King Saud University

Mechaincal Engineering Department

MSE 542: CORROSION ENGINEERING

Homework ( 1 )

Submitted to
Dr. Muhammad Farzik Ijaz.

Name: Abdulaziz AlMutairi

ID: 442105835
Date: 20/09/2021
What is corrosion?
- Corrosion is type of diseases materials that undergoes a electrochemical reaction which led to oxidation of
metals or alloys and this reaction effected by its environments. It's important to study and solving the sources
of corrosion because the high losses of money every year around the worlds.
- Some causes of corrosion are combinations of the following: active metal, water, Oxygen, Acid, Salt and high
temperature.

What are the diseases of materials?

1. General and localized corrosion and erosion.
2. Metallurgical aging and degradation.
3. High temperature degradation and brittle fracture.
4. Environmentally caused cracking.
5. Mechanical cracking and damage.
6. Welding and fabrication flaws.
7. Anything that causes materials of construction to degrade and possibly cause failure of pressure
equipment in service.

What are corrosion reactions?

- There are two reactions happens in corrosion. Frist the anodic reaction where the electrons losses and goes
through electrically conductive medium. Then, through the same medium, the electrons gains by the cathode.

Why is Corrosion Happening?

- Most metals are found in nature as ores. The manufacturing process of converting these ores into metals
involves the input of energy. During the corrosion reaction the energy added in manufacturing is released, and
the metal is returned to its oxide state.

What is the uniform corrosion?

One of important corrosion types is uniform/general corrosion which occurs and effects at the entire surface of
the metal resulting general thinning until failure. Due to the large wasted this type most important form of
corrosion. In other words, uniform corrosion led to decrease in thickness per time depending on
solubility/insolubility.

How to prevent or minimize the uniform corrosion?

1. Modifying the used material vie: using more corrosion resistant one, alloying with noble metal and use
metallic or organic coating.
2. Modification of the medium via controlling the PH, temperature or use corrosion inhabtors.
3. Apply anodic protection or cathodic protection.
 King Saud University
Mechaincal Engineering Department
MSE 542: CORROSION ENGINEERING

Homework ( 2 )

Submitted to
Dr. Muhammad Farzik Ijaz.

Name: Abdulaziz AlMutairi

ID: 442105835
Date: 11/10/2021
 What is the galvanic Corrosion?
Simply this type of corrosion happens when a less noble metal is in electrical contact with
more noble metal or non-metal. Less noble material acts by anode compared to more noble
and therefore flow of electrons to cathode facilitated removal of material and thus corrosion
of metal less noble.
On other words, there are some major causes for galvanic corrosion:
- Difference in electrical potentials of two metals
- Electrical path between the two metals
- Fluid like atmospheric humidity or salt fog.

What are factors affecting the intensity of the galvanic corrosion?

1. The potential difference between anode and cathode
2. The distance between anode and cathode
3. The anode-cathode area ratio
4. The severity of environments such as the electrolytic solution, atmosphere, etc.

How to prevent the galvanic corrosion?

One way to prevent this type of corrosion is by protect the contact metals from each
other by using gaskets, washers, o-rings, etc.
If we can’t cancel the electrical contact we have:
- Select two metals are close in the galvanic series.
- Design for Small area ratio
- Coat the cathode
- Give thickness allowance for more active metal

What is the pitting corrosion?

The pitting corrosion is localized corrosion which limited and concerns in some area of the
metal surface and take shape of cavities “holes’’. Also below picture show the difference
between normal corrosion and pitting corrosion.
This type of corrosion occurs in small areas on the surface only few millimetres but may be
fairly deep with a cave form. Also, this corrosion could more dangerous than uniform
corrosion, because it’s more difficult to detect, predict and design against.

What are the types of pitting corrosion?

Narrow,
deep

Shallow,
wide
Trough Pits
Elliptical

Vertical
grain attack

Subsurface

Sideway Pits
Undercutting

Horizontal
grain attack

How to prevent the pitting corrosion?

- Using inhibitor that can reduce the effect of corrosive environment onto the surface of the
metal.
- Use an alloying element to be alloyed with the metal to be protected to increase the
resistance to corrosion.
- Prevent the stagnation by not allowing the solution to cause layers to be formed on the
surface and to prevent the penetration of the corrosive ions to the surface.
 King Saud University
Mechaincal Engineering Department
MSE 542: CORROSION ENGINEERING

Homework ( 3 )

Submitted to
Dr. Muhammad Farzik Ijaz.

