Labour Based Notes Detailed

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
Labour Based Notes - DETAILED
Building construction (Uganda Technical College-Lira)
Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university

Downloaded by Kevin Lando (kevinlando800@gmail.com)
lOMoARcPSD|34367947
COURSE UNIT: TDCE 221; LABOUR-BASED ROAD CONSTRUCTION

Course Assessment
Assignments…………………………………….5%
Tests…………………………………………….10%
Practical reports……………………………… 35%
Final Examination………………………………50%
Total 100%
Sub-module 1: Introduction to labour-based road construction

 Comparison of machine and labour-based roads construction, equipment, fuel, spare
parts, foreign and local currency, contractors, employment, profits and materials.
 Road layers.
 Road terminology: roadway, carriageway, formation width, cleared width, road
centre line’ ditch slope, side drains, shoulder, back slope, culverts and scour checks.
 Parts of roads that are difficult to construct with labour and those that are difficult
to construct with equipment.
Sub module 2: Clearing and Stumping

 Setting out.
 Clearing and stumping.
Sub-module 3: Earthworks / Gravelling

 Excavation and loading.
 Haulage
 Spreading and compacting.
Sub-module 4: Construction of Drainage System

 Ditching and sloping.
 Spreading
 Camber formation.
 Mitre, catch water and French drains.
 Culvert outlet / inlet.
 Equipment for drainage work: boning rods, camber string line, camber boards,
Labour based Road construction Notes; By Andrew +256789129342 Page 1

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
ditching boards, sloping board, spirit level, width stick, depth.
Sub-module 5: Construction of Road Structures

 Culverts
 Bridges and drifts
 Bus stops
Sub-module 6: Management of Road Works

 Measurement of work done.
 Task allocation.
 Gender and family issues.
 Safety and traffic control.
Sub-module 7: Quality Control Tests, Facilities and Equipment

 Road dimension
 Road profile
 Gravel source
 Gravel surfacing
 Compaction
Sub-module 8 : Road Maintenance

 Carrying out a road inventory.
 Maintaining road drainage systems.
 Maintaining of the carriageway and shoulders.
 Patching up potholes using cold mix and hot mix asphalt.

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
1.0 Introduction
1.1 General
The main objective is to provide students with the basic principles and techniques of Labour
based road construction, using the common Road construction equipment. E.g. Hoe , shovel ,
spade, pickaxe, Crowbar, Bush knife, Axe, Bow saw, Grass Slasher, Heavy duty Rake,
Wheelbarrow, Sledge Hammer, Watering Can, Measuring tape ,Line Level, Nylon String.
1.1.1 Objectives of labour –based road construction

Labour-based road construction is the work method that utilizes locally available resources, like
skilled and unskilled labour, material and light equipment.
Most of the works are carried out using local labour and only those activities that labour cannot
manage is done using intermediate equipment, like tractors with trailers, tippers, pedestrian
rollers, etc. The end result of the work is expected to be of high quality as stipulated in the
contract specification.
To achieve this and to be able to carry out the work within the given time frame, good site
management and a structured work approach is required from contractors.
The most demanding task is to manage a large, mainly unskilled labour force. See Fig.1 &2
below.
Fig.1 shows the construction of the road using labour based methods.

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
.
Fig.2 shows the construction of the road using labour based methods
Background to problems with the road network in Uganda Like many Sub-Saharan African
countries, Uganda finds it increasingly difficult to sustain heavy equipment-based construction
and maintenance of its roads.
This is largely due to
 The slow pace of the economy.
 The low foreign currency earnings.
 The prohibitive (excessively high) rise in the price of equipment (in most of African
countries the foreign component of equipment-based road construction is between 60 -
70% of the total cost).
Because of this, the country cannot expand or maintain its road network to support the
economic activities in the rural areas where the bulk of the population live. Slower economic
performance coupled with rapid population growth has also meant falling real wages for
unskilled labour and acute unemployment.
1.1.2 How can a country deal with such problems?
Countries with these problems need to be innovative, using technically and economically
feasible techniques of road construction and maintenance. These include reorientation (changing
the focus) of public sector expenditure toward the use of more labour-based techniques, which
make use of the abundant labour force and appropriate technologies.
Policy makers and planners need to look at cheaper and local-resource-based alternative
approaches to road construction and maintenance. The labour-based approach is a positive
alternative.

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
1.1.3 What is the labour-based method?

