Inspect the equipment internally and externally
jointly with the inspection Engineer.
6) Investigates any deterioration in the
equipment (Internally/externally) and issues
failure analysis report.
7) Issues the Inspection Advice Tickets (IAT) for
structures painting (vessels, towers, piping…
etc).
8) Tests the material properties (Hardness ,
toughness, and microstructure).
9) Tests the material’s compatibility whether
it is matching with the drawings or not by
using spot check chemicals or alloy analyzer
instrument.
10) Produces the chemical cleaning procedure.
11) Supervises and performs the quality control
on the chemical cleaning process.
12) Checks the quality of the hydroblast cleaning
of the fin fan coolers and heat exchangers.
13) Checks the stress relieving process to confirm
that it meets the hardness requirement.
47
Appendix
1- Some Useful Charts & Tables
2- Some Commonly Words/Abbreviations Used in

Corrosion Section – MAB
3- NACE Glossary Of Corrosion-related terms
4- References

49
Some Useful Charts & Tables

51
53
55
57
Rough Current Requirements for
Cathodic Protection of Steel (1)
Source: Corrosion Basics - An Introduction (NACE) 1984

59
Operating Limits for Steels in Hydrogen Service to Avoid Decarburization and Fissuring
POTENTIAL SULFIDE STRESS CRAKING REGION AS DEFINED BY THE PARTIAL PRESSURE OF 0.05 PSI H2S OR
TOTAL PRESSURE OF 65 PSI CRITERIA

61
Stress
Cooling Relief Max
Material After Welding Temp. oF Holding Time Brinell
1 (hr/in)
Carbon Steel > (3/4) hour (minim-
(3/4)" None required 1100-1200 mum). -
1 (hour/in)
Carbon (1/2) Mo None required 1175-1350 1 hour (minimum) 215
Cool to 550 oF or 1 (hour/in)

1/2 % Cr, 1/2% Mo lower 1175-1350 1 hour (minimum) 215

1 to 2% Cr, 1/2% Mo lower 1325-1375 2 hour (minimum) 215

2.25% to 3% Cr lower 1325-1375 2 hour (minimum) 241

5% Cr, 1/2% Mo lower 1325-1375 2 hour (minimum) 241

7% Cr, 1/2% Mo lower 1325-1375 2 hour (minimum) 241

9% Cr, 1% Mo lower 1325-1375 2 hour (minimum) 241
(1/2) (hour/in)
3.5% Ni steel None required 1100-1200 1 hour (minimum) -
Stress Relieving Data

63
65
67
69
Source: Coating Inspector Training & Certification Program - Level 1 Manual ( July 2005 )
71
72
Stainless steel filler metals for welding similar and dissimilar austenitic stainless steels

Source: ASM Hand Book ( Volume #6) - Third Printing (1995)
Some Commonly Words/Abbreviations Used in
Corrosion Section – MAB
Amine Neutralizer DM water: Demineralized

Amine Corrosion water
Biocide Erosion-Corrosion
Brinell Hardness Fouling
C.P: Cathodic Protection Fretting Corrosion
Cathodic Protection Survey Fatigue Corrosion
CIPS: Close Interval Grit Blast
Potential Survey Galvanic Corrosion
Corrosion Inhibitor HTHA: High Temperature
Corrosion Probe Hydrogen Attack
Corrosion Coupon HIC: Hydrogen Induce
CUI: Corrosion Under Cracking
Insulation Hydrogen Blistering
C.S: Carbon Steel Hydroblast
Cu-Ni: Copper Nickel Impingement Attack
Crevice Corrosion LSI: Langelier Saturation
Caustic Cracking Index
Chemical Cleaning Monel
ClSCC: Chloride Stress Mpy: mils per year
Corrosion Cracking MIC: Micro- Induced
DFT: Dry Film Thickness Corrosion
DCVG: Direct Current Mothballing: Protection of
Voltage Gradient equipment during the idle
73
periods Surface Preparation
NACE: National Association Scales Dispersant
of Corrosion Engineer Scales
Nitrogen Purging SRB: Sulfate Reducing
Oxygen Scavenger Bacteria
Oil Dispersant S.S: Stainless Steel
Protective Coating SOHIC: Stress-oriented
Pitting Corrosion Hydrogen Induced Cracking
Pigging Sensitization
PTSCC: Polythionic Acid Sulphidic Corrosion
Stress Corrosion Cracking Stepwise Cracking
RSI: Ryznar Stability Index Soda Ash
Roding Solvent Cleaning
Sa-1: Brush-off blast TDS: Total dissolved solids
cleaning TSS: Total suspended Solids
Sa-2: Commercial blast Uniform Corrosion
cleaning Under Deposit Corrosion
Sa-2.5: Near white blast WFT: Wet Film Thickness
cleaning Wrapping
Sa-3: White metal blast Wetting Agent
cleaning
St-2: Hand Tool Cleaning
St-3: Power Tool Cleaning