Name: Abdulaziz AlMutairi

ID: 442105835
Date: 25/10/2021
What is the Crevice Corrosion?
Crevice corrosion is a localized form of corrosion usually associated with a stagnant solution on
the micro environmental level such stagnant microenvironments tend to occur in crevices.

How to prevent the crevice corrosion?

- Alloy selection, as example stainless steel alloys

- Design

- During fabrication

- DuringOperation

What is CUI?
CUI occurs due to moisture present on the external surface of insulated equipment The
damage/attack can be caused by one of multiple factors, and can occur in equipment operating
at ambient, low, and heated services, depending upon conditions Moreover, CUI can occur in
equipment that is in service, out of service, or in cyclic service
CUI is most prevalent in the chemical/petrochemical, refining, offshore, and marine/maritime
industries If left undetected, CUI can result in catastrophic leaks or explosions, equipment
failure, prolonged downtime due to repair or replacement, and safety and environmental
concerns.

How to prevent from CUI?

- One of the best but most expensive options to prevent corrosion under
insulation is the use of protective coating systems

- Inhibitors

- Waterproofing

- Careful selection of insulation materials

-
What are the types of Intergranular corrosion?
Intergranular corrosion happens in corrosion resistant alloys, when the grain boundaries
are depleted, known as grain boundary depletion of the corrosion inhibiting elements
such as chromium by some mechanism In nickel alloys and austenitic stainless steels,
where chromium is added for corrosion resistance, the mechanism involved is
resulting in the formation of ,precipitation of chromium carbide at the grain boundaries
This process is called .chromium depleted zones adjacent to the grain boundaries
sensitization.

How to prevent the Intergranular corrosion?

Shot Peening works by striking a surface with a shot (round metallic, glass or
ceramic particle) with enough force to generate plastic deformation When a group
of shots impact the surface they generate multiple indentations, resulting in the
component being encased by a compressive stressed layer on the metal surface
 King Saud University
Mechaincal Engineering Department
MSE 542: CORROSION ENGINEERING

Homework ( 4 )

Submitted to
Dr. Muhammad Farzik Ijaz.

Name: Abdulaziz AlMutairi

ID: 442105835
Date: 08/11/2021
What is the Erosion Corrosion?
The mechanical effect of flow or velocity of a fluid combined with the corrosive action of the fluid causes
accelerated loss of metal. The initial stage involves the mechanical removal of a metal's protective film and then
corrosion of bare metal by a flowing corrosive occurs. The process is cyclic until perforation of the component
occurs. It is caused by the action of particles or the fluid turbulence that destroy the metal surface

What are the types of erosion corrosion?

Erosion Corrosion is most prevalent in soft alloys (i.e. copper, aluminium and lead alloys). Alloys which form a surface film in a
corrosive environment commonly show a limiting velocity above which corrosion rapidly accelerates. With the exception of
cavitation, flow induced corrosion problems are generally termed erosion-corrosion, encompassing enhanced dissolution and
impingement attack. The fluid can be aqueous or gaseous, single or multiphase. There are several mechanisms described by
the conjoint action of flow and corrosion that result in flow-influenced corrosion:

1 - Mass transport-control

Mass transport-controlled corrosion implies that the rate of corrosion is dependent on the convective
mass transfer processes at the metal/fluid interface. When steel is exposed to oxygenated water, the
initial corrosion rate will be closely related to the convective flux of dissolved oxygen towards the
surface, and later by the oxygen diffusion through the iron oxide layer. Corrosion by mass transport will
often be streamlined and smooth.

2 - Phase transport-control
Phase transport-controlled corrosion suggests that the wetting of the metal surface by a corrosive phase
is flow dependent. This may occur because one liquid phase separates from another or because a second
phase forms from a liquid. An example of the second mechanism is the formation of discrete bubbles or
a vapor phase from boiler water in horizontal or inclined tubes in high heat-flux areas under low flow
conditions. The corroded sites will frequently display rough, irregular surfaces and be coated with or
contain thick, porous corrosion deposits

3 – Pits and horseshoes

Erosion-corrosion is associated with a flow-induced mechanical removal of the protective surface film
that results in a subsequent corrosion rate increase via either electrochemical or chemical processes. It is
often accepted that a critical fluid velocity must be exceeded for a given material. The mechanical
damage by the impacting fluid imposes disruptive shear stresses pressure variations on the material
surface and/or the protective surface film. Erosion-corrosion may be enhanced by particles (solids or gas
bubbles) and impacted by multi-phase flows. The morphology of surfaces affected by erosion-corrosion
may be in the form of shallow pits or horseshoes or other local phenomena related to the flow direction