The labour-based method is a mode of construction which optimizes the employment of labour
and makes use of light equipment only when required. These can be used as a substitute for
heavy construction equipment, for many road making activities.
Activities such as
 excavation,
 loading and offloading,
 forming of road,
 Masonry and concrete work, can be effectively executed using labour equipped with the
correct hand tools.
Equipment is only required for activities such as hauling (more than 200 m) and compaction, on
which the use of labour is uneconomical and inefficient.
1.1.4 How does the labour based-based approach work in practice?
The labour-based technique has been employed in many countries and experience shows that,
provided it is well organized and managed, it is generally cheaper and produces a well-
engineered road with a speed and quality comparable to that of the conventional machine-based
method
1.1.5 Benefits in using labour-based methods there are many benefits which include:
 Eradication of poverty from local communities.
 a significantly lower foreign exchange requirement,
 the development of local management skills (for construction and maintenance works)
 the utilization of abundant local labour resources,
 the productive employment generation in rural areas,
 a significant portion (more than 50%) of the direct costs being injected directly into the
local community,
 the development of the local light industry (supplies of local equipments, tools and
materials, and repair services),
 The reduced environmental damage/harm during construction, and ensured sustainability
and self-reliance.
1.1.6 Disadvantages attached to the use of labour-based technique;
The labour-based technique cannot be used for all types of roads; it is management intensive
(requires a great deal of supervision), and it is susceptible (likely to be influenced) to labour
problems.
1.1.7 Application of the labour-based approach;
Like any other engineering works, labour-based technique may work in certain conditions and
may not be economically and/or technically feasible in others. The road engineers must identify

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
variations in local conditions, determine the type of work required, and choose an appropriate
technology.
1.1.8 The following are some of the indicators in determining suitability of labour-based
methods:
• Population density - it is generally desirable to have a minimum of 25 persons per square
kilometer within reasonable travelling distance of the construction or maintenance site.
• Terrain condition - excessive earth works, rocky outcrops and steep vertical gradients (higher
than 12%) can make labour-based methods comparatively uneconomical.
• Traffic - highly trafficked roads (more than 100 vehicles per day) would generally require a
higher standard of geometric alignment resulting in a lot of cut and fill.
• Availability and proximity (nearness) of suitable road construction materials, eg gravel, water,
etc.
• Availability of local skills, i.e. technical and managerial - these are essential in achieving
efficient labour-based work organization and must be available from the outset.
• Adopted standards - appropriate level of access and corresponding geometric design standards
have to be agreed upon before deciding the technology to be used.
1.1.9 Misconceptions about labour-based techniques
The following are some of the misconceptions commonly expressed by some engineers:
1) .Labour-based work is sub-standard
Labour-based methods do not result in sub-standard work. Experience in several countries
(including Uganda) shows that there is little or no difference between the quality of roads, in a
similar category, produced by labour-based methods and those built using machine-based
techniques.
2) Speed of construction
Labour-based methods can achieve speed or productivity comparable to that of machine-based
methods. Speed of production in labour-based works is a function of the strength of organization,
management capability and availability of resources. Provided these conditions are met, labour-
based work moves very fast.
Note. labour-based works are less prone to interruptions due to break downs to key equipment,
lack of spares etc.
3) Problems with labour management
It has been suggested by some engineers that one grader is only one problem but one hundred
labourers are potentially one hundred problems. Interestingly experiences in many countries
(Uganda being one of them) have proved that workers cause the least of the problems, provided
they are fairly treated and paid on time. Without exception it is the few items of equipment
needed for the labour units that are the main restraint to progress.

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
1.1.10 Labour related problems

To avoid labour related problems particular attention has to be given to:
• Recruitment of casual labourers - a totally transparent and fair recruitment procedure
needs to be developed.
• Conditions of employment for casual labourers - there should be a direct relationship
between wages paid and output achieved.
• Definition of tasks - each individual labourer should know exactly what is required of
him each day.
• provision of high quality tools - it is important to note that, it is a management
responsibility to help make the work easier for labourers. Hence, supply of good quality
hand tools must be ensured.
• Prompt and accurate payment of staff and labour - no work should be set until the
necessary funds are already in place.
• Planning, reporting and monitoring procedures - effective management decisions
require accurate information to be available on time.
1.1.11 Comparison of machine and Labour Based roads construction
Activity Mechanized Labour Based Comparison
Bush Bulldozer Pagers, hoes, Time: mechanized take less