75
77
79
81
83
85
87
89
91
References
1) Nace Corrosion Basics- an introduction
2) Corrosion in the Petrochemical Industry (ASM)
3) Corrosion & Its Control Report (FW MANAGEMENT

OPERATIONS, LTD)
4) Internet web site (www. corrosion –doctors.org)
5) Corrosion Control in Pipeline Operations

(EuroMaTech Training Manual).
6) Nace Standard # (RP0170-97).
7) K.N.P.C policy.
8) Principles of the Corrosion In the Refineries and

Methods of Protection (Eng. Faisal Hashem AL-
Refai)
9) Internet web site (www.Corrosion-club.com)
10) Internet web site (www.corrosionsource.com)
11) Metals Hand Book- ASM (Vol. 10- Failure Analysis

and Prevention)
12) ASM Hand Book (Vol. 13 – Corrosion)
13) Nace Corrosion Engineer’s Reference Book (R.S.

Treseder)
14) Coating Inspector Training & Certification Program

- Level 1 Manual ( July 2005 )

93
Remember!
Corrosion
Never Sleeps

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INSPECTION & CORROSION DIV.

Corrosion & Corrosion

The precise information has been provide in a simple way

We hope that this Guidelines Hand book will continue

2 Corrosion & Corrosion Control Booklet

Most corrosion of materials refers to the electrochemical

In addition to our everyday encounters with this form

Corrosion & Corrosion Control Booklet

2. Cost of Corrosion Control Methods 7

3.1 Uniform Corrosion 8

4.1 On Stream Corrosion Control 21

5. Roles of the Corrosion Engineer 47

 Corrosion & Corrosion Control Booklet

MATERIAL RANGE AVERAGE COST

Metals & Alloys 7.7 7.7 6.3

Corrosion Inhibitors 1.1 1.1 0.9

Polymers 1.8 1.8 1.5

Anodic & Cathodic 0.73-1.22 0.98 0.8

Services 1.2 1.2 1.0

Research & 0.020 0.02 <0.1

Education & Training 0.01 0.01 <0.1

TOTAL $54.16-$188.65 $121.41 100%

Note: These costs are in 1998 in USA

3.1 Uniform Corrosion

Uniform (or general) corrosion refers to the

 Corrosion & Corrosion Control Booklet

3.2 Crevice Corrosion

Crevice corrosion is a localized form of corrosion,

The most common type of localized corrosion is

3.4 Galvanic Corrosion

Galvanic corrosion occurs when two dissimilar

10 Corrosion & Corrosion Control Booklet

Erosion is destruction of metals by the abrasive

Erosion- corrosion occurs when otherwise

1) Use material with better resistance to erosion

Mechanisms of the erosion

12 Corrosion & Corrosion Control Booklet

Cavitation: is a form of erosion-corrosion that is

Corrosion & Corrosion Control Booklet

temperature, then; the bubbles of the formed

14 Corrosion & Corrosion Control Booklet

3.7 Intergranular Corrosion

It is selective corrosion along the individual grain

1) Use a high temperature solution heat treatment

16 Corrosion & Corrosion Control Booklet

Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) is a cracking

Corrosion & Corrosion Control Booklet

Generally, the phrase "corrosion under insulation"

18 Corrosion & Corrosion Control Booklet

3.10 Fretting Corrosion

This attack occurs when metals slide over each other

3.11 Atmospheric Corrosion

Atmospheric corrosion is defined as the corrosion

20 Corrosion & Corrosion Control Booklet

1) On Stream Corrosion Control

4.1 On Stream Corrosion Control

The aim of corrosion control is to monitor the

Corrosion & Corrosion Control Booklet

These methods are used to asses changes in

There are many types of corrosion probes but

Electrical resistance probes measure metal loss by

22 Corrosion & Corrosion Control Booklet

ER Probe LPR Probe

Corrosion section recommends where these

Corrosion & Corrosion Control Booklet

Corrosion & Corrosion Control Booklet