4 - Cavitation
Cavitation sometimes is considered a special case of erosion-corrosion and is caused by the formation
and collapse of vapor bubbles in a liquid near a metal surface. Cavitation removes protective surface
scales by the implosion of gas bubbles in a fluid. Calculations have shown that the implosions produce
shock waves with pressures approaching 415 MPa. The subsequent corrosion attack is the result of
hydro-mechanical effects from liquids in regions of low pressure where flow velocity changes,
disruptions, or alterations in flow direction have occurred. Cavitation damage often appears as a
collection of closely spaced, sharp-edged pits or craters on the surface

How to prevent from Erosion corrosion?

- Improving the design via streamline the piping to reduce turbulence.
- Control fluid velocity.
- Using more resistant materials.
- using corrosion inhibitors or cathodic protection to minimize erosion corrosion.
What is the Transgranular corrosion?
Transgranular corrosion is a type of localized corrosion, which occurs along cracks or faults across the
crystal or grains in metals and alloys. In transgranular corrosion, the fracture travels through the grain of
the material. The fracture changes direction from grain to grain due to the different lattice orientation of
atoms in each grain. In other words, when the fracture or crack reaches a new grain, it may have to find
a new path or plane of atoms to travel on because it is easier to change direction for the crack than it is
to rip through. Corrosion chooses the path of the least resistance. Since the corrosion proceeds
preferentially within the grain, the grain boundary of the material is retained.

What is the stress corrosion cracking (SCC) ?

Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) is the cracking induced from the combined influence of tensile stress and
a corrosive environment. The impact of SCC on a material usually falls between dry cracking and the
fatigue threshold of that material. The required tensile stresses may be in the form of directly applied
stresses or in the form of residual stresses. Residual stresses can be introduced from cold deformation
and forming, welding, heat treatment, machining, and grinding. The magnitude and importance of such
stresses is often underestimated. The residual stresses set up as a result of welding operations tend to
approach the yield strength. The build-up of corrosion products in confined spaces can also generate
significant stresses and should not be overlooked. The impact of SCC is most commonly catastrophic but
rarely.

What are the causes of SCC?

- Corrosive environments
- Tensile stresses
- A Susceptible material

Sensitive alloy

Stress
Specific
environ
ment

How to control of SCC?

1. Mechanical
- Avoid stress concentrations
- Relieve fabrication stress
- Introduce surface compressive stress
- Reduce operating stress

2. Metallurgical:
- Change the alloy composition
- Change the alloy structure
- Use metallic conversion coating
3. Environmental:
- Add corrosion inhibitor
- Modify temperature
 King Saud University
Mechaincal Engineering Department
MSE 542: CORROSION ENGINEERING

Homework ( 5 )

Submitted to
Dr. Muhammad Farzik Ijaz.

Name: Abdulaziz AlMutairi

ID: 442105835
Date: 06/12/2021
"Effect of Ta addition on the electrochemical behavior and functional fatigue life
of metastable Ti-Zr-Nb based alloy for indwelling implant applications" this paper
have discussed and performed experiments in new promising alloy by adding Ta to
Ti-Zr-Nb alloy for optimal using in the biomedical field.

In the beginning, Ti-Ni based alloys was used in many engineering fields and
commercially exploited to their features such as super-elastic. However, during the
year, it has been found that these alloys are not safe inside the human body due to
the release of Ni ions from corrosion reactions. For that, it has been necessary to
replace Ni with other composition of metals. Furthermore, before this paper there
was no study that focuses and examine on the corrosion behavior for these alloys.
For that need, design and make new prototype electrochemical test bench to
simulate for sighting the real impact in vitro and vivo conditions.