Clearing Slashers time as compared to Labour
based.
Stump Bulldozer Pickaxes, Hoes
Cost: Labour based
Removal
equipment are cheaper as
Striping & Backacter, Hoe, Rake, compared to mechanized
Grubbing Mult-purpose Wheelbarrow, Equipment operation:
Excavator. Spade mechanized need skilled
personnel as compared to
Road A grader A roller, Hoe, line labour based
Formation level
Maintenance: Mechanized has
Equipment Graveling A grader A roller, Hoe higher maintenance cost as
Water buzzer, Wheelbarrows, compared to labour based
Vibrator, Quality Work: Mechanization
watering can
method produces better
quality work than labour based
in terms of strength.
Fuel Machines under mechanized

uses more fuel than those
under labour based

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
Spare parts Bulldozer Hoe handles, spade Spare parts for Labour based
blade, handles etc tools like Hoe, spade, rake
grader handles are available and cost
clarifier & effective as opposed to those
blade etc of mechanized.
Foreign & Mechanized requires foreign

local currency to purchase heavy
Currency equipment like A bulldozer,
grader etc while labour based
equipment can be purchased
using local currency.
Contractors Labour based are mainly done

by local Contractors while
Mechanized are mainly carried
out by international
Companies.
Employment Labour based employs more

local communities than
mechanized
Profits Under labour based, a

contractor retains a higher
percentage of the project sum
because of employing the local
people as opposed to
mechanized method.
Mechanized method is
however, more profitable due
to the huge project sums as
compared to Labour based
techniques.
Materials Time taken: while spreading

materials like gravel, labour
based takes more time than
Mechanized.
Transportation: to transport
materials through long
distances under mechanized is
easy since they use heavy
trucks, unlike labour based
where they use wheelbarrows
and small trucks.

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
1.2 Road Layers
1.2.1 Introduction
A highway (a main road) pavement is a structure consisting of superimposed layers of selected
and processed material whose function is to distribute the applied wheel loads to the sub grade.
This is to ensure that the stresses transmitted to the sub grade do not exceed its support capacity.
The condition and adequacy of the highway is often judged by the smoothness or roughness of
the pavement. Deficient (not having enough of a specified quality) pavement conditions can
result in increased user costs and travel delays, braking and fuel consumption, vehicle
maintenance repairs and probability of increased crashes. The pavement life is substantially
affected by the number of heavy load repetitions applied, such as motorbikes, axle trucks, buses,
tractor-trailers and other equipment
1.2.2 Types of pavements
Different types of pavement are commonly used in the construction of roadways. There are two
major pavement types which include:
a) Flexible Pavement and;
b) Rigid Pavement.
Flexible pavement are flexible in their nature and are typically composed of several layers of
material with better quality materials on top, where the intensity of stress from traffic loads is
high and lower quality materials at the bottom, where the stress intensity is low. Each of these
layers contributes to structural support and drainage.
1.2.2.1 Flexible pavement
A flexible pavement is made up of layers namely: surfacing courses, road base, sub base, and
sub grade.
Figure 3a: Definition of Road layers (Paved)

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
Gravel surface
Figure 3b: Definition of Road layers (Unpaved)

Sub grade
This is the top surface of a road bed on which the pavement structure and shoulders including
kerbs are constructed. Generally the top soil portion up to 0.5m of the embankment or cut-
section is referred to as the sub grade. It may be undisturbed local material or may be soil
excavated elsewhere and placed as fill.
The loads on the pavement are ultimately received by the sub grade layer; it is therefore,
essential that the layer should not be over-stressed. The top part of the layer requires preparation
to receive layers on top either by stabilizing it adequately and therefore reduce required
pavement thickness and constructing a sufficiently thick pavement to suit sub grade strength.
The sub grade strength depends on
 the type of material,
 Moisture content,
 dry density,
 internal structure of the soil particles,
 Type and mode of stress applied.
The major factors that influence pavement thickness are;
 design wheel load,
 strength of sub grade (and other pavement materials),
 Climatic and environmental factors.
Sub base
This is the secondary load-spreading layer underlying the road base. It will normally consist of a
material of lower quality than that used in the road base such as unprocessed natural gravel,
gravel sand, or gravel-sand-clay. It may or may not be present as a separate layer since its
presence is justified by the insufficiency of the sub grade or reliability.
Major uses of sub base include:

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
 Distribution of stresses to the sub grade; as a result the sub base material must be
stronger than the sub grade material;
 Acts as a drainage layer in case of poor sub grade. A good drainage layer should be able
to drain very fast if water is logged, but also must be able to retain some moisture in
times of extreme drought;
 Serving as a separating layer preventing contamination of the road base by the sub grade
material;
 Under wet conditions; it has an important role to play in protecting the sub grade from
damage by construction traffic;
 Preventing capillary attraction effect.
NB: The sub-base is omitted when the sub grade is a hard intact rock or if it is granular and has
a CBR greater than 30% and has no high water table
. Road base
The road base is the main load-spreading layer of the pavement. It is structurally the most
important layer of a flexible pavement.
Its main use is:
 To distribute the applied wheel load to the sub grade in such a way that the bearing
capacity of the sub grade soil is not exceeded.
This layer requires higher quality material often obtained by stabilizing sub-base materials. It
will normally consist of crushed stone or gravel, or of gravely soils, decomposed rock, sands and
sand-clays stabilised with cement, lime or bitumen.
Surfacing
This is the topmost layer of the pavement. It usually consists of a bituminous surface dressing or
a layer of premixed bituminous material. It is comparatively thin, but resists abrasion and the
impacts caused by wheel loads and the effects of weather condition.
The functions of this layer are:
 provision of a safe and comfortable riding surface to traffic,
 taking up wear and tear stresses caused by traffic,
 provide a water tight surface against infiltration of water,
 Provide a hard surface which can with stand tyre pressure.
Where premixed materials are laid in two layers, these are known as the wearing course and
the base course (or binder course) as shown in Figure 3a above.