As we know that by definition of corrosion, it is the oxidation of a metal due to an

ELECTROCHEMICAL reaction. So we need to study the electrochemical
behavior of these alloys and compare between them (Ti-18Zr-14Nb and Ti-18Zr-
13Nb-1Ta). By obtaining the diagrams for the open circuit potential values as
function of exposure time for both two alloys, before any cycling or loading there
was a difference between two alloys (Ti-18Zr-14Nb was Est= -188 , Ti-18Zr-
13Nb-1Ta was Est=-76).
After the load has been applied to these alloys, there were more decreased toward
the negative sign (Ti-18Zr-14Nb was Est= -453 , Ti-18Zr-13Nb-1Ta was Est=-588).
As show there was more change of E in Ti-18Zr-13Nb-1Ta, But on other side,
there was an increase with time duration until failure around 800s more for Ti-
18Zr-13Nb-1Ta.
Ti-18Zr-13Nb-1Ta alloy has more powerful passive film that grows on the surface
and form stable and strong during the cycling. This high protective of passive film
because of Ta5+ ions which have more suitable dissolution in TiO2 matrix film as
compared to Zr4+ , this is due to closer ionic radii (0.064, 0.066 and 0.082 nm for
Ti4+, Ta5+ and Zr4+), resulting that stability is increased.
 King Saud University
Mechaincal Engineering Department
MSE 542: CORROSION ENGINEERING

Uniform corrosion
MSE 542 Term-project

Submitted to

Dr. Muhammad Farzik Ijaz.

Name: Abdulaziz AlMutairi

ID: 442105835
Date: 12/12/2021
Table of Contents
1- Introduction: ............................................................................................... 2
2- Some factors effect on uniform corrosion: ............................................................... 3
3- Mechanism of uniform corrosion ......................................................................... 4
4- Common Uniform Corrosion Examples: ................................................................. 6
4.1 Aqueous corrosion:....................................................................................... 6
4.2 Atmosphere corrosion: ................................................................................... 7
4.2.1 Critical Factors ...................................................................................... 8
4.2.2 Temperature effect:.................................................................................. 8
5- Testing, Monitoring and Inspection ...................................................................... 9
5.1 General testing methods: ................................................................................. 9
5.2 Corrosion Monitoring and Inspection ............................................................... 9
5.2.1 Monitoring of Cathodic Protection (CP): .......................................................... 9
5.2.2 Inspection and Monitoring of Process Plants: ..................................................... 9
6- Corrosion Prevention ...................................................................................... 9
6.1 Appropriate Materials Selection ....................................................................... 10
6.2 Change of environment ................................................................................ 10
6.3 Proper Design .......................................................................................... 10
6.4 Electrochemical, i.e. cathodic and anodic protection ................................................. 11
6.5 Application of coatings ................................................................................ 11
References: ................................................................................................. 12

1
1- Introduction:

A uniform, regular removal of material from the surface is the usually expected
made of corrosion. For uniform corrosion, the corrosive environment must have
the same access to all parts of the metal surface, and the metal itself must be
metallurgically and compositionally uniform, it leads to a relatively uniform
thickness reduction (Figure 1).

Figure 1

These requirements are not prevalent in operating equipment, and some degree
of nonuniformity is tolerated within the definition of uniform corrosion, and
according to NACE, uniform corrosion is characterized by corrosive attack
evenly over the entire surface area, or a large fraction of the total area. Figure 2
shows uniform corrosion, thinning, and penetration of a carbon steel storage for
sour (H2S-containing) crude oil after only two years of service.

Figure 2

2
Atmosphere corrosion is probably the most prevalent example of uniform
corrosion at a visually apparent rate. The other frequently cited example is
uniform corrosion of steel in an acidic solution. On the basis of tonnage wasted,
this is the most important form of corrosion. However, uniform corrosion is
relatively easily measured and predicted, making disastrous failures relatively
rare. In many cases, it is objectionable only from an appearance standpoint. As
corrosion occurs uniformly over the entire surface of the metal component, it
can be practically led control by cathodic protection, use of coatings or paints...
etc. or simply by specifying a corrosion allowance. In other cases, uniform
corrosion adds color and appeal to a surface. Two classics in this respect are the
patina created by naturally tarnishing copper roofs and the rust hues produced
on weathering steels.

The breakdown of protective coating systems on structures often leads to this

form of corrosion. Dulling of a bright or polished surface, etching by acid
cleaners, or oxidation (discoloration) of steel are examples of surface corrosion.
Corrosion ant resist alloys and stainless steels can become tarnished or oxidized
in corrosive environments. Surface corrosion can indicate a breakdown in the
protective coating system, however, and should be examined closely for more
advanced attack. If surface corrosion is permitted to continue, the surface may
become rough and surface corrosion can lead to more serious types of corrosion
design.

2- Some factors effect on uniform corrosion:

1- Effect of pollutants: corrosion can proceed in a dry environment without any

moisture if trace of sulfur components or H2S or other pollutants are present
in the air. i.e. tarnishing of silver in dry air. The rate of corrosion in presence
of SO2 increase in the presence of moisture

The FeSO4 formed accelerate corrosion, once rusting has started, corrosion
cannot be stopped even after SO2 is removed from air.