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
Fig.4 Shows surfacing Layer.

1.2.2.2 Rigid Pavements
A rigid pavement typically consists of a Portland cement–concrete slab resting on a
subbase course. The subbase course may be omitted when the subgrade material is
granular. The slab possesses beamlike characteristics that allow it to span across
irregularities in the underlying material. When designed and constructed properly, rigid
pavements provide many years of service with relatively low maintenance.
Rigid highway pavements, like flexible pavements, are designed as all-weather, long-
lasting structures to serve modern day high-speed traffic. They offer high quality riding surfaces
for safe vehicular travel, and function as structural layers to distribute vehicular wheel
loads in such a manner that the induced stresses transmitted to the subgrade soil are of
acceptable magnitudes.

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
Fig 5: Geometric and Load Transmission Characteristics of Flexible and Rigid Pavements:
(a) Typical cross section of Flexible Road Pavement;
(b) Load Transmission in Flexible Pavement;
(c) Typical Cross section of Rigid Road Pavement;
(d) Load Transmission in Rigid Pavement.
1.3 Road Terminology:
a) Camber: The road surface which is normally shaped to fall away from the centre line
The camber is necessary:
 to shed rain water
 To reduce the risk of passing vehicles colliding.
The slope of the camber is called the cross fall. On sharp bends the road surface should fall
directly from the outside of the bend to the inside which is called „super elevation‟

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
Fig. 6 A cross –section through road
b) Roadway: Full width of the road, including shoulders and carriageway for use by traffic.
c) Carriageway: Paved or unpaved width of the road, excluding the shoulders, normally
used by traffic.
d) Formation Width: is the Full width of the road, including side drains, sidecuts and
embankments
e) Cleared width: is the maximum width of the road to be cleared, it includes the trafficable
lane width. e.g if the trafficable lane width of 3 to 4m is required, then the maximum
desirable cleared width is 5m from the road centre line.
f) Road Centre Line: is a longitudinal axis along the middle of the road.
g) Side Drains: carry water parallel to the road to a mitre drain, where water crossing can
be disposed of. They also help to lower the water table. Side drains should be large
enough to carry all the carriageway water or the run off. Increasing the width of side
drains allows water to flow more slowly with less risk of erosion. Side drains should not
be deep and steep-sided because this can be dangerous to vehicles leaving the
carriageway, whether deliberately or accidentally.
h) Mitre drains: carry water from a side drain and dispose of it at a site away from the road
where it will not flow back to the road

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
i) Shoulder: is the paved or unpaved part of the highway next to the outer edge of
pavement. The shoulder provides side support for the pavement and allows vehicles to
stop or pass in an emergency
j) Culvert: is a structure constructed under the road and is designed to allow water from
the drains and/or natural water course to safely cross under the roadway.
Head wall
Fig.7 shows Culvert structure and headwalls crossing the road.
k) Headwall (Wing wall): is the Retaining wall at a culvert (or a bridge abutment) to retain
and protect the embankment fill behind the culvert fill (or abutment).
l) Scour Checks: is a small structure placed across the drain on steep gradients and is
designed to slow down the flow of water to prevent erosion of drain invert and slopes.
m) Road Reserve: is the Strip of land legally awarded to the Road Authority in which the
road is or will be situated and where no other work or construction may take place
without permission from the Road Authority. The width of the road reserved is measured
at right angles to the centerline of the road and varies according to the classification of
the road.
n) Paved Road: is a road with a bituminous surfacing.
o) Unpaved Road: is a road with a soil or gravel surface.
1.4 Parts of Roads that are difficult to construct with Labour and those that are difficult to
construct with equipment.