3
2- Effect of humidity: Corrosion can be caused in the atmosphere when about
70% of the humidity is present, as this is the value in equilibrium with
saturated NaCl solution and NaCl is commonly present on surfaces. In the
presence of such humidity, an invisible thin film of moisture is formed on
the surface of a metal. The thin film of moisture acts as an electrolyte for the
passage of current Structures which are exposed to open air, are affected by
damp environments. Beyond 80% relative humidity, a sharp increase in the
rate of corrosion is observed.

3- Water layer: If visible water layers are formed on the metal surface,
corrosion initiates. Splashing of seawater, rain and drops of dew provide the
wet environment. The water layer on the metal surface acts as an electrolyte
and provides a passage for the flow of current, similar to the situation in a
corrosion cell.

4- Dew formation: If the dew becomes acidic, due to the presence of SO2, it
increases the rate of corrosion .Automobiles left open in the air may be
subject to corrosion through acidic dew formation

5- Corrosion products: If the corrosion product on the metal surface is

microporous, it can condense the moisture, below the critical value.
Corrosion proceeds rapidly in such a case, even if the moisture content is
below the critical limit

3- Mechanism of uniform corrosion

Corrosion mechanism in aqueous solution has been amply demonstrated. A

very thin layer of electrolyte is present. It is probably best demonstrated by
putting a small drop of seawater on a piece of steel. On a metal surface exposed
to atmosphere, only a limited quantity of water and dissolved ions are present,
whereas the access to oxygen present in the air is unlimited. Corrosion products
are formed close to the metal surface, unlike the case in aqueous corrosion, and
they may prevent further corrosion by acting as a physical barrier between the
metal surface and environment, particularly if they are insoluble as in the case
of copper or lead. The following is a simplified mechanism of aqueous
corrosion of iron. At anodic areas, anodic reaction takes place:

4
Fe → Fe+2 + 2e-1
At cathodic areas reduction of Oxygen takes place

O2 + 2H2O + 4e- → 4OH-

The OH ions react with iron ions, produced at the anode

Fe+2 + 2OH- → Fe(OH)2

With more access to Oxygen in the air, Fe (OH)2 oxidizes to Fe(OH)3

4Fe (OH)2 + O2 + 2H2O → 4Fe(OH)3

Ferrous hydroxide is converted to hydrated ferric oxide or rust by oxygen

4Fe (OH)3 + O2 → 2 Fe2O3.3H2O + 2H2O

Rust (Fe2O3.3H2O) is formed halfway between the drop center and the
periphery .the electrons flow from the anode (drop center) to cathode
(periphery) in the metallic circuit. The current flow is shown in above figure.
The ferrous ions on the surface of iron are soluble whereas those in solution are
oxidized by oxygen to insoluble hydrated oxides of ferric called rust. The rust is
formed away from the corroding site.
The corrosion rate is very high if the ferrous ion is oxidized to ferric oxide
rapidly. Fe(OH)3 is insoluble and if it forms away from a metal surface, the
corrosion reaction speeds up as equilibrium is to be maintained by supplying

5
more ferrous ions (Fe+2) from the surface. If, however, Fe(OH)3 is formed on
the surface of a metal very rapidly, the corrosion is prevented (a passive film).

Corrosion allowance: A popular remedy is to make a corrosion allowance. After

calculating the rate of corrosion penetration and knowing how much thickness
of the metal would be reduced after a specified period, an equivalent amount of
thickness maybe added to prevent the loss of designed thickness. A corrosion
allowance is, therefore, made at the design stage to prevent the loss of thickness
by general corrosion. For instance, if the predicted rate of corrosion for a new
carbon-steel product cooler is 4 mpy, as the unit is designed for 15 years, the
required corrosion allowance is 4 mpy x 15 years = 60 mils (0.060 in). The
general practice is to allow 1/8 in, or 3.2 mm minimum corrosion allowance.

For example, consider a crude oil tower overhead pipeline. Due to some
accident, the crude tower was shutdown. The general wall thickness measured
was 0.14 in on a 35 in diam. carbon steel overhead line. The minimum
thickness required is 0.15 in. The current corrosion rate is 40 mils/year. Another
shutdown for inspection is scheduled to take place after two years. Use the
above equation to estimate the remaining life

So corrosion allowance remaining = 80 mils (0.080 in).

The required remaining thickness = 0.15 in + 0.080 in = 0.23 in.
The best solution, therefore, would be to install reinforcing plates of above 0.20
inch in thickness.

4- Common Uniform Corrosion Examples:

4.1 Aqueous corrosion:

Aqueous corrosion of iron (Fe) in H2SO4 solution is an example of
uniform attack since Fe can dissolve (oxidize) at a uniform rate according to
the following anodic and cathodic reactions, respectively.
Fe → Fe+2 + 2e-1
2H+ + 2e- → H2↑
Fe + 2H+ → Fe+2 + H2↑

6
4.2 Atmosphere corrosion:

As mentioned earlier, atmosphere corrosion is probably the most prevalent

example of uniform corrosion at a visually apparent rate, and as per API
571, the description of atmospheric corrosion is: A form of corrosion that
occurs from moisture associated with atmospheric conditions. Marine
environments and moist polluted industrial environments with airborne
contaminants are most severe. Dry rural environments cause very little
corrosion.
Atmospheric corrosion of a steel structure is a common example, which is
manifested as a brown-color corrosion layer on the exposed steel surface.
This layer is a ferric hydroxide compound known as Rust. The formation of
Brown Rust is as follows:
(Fe→Fe+2+2e-)(x2)
O2 + 2H2O + 4e- → 4OH-
2Fe + O2 + 2H2O → 2 Fe+2 + 4OH- → 2Fe(OH)2↓
2Fe(OH)2 + ½ O2 +H2O → 2Fe(OH)3↓ ≡ Fe2O3.3H2O↓

Where:
(x2)= Multiplying factor for balancing the number of electron
2Fe(OH)2 = Ferrous hydroxide (unstable compound).
2Fe(OH)3 = Ferric hydroxide (with Fe+3 cations).
Fe2O3.3H2O = Hydrated Ferric hydroxide.
↓ = The compound precipitates as a solid.

In addition, Zinc can uniformly corrode forming a White Rust according to

the following reactions

In fact, the compound Zn CO .(OH) or ZnCO .Zn(OH) is zinc carbonate or

4 3 6 3 2
white rust or wet-storage stain (porous).
Atmospheric corrosion of aluminum is due to a passive oxide film formation
instead of a porous layer. The gray/black-color film may form as follows

7
4.2.1 Critical Factors

a) Critical factors include the physical location (industrial, marine, rural);

moisture (humidity), particularly designs that trap moisture or when present
in a cooling tower mist; temperature; presence of salts, sulfur compounds
and dirt.
b) Marine environments can be very corrosive (20 mpy) as are industrial
environments that contain acids or sulfur compounds that can form acids (5-
10 mpy).
c) Inland locations exposed to a moderate amount of precipitation or
humidity are considered moderately corrosive environments (~1-3 mpy).
d) Dry rural environments usually have very low corrosion rates (<1 mpy).
e) Corrosion rates increase with temperature up to about 250°F (121°C).
Above 250°F (121°C), surfaces are usually too dry for corrosion to occur.
f) Chlorides, H2S, fly ash and other airborne contaminates from cooling
tower drift, furnace stacks and other equipment accelerate corrosion.

4.2.2 Temperature effect:

The effect of temperature on atmospheric corrosion rates is also quite

complex. An increase in temperature will tend to stimulate corrosive attack
by increasing the rate of electrochemical reactions and diffusion processes.
For a constant humidity level, an increase in temperature would lead to a
higher corrosion rate.
Raising the temperature will, however, generally lead to a decrease in
relative humidity and more rapid evaporation of surface electrolyte. When
the time of wetness is reduced in this manner, overall corrosion rate tends to
diminish.
For closed air spaces, such as indoor atmospheres, it has been pointed out
that the increase in relative humidity associated with a drop in temperature
has an overriding effect on corrosion rate [177]. This implies that simple air
conditioning that decreases the temperature without additional
dehumidification will accelerate atmospheric corrosion damage.

8
 At temperatures below freezing, where the electrolyte film solidifies,
electrochemical corrosion activity will drop to negligible levels. The very
low atmospheric corrosion rates reported in extremely cold climates are
consistent with this effect.

5- Testing, Monitoring and Inspection

5.1 General testing methods:

1- Laboratory testing
2- Service (plant) and field testing, including exposure of coupons, test
specimens or components in process environments.
3- Testing in a pilot plant, which is a true model (up to half scale) of the
actual industrial plant.