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
Potential
Activity
Equipment Labour
good good
Ditch cleaning and reshaping
poor good
Minor bridge and culvert repairs
poor good
Building scour checks
poor good
Repair of structures
good poor
Grading un-paved surfaces
poor good
Patching, sanding or local sealing of
Bituminous surfaces
poor good
Filling of unpaved surfaces and slopes
poor good
Grass cutting
poor good
Repairing and replacing traffic signs
good good
Road line markings
good poor
Re gravelling
good poor
Surface Dressing

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
2.0 SETTING OUT
2.1 Introduction
Setting out: Is the establishment of the marks and lines to define the position and level of the
road for the construction work so that works may proceed with reference to them
Setting out involves two stages.
 The use of horizontal and vertical control methods and positioning techniques. The
purpose of this stage is to locate the boundaries of the works in their correct position on
the ground surface and to define the major elements.
 Second stage of setting out continues on, from the first stage, beginning at the ground
Sub grade level, road sub-base level etc. Up to this point, all the control will be outside
the main construction, for example, the pegs defining cleared width, Centre lines of
the road will have been knocked out during the earthmoving work and only the original
control will be undisturbed.
Settings out requirements for labour-based road construction vary with the type of work to be
executed. The construction of new roads requires a complete survey by the Engineer to establish
the alignment.
2.2 Preliminary setting out
The preliminary route selection for alignment of new road construction involves staking of the
intended road centerline with pegs at 50 metres intervals. The pegs are securely driven down into
the ground in such a way that the tips are left exposed for painting and numbering for ease of
identification.
In performing the preliminary road alignment assessment, where a new alignment is required, the
Engineer shall choose a route in such a way that:
 Objects and poor ground conditions such as swamps, boulders, unstable soils, trees,
should be avoided.
 There is minimum need for heavy earthworks. The road centerline should be carefully
located to favour cutting of material rather than filling. This strategy will help to reduce
the risk of the fill material sliding down the slope and the need of costly equipment
compaction.
 Properties that will attract high compensation are avoided.
 Features that will increase maintenance costs and vehicle operating costs (e.g. steep
gradients, sharp curves) are avoided.
 The improvement of road drainage should not be expensive.
 The technical standards requirements should be easily achieved i.e. the geometry of the
road.

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
2.2 Common Equipment Required for Setting Out.
Fig 8 shows setting out tools

Tape measure is used for measuring distances between any two points.
The common lengths of tape measures used for setting out are 5m, 30m, 50m and 100m. The
tapes are made of steel and fiberglass.
Reference and survey pegs Reference pegs are made of wood having a length of approximately
40cm with either a 5cm diameter round cross section or a 5cm square cross section. The top part
of the peg should be painted so that it stays visible.
Reference pegs are used for:
 Marking both the alignment and the cross sections.
Road chainage is marked on the reference pegs (two pegs per cross section), one on each side of
the road at 20m intervals along the road) using waterproof marker pens.
The reference pegs are placed at the limits of the bush clearing widths and kept in place until all
road works are completed.
Survey pegs are used:

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
 To demarcate the road centre line, the edges of the carriageway, shoulders, side drains
and to show the future levels of base course and gravel surfacing.
Fig 9 shows Reference pegs
Ranging rods
Ranging rods are long poles (usually 2 metres in length and made of metal, wood or hard plastic)
with a pointed metal end for ease of driving into the ground.
For clear visibility they are painted with alternating red and white colours at various intervals
depending on the manufacturer. A standard interval of 0.2m for the alternating red and white
colours is recommended.
A very useful tool to be used with ranging rods is a sliding hammer (or hole hammer) with a
weighted head that fits over the ranging rod, used to drive the ranging rods into the ground.
Ranging rods are used:
 For setting out straight lines.
 To support profile boards on both straight and curved sections of the road.
 They are also used with line level for setting levels.

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
Fig 10 shows how the ranging rods are fixed
Line level and string

Line levels are used for setting levels or transferring levels between two points. An operator and
two assistants are needed to use this arrangement.
Defn: A line level is a small spirit level about 100mm long with a hook at each end that are used
for hooking it onto the Nylon string of 2mm thick.
Fig 11 shows how a line level and string are used

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
The line operator moves the string up or down until the bubble is centred in the middle between
the spirit level marks. The string line will then indicate the horizontal line.
The line level can be used to:
 transfer the exact level of one profile board to another profile, thereby ensuring that both
are at the same level,
 measure up or down from a known horizontal level, and set a new level,
 Find the slope between two fixed profile boards, and determine which one is higher.
NB. When using a line level ensure that:
 The string used should be a thin nylon fishing line, enabling the line level to easily slide
along the string.
 The line level must be placed half-way between the two ranging rods. Use a measuring
tape to find the exact middle point.
 Keep the string tight - do not let it sag.
 The line level is a delicate instrument, look after it - do not throw it around and treat it
roughly.
 Check the accuracy of the line level regularly in the field.
Spirit level
Spirit levels are used for checking levels between short distances. Different lengths of spirit level
exist and each length is suitable for a specific nature of work.
E.g. The 1.2 metres long spirit level is suitable for use with camber boards. Shorter ones are
commonly used in masonry or building work.
Boning rods
Boning rods are made of two seasoned wooden lathes, nailed to each other at right angles in the
shape of the letter “T” with a uniform height of 1 metre.
Boning rods are used for checking levels between two established points.
Fig. 12 shows a boning rod

Profile boards

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
Profile boards are used for setting out levels of cross sections and vertical alignment of a road.
They are 3mm thick steel plates (40cm x 10cm) welded to a short piece of 40mm diameter metal
pipe equipped with a thumb screw mechanism. They can be fixed or slid up and down the
ranging rod by tightening and loosening the screw. The board is painted on both faces with white
paint for easy visibility.
Before starting setting out works, make sure that you have a sufficient supply of ranging rods
and profile boards. A number of 20 rods and 20 profile boards is considered as a minimum to
carry out the work.
2.3 Setting out horizontal alignments
2.3.1 Setting out straight lines using Ranging poles

Straight lines are set out by marking points every 50m to 100m with ranging poles, between
these ranging poles, intermediate points are set at every 10m interval.
Normally section of not more than 50m to 100m are set out at a time, while in mountainous
terrain, sections of less than 50m are selected.
Fig 13 shows setting out a straight line using ranging poles.

In hilly / rolling terrain, when the line of sight between two fixed points is obscured, the
following method can be used to set out the straight.

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
Procedure:
From point A, ranging rods set at points B and C must be visible.
From point D, ranging rods set at points C and B must be visible.
Proceed as follows:
From A, set B and C in a straight line
Sight from D and move C to be in line D-B
Sight from A and move B to be in line A-C
Repeat this procedure until A-B-C and D-C-B show a straight line without further movements.
2.3.2 Setting out straight lines using a string
This method is preferred for intermediate points between two ends on a straight not exceeding
25m.
The procedure for this method is outlined below:
 Fix pegs on the two end points which have been identified on the straight line.
 Stretch a string and tie it firmly to the two pegs in such a way that the string is not
touching the ground.
 The string must be thoroughly stretched to remove any slack that might distort the
straight line.
 The string must also be completely free throughout its stretched length.
 All the desired points along the straight line should be marked by fixing pegs along the
string line.

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
Fig. 14 shows setting out a straight line using a string.

2.3.2 Setting out Horizontal Curves.
There are a number of methods used for setting out horizontal curves depending on the
prevailing conditions.
METHOD APPLICATION
String Method  Only suitable for small curve radii of less or equal than 30m
 The area must be flat and free of obstructions
 Most suitable for junction curves
Quarter Method  Suitable for short curves

 Where a string can be stretched with no obstruction between
the ends of the two straights.
Tangent Method  Suitable for any curve with deflection angle between 20°
and 90°
 The point of intersection of the two straights (PI) and the
area between it and the road must be flat and free of
obstructions.
Offset Method  Suitable for any curve

 Requires trial and error approach for the application to an
existing alignment
Deflection Angle  Suitable for any curve.

 Adequate on its own for shorter curves but requires use of
quarter method for longer curves for additional points.
Tangent Offset Method  For curves with deflection angle of less than 20°
 The point of intersection of the two straights (PI) and the
area between it and the road must be flat and free of

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
obstructions.
Table 1a
2.3.2.1 String Method
Procedure:
Determine the edges of the carriageway and the centre line on both straight lines and mark them
with pegs and strings.
Set out lines 1 and 2 parallel road to the inner edge of the road with the selected radius “r” = 30m
from it. Mark the two lines with pegs and strings
The point of intersection is the place where line 1 and line 2 cross each other. Then mark this
point with a strong coloured peg.
Use a string of the radius(r =30m) to set out the curve.
Fig. 15. Shows how a circular curve with a 30 m radius can be set out.
2.3.2.2 Quarter Method
Procedure:
1) Establish the ends of the straightsTP1and TP2 ,They should be approximately equal
distances from the IP
2) Establish point C exactly halfway between points TP1 and TP2
3) Establish point MP opposite C on the desired centre line of the road such that the line C-
MP is perpendicular to line TP1- TP2
4) Establish points E and F exactly halfway between TP1-MP and MP- TP2 respectively.
5). Measure out the distance C-MP (b).