5.2 Corrosion Monitoring and Inspection

5.2.1 Monitoring of Cathodic Protection (CP):

The simplest and most important method for monitoring structures
protected by CP is potential measurement. This is used to check that
the potential is below a certain limit at which the corrosion rate is
assumed to become significant.

5.2.2 Inspection and Monitoring of Process Plants:

During the last few decades, instrumented internal monitoring of
process plants has become more common in the petroleum and
chemical industries. In some cases the plants are intended to function
continuously for several years, in that case we use online monitoring
instrumentations.

6- Uniform Corrosion Prevention

Five different main principles can be used to prevent corrosion:

1. Appropriate materials selection
2. Change of environment
3. Proper Design

9
4. Electrochemical, i.e. cathodic and anodic protection
5. Application of coatings

6.1 Appropriate Materials Selection:

Based in the application we have to select the proper material, the

following table contains some natural combinations of environment and
material:

Environment Material
Nitric acid Stainless steels
Caustic solutions Nickel and nickel alloys
Hydrofluoric acid Monel
Hot hydrochloric acid Hastelloys (Chlorimets)
Dilute sulphuric acid Lead
Non-staining atmospheric Aluminium
exposure
Distilled water Tin
Hot, strongly oxidizing solutions Titanium
Ultimate resistance Tantalum
Concentrated sulphuric acid Steel

6.2 Change of environment

The environment may be changed in the following ways in order to

reduce corrosion rates:
a. Decreasing (or increasing) the temperature
b. Decreasing (or increasing) the flow velocity
c. Decreasing (or increasing) the content of oxygen or aggressive
d. species
e. Adding inhibitors

6.3 Proper Design

During design, we have to make in our consideration some important

points such as sufficient corrosion allowance, design in a way that makes
drainage, inspection and cleaning easy and easy to replace the
components that are most liable to corrosion.

10
6.4 Electrochemical, i.e. cathodic and anodic protection:

Cathodic protection converts all anodic areas on a metal surface to cathodes

so that corrosion ceases. The protected metal has positive current flowing
onto it from the electrolyte everywhere on the surface so that no current
flows off. This result can be achieved in two distinctly different ways:
1. By connecting a sacrificial anode to the metal that is to be protected.
2. By applying an electric current from a separate power source, a technique
called impressed-current cathodic protection.

Anodic protection, on the contrary, makes the entire metal surface anodic- so
anodic that the metal completely passivates. Obviously, then, this technique
is limited to metals that can form protective passive films. Since passivated
metals still corrode at a low rate, anodic protection almost, but not
completely, stops corrosion.

6.5 Application of coatings:

Through the application of coatings, corrosion is prevented by one of the

following three main mechanisms or by combination of two of them:

i) Barrier effect, where any contact between the corrosive medium and the
metallic material is prevented.
ii) Cathodic protection, where the coating material acts as a sacrificial anode.
iii) Inhibition/passivation, including cases of anodic protection.

11
References:
[1] Denny A. Jones, Principles and Prevention of Corrosion, second edition.
[2] API 571 “Damage Mechanisms Affecting Fixed Equipment in the Refining
Industry”, second edition, April 2011.
[3] Samuel A. Bradford, Corrosion Control, 1993
[4] Einar Bardal, Corrosion and Protection.
[5] NACE.
[6] Ali Sabea Hammood, Corrosion Prevention, 2020
[7] S. SYED, ATMOSPHERIC CORROSION OF MATERIALS, 2006

12
 -Uniform Corrosion-
Abdulaziz AlMutairi
442105835
Outline:

• Introduction
• Factors effect on uniform corrosion
• Mechanism of uniform corrosion
• Common Uniform Corrosion Examples
• Critical Factors
• Testing, Monitoring and Inspection
• Uniform Corrosion Prevention
Introduction:

• A uniform, regular removal of material from the surface is the usually

expected made of corrosion. For uniform corrosion, the corrosive
environment must have the same access to all parts of the metal surface,
and the metal itself must be metallurgically and compositionally uniform, it
leads to a relatively uniform thickness reduction as shown in Fig below :
Introduction:

• These requirements are not common in operating equipment, and some

degree of nonuniformity is consider within the definition of uniform
corrosion, and according to NACE, uniform corrosion is characterized by
corrosive attack evenly over the entire surface area, or a large fraction of
the total area.
Factors effect on uniform corrosion:
1- Effect of pollutants:
corrosion can proceed in a dry environment without any moisture if trace of sulfur components or H2S or
other pollutants are present in the air. i.e., tarnishing of silver in dry air.
2- Effect of humidity:
Corrosion can be caused in the atmosphere when about 70% of the humidity is present, as this is the value in
equilibrium with saturated NaCl solution and NaCl is commonly present on surfaces
3- Water layer:
If visible water layers are formed on the metal surface, corrosion initiates. Splashing of seawater, rain and
drops of dew provide wet environment.
4- Dew formation:
If the dew becomes acidic, due to the presence of SO2, it increases the rate of corrosion .Automobiles left
open in the air may be subject to corrosion through acidic dew formation.
5-Corrosion products:
If the corrosion product on the metal surface is microporous, it can condense the moisture, below the critical
value. Corrosion proceeds rapidly in such a case, even if the moisture content is below the critical limit
 Mechanism of uniform corrosion

At anodic areas, anodic reaction takes place:

Fe → Fe+2 + 2e-1

At cathodic areas reduction of Oxygen takes place

O2 + 2H2O + 4e- → 4OH-

The OH ions react with iron ions , produced at the

anode
Fe+2 + 2OH- → Fe(OH)2

With more access to Oxygen in the air , Fe(OH)2

oxidizes to Fe(OH)3
4Fe(OH)2 + O2 + 2H2O → 4Fe(OH)3

Ferrous hydroxide is converted to hydrated ferric

oxide or rust by oxygen
4Fe(OH)3 + O2 → 2 Fe2O3.3H2O + 2H2O
Rust (Fe2O3.3H2O) is formed halfway between the
drop center and the periphery
Common Uniform Corrosion Examples

Aqueous corrosion:
Aqueous corrosion of iron (Fe) in H2SO4 solution is an example of uniform attack since Fe can
dissolve (oxidize) at a uniform rate according to the following anodic and cathodic reactions,
respectively.
Fe → Fe+2 + 2e-1
2H+ + 2e- → H2↑
Fe + 2H+ → Fe+2 + H2↑
Common Uniform Corrosion Examples

Atmosphere corrosion:
A form of corrosion that occurs from moisture associated with atmospheric conditions. Marine
environments and moist polluted industrial environments with airborne contaminants are most
severe. Dry rural environments cause very little corrosion

Atmospheric corrosion of a steel structure is a common example, which is manifested as a brown-

color corrosion layer on the exposed steel surface.
Critical Factors:

• Critical factors include the physical location (industrial, marine, rural); moisture (humidity),
particularly designs that trap moisture or when present in a cooling tower mist; temperature;
presence of salts, sulfur compounds and dirt.
• Marine environments can be very corrosive (20 mpy) as are industrial environments that contain
acids or sulfur compounds that can form acids (5-10 mpy).
• Inland locations exposed to a moderate amount of precipitation or humidity are considered
moderately corrosive environments (~1-3 mpy).
• Dry rural environments usually have very low corrosion rates (<1 mpy).
• Corrosion rates increase with temperature up to about 250°F (121°C). Above 250°F (121°C),
surfaces are usually too dry for corrosion to occur.
• Chlorides, H2S, fly ash and other airborne contaminates from cooling tower drift, furnace stacks
and other equipment accelerate corrosion.
Testing, Monitoring and Inspection

- General testing methods:

1. Laboratory testing
2. Service (plant) and field testing, including exposure of coupons, test specimens or components in
process environments.
3. Testing in a pilot plant, which is a true model (up to half scale) of the actual industrial plant.

- Corrosion Monitoring and Inspection:

1- Monitoring of Cathodic Protection (CP)
2- Inspection and Monitoring of Process Plants
Uniform Corrosion Prevention

Five different main principles can be used to prevent corrosion:

1. Appropriate materials selection
2. Change of environment
3. Proper Design
4. Electrochemical, i.e., cathodic and anodic protection
5. Application of coatings
Uniform Corrosion Prevention

Based in the application we have to select the proper material; the following table contains some
natural combinations of environment and material:

Environment Material
Nitric acid Stainless steels
Caustic solutions Nickel and nickel alloys
Hydrofluoric acid Monel
Hot hydrochloric acid Hastelloys (Chlorimets)
Dilute sulphuric acid Lead
Non-staining atmospheric Aluminium
exposure
Distilled water Tin
Hot, strongly oxidizing Titanium
solutions
Ultimate resistance Tantalum
Concentrated sulphuric acid Steel
Thank you for your attention