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
6). Set out points QP1 and QP2 at distances ¼b from points E and F respectively.
The line E-QP1 must be perpendicular to TP1-MP and F-QP2 must be perpendicular to MP- TP2
7). Check radius of curve if it is desirable. If the curve radius is insufficient, move points TP1
and TP2 apart and restart from step1.
8). Place intermediate pegs if necessary to form smooth curve with string line.
Establish centre line pegs at 5m or 10m intervals and chainage reference pegs.
IP
Fig. 16. Shows setting out curve using the quarter method
NB: For desirable minimum radius condition.
R= 5000/X; Where: R = radius of the curve. Curve radius (m) Offset distance(m)
X = Offset Distance. 50 100
100 50
Assignment one
1. Explain with clear illustrations the procedures for setting out curves using the following
methods;
a) Tangent Method
b) Off Set Method
c) Deflection angle method
d) Tangent offset method

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
2.3.3 Setting out a right angle (off set pegs)
Fig. 17 shows the construction of 90 degrees

After the road centre line has been set out, it is necessary to mark the road lines in a proper way.
This is carried out by setting out off set pegs at 90 degrees to the side of the pegs indicating the
centre line.
To set out the offset pegs, you must first construct a 90degrees angle from the centre line. This
can be done by using the 30m, 50m, and 100m tape.
Measure 3m from the first ranging rod (A) along the centre line and place a temporary peg at this
position (B).
Then find the 8m mark on your tape (C) while holding the tape at the 12m at point (A).
Arranging rod is then positioned at the 8m mark on the tape, creating a line between A and C,
90degree to the centre line.
Repeat this exercise on the opposite side of the centre line and check that the three ranging rods
are on line.
You can now measure out the position of the off-set pegs by sighting along the three ranging
rods.
Alternatively, it is possible to manufacture a template which can be used for setting out 90
degree angles.

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
2.3.4 Setting out vertical alignments

When setting out the vertical curves, the following points must be carefully considered:
 Good correlation with the horizontal alignment.
 Provision of adequate sight distance over all crests.
 Avoidance of very short sag curves.
 Avoidance of a short grade between two crests or two sag curves.
 Avoidance of a short drop immediately before a long grade.
 Avoidance of the combination of two vertical curves in the same direction (such must be
replaced by a single curve).
Fig. 18 Crest and Sag curves

When the horizontal road alignment has been established, the next step is to set out the vertical
alignment.
2.3.4.1 Setting out vertical alignment using profile board method
Step 1:
Profile boards are fixed, first on the ranging rods along the road centre line at a fixed level, say 1
metre above the ground level.
Step 2:

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
Then sight along the profile boards.

Get the assistant to adjust the level of each of the intermediate profile boards so that, they are all
on line with the first and the last profile.
All the profile boards will then be at a level 1 metre above the level of the centre line of the new
road (before designing the camber).
Step 3:
If the level of the centre line is too deep into the terrain, i.e. involving too much excavation
works, you can move the profile boards up or down to reduce the levelling works, achieving a
balance between the volumes of excavation and fill.
Finally, make sure that the profile boards along the centre line have been correctly placed. All
other levels for the road structure will be set out based on the profiles along the centre line.
2.3.5 Setting out levels and gradients
2.3.5.1 Setting out Levels
The Profile Board Method
Setting out Levels procedure is based on the use of a series of profile boards and a string, line
level giving control of levels during construction.
The basic principle when using profile boards is that when they are set out we are placing a
series of level boards that show the level 1 metre above the completed construction levels.

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
Imagine that a ditch is to be excavated from A to B at the level shown in by the dotted line
To ensure that the correct level is obtained in the ditch, profile boards are placed at positions A
and B, 1 metre above the level of the planned ditch:
A travelling profile is used to obtain levels between two profile boards. A boning rod or a
profile can be used as a traveller. Along the line from A to B, slots are excavated to the level of
the ditch.
By placing the traveller in a slot and sight from the profile board in position A to the profile
board in position B,
We can see if the traveller lines up with the two fixed profile boards. If the traveller is too low,
the slot has been dug too deep. If the traveller sticks up above the sight line, the slot needs to be
dug deeper.
To provide good guidance, slots are dug at regular intervals, say at every 4 to 5 metres along the
sight line.
When sufficient slots have been dug, the workers can start excavating the ditch by joining up the
slots. The traveller can then be used to check that the finished work is to the correct level and
that there are no high or low spots.
2.3.6 Setting out gradient

2.3.6.1Finding an existing gradient:
 Fix ranging rods vertically at the two end points of the slope firmly into the ground.

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
 Tie the string line at the 1 metre mark of the ranging rod at the higher point of the slope.
 Fix the string line at the lower ranging rod, hook the line level at the middle point
between the two ranging rods and move the string line at the lower point ranging rod up
or down until the level bubble is exactly in the middle. Mark this level at the lower
ranging rod, turn the line level around and mark the level again. Measure the middle of
the difference of the two marks = this is the exact horizontal level transferred from the
higher to the lower ranging rod.
 Now measure the difference between your horizontal level mark and the one metre mark
at the ranging rod (= D).
 Measure the exact distance (length) between the two ranging rods (= L).
 Calculate the percentage of the slope.
The distance between the two ranging rods represents 100%. The calculation is therefore as
follows:
D divided by L multiplied by 100% = the percentage of the slope.
Adopt either Metres or Centimeters for all measurements.
2.3.6.2 Setting out a given gradient:

 The distance L represents 100%,
 Define, D: multiply L with given gradient (e.g. 3% = 3/100 = 0.03, as in example
below).
 Fix the line level to the lower ranging rod so that the line is horizontal and mark the point
on the ranging rod,

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
 Now add D to 1m and measure the distance (D+1m) from the level mark downwards.
 You will see that in order to be able to measure this new height, you need to dig a small
slot next to the ranging rod. Dig the slot in small steps until you can measure the exact
height (D + 1 m). The bottom of this slot is now at the required level.
 In order to transfer the gradient uniformly you have to use boning rods or profile boards
applying the method described below = set a boning rod at each end point, every few
metres dig a small slot, set the boning rod at the bottom of the slot and deepen the slot
until all three boning rods are in line with one another.
2.4 Clearing and stump removal

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
2.4.1 Site clearing:

is the first operation in the Road construction sequence (after the alignment has been set out) and
it is the removal of all bushes, trees, boulders and organic matter including topsoil from within
the proposed road construction width.
Heavy bush clearing and the unnecessary cutting down of trees should be avoided wherever
possible by careful selection of the centre line.
If a tree needs to be cut, use experienced workers and keep everyone away. After felling, cut the
tree in pieces and remove them from the road side. Once the tree is cut, dig up and remove the
roots. Holes after root extraction need to be filled and compacted properly using hand rammers.
This operation is undertaken to provide an obstacle-free road reserve on which subsequent
operations can be easily undertaken.
DISTRICT CROSS SECTION CLEARING WIDTH (in metres)

ROAD TYPE
CLEARING/TREE STRIPING/GRUBBING/
CLASS
&STUMP REMOVAL BOULDER REMOVAL
1A (Standard) 15 13
CLASS 1
1B (Black soil) 20 18
1C (Embankment) 11 + (2 x embankment 9 + (2 x embankment
height) height)
1D (Super elevation) 17 15
2A (Standard) 13 11
CLASSII
2C (Embankment) 10+(2 x embankment 8 + (2 x embankment
height) height)
3A (Standard) 11 9
CLASSIII
3C (Embankment) 10 + ( 2 x embankment 8 + (2 x embankment
height) height)
Table 3.0 shows different clearing widths
2.4.2 Bush clearing

Bush clearing: Is the cutting and removal of all bushes, shrubs (maximum girth of 0.3m) and tall
grass within the specified width and disposing of the cuttings outside the cleared area.

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
The bush clearing widths for the various cross sections are shown in table 3.0
The bush is cut as close to the ground level as possible and the cuttings are deposited outside the
cleared width.
In certain cases, workers may execute this task in small teams with one or two workers cutting,
and an extra worker disposing off the debris.
This is normally the case when the bushes are very thick and the disposal area is a distance away.
The debris must be thrown outside the cleared width on the lower side of the road.
In some situations the debris may also be piled and burnt in a controlled manner.
Fig.19 shows Across- Section through Bush Cleared area.

Tools required.
 Panga (Bush knife)
 Grass cutter (slasher)
 Bow saws
 Rakes
 Wheelbarrows
Quality Control:
 The cleared area should be free from all bushes, shrubs and tall grass. The width of bush
clearing should comply with the figures shown in table3
 At the end of bush clearing, the remaining vegetation should not exceed a height of
10cm, apart from the trees and stumps of at least 0.3m girth.

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
Environment, health and safety

 Workers must be well spaced (especially when working in gangs) to limit the risk of
injury when using cutting tools.
 Where burning of debris is necessary, care must be taken to prevent fire spreading
outside the cleared width. Water and sand must be readily available at the site when
burning is to be carried out.
 Protective clothing in the form of gumboots, gloves and overalls will be required for the
workers to protect themselves particularly from snake bites, insect bites/stings and
scratches from thorns.
 Care must be taken to avoid damage to protected flora (vegetation), historical monuments
and other heritage sites.
 A first aid kit must be readily available on site.
2.4.3 Stripping and grubbing
It is done immediately after bush clearing.
Defn: It is the complete removal of all remaining vegetation (other than trees and stumps) and
unsuitable top soil from within the formation width.
The top soil need to be removed only if it contains too much organic material or if it is
unsuitable for road construction.
The depth of the soil layer that must be removed can be estimated by examining how far down
into the ground roots of grass, shrubs and small plants grow.
The stripping and grubbing is done over the width that earthworks will takes place.
Workers must be well spaced out to ensure safety. Normally, each worker shall strip and grub
over the full width of the road.
Stripping and Grubbing is done in order to:
 Remove organic materials and unsuitable soils from the construction area
 Expose stumps and boulders properly so that they are not overlooked in the next
activities.
Tools required.
 Hoe (in soft soil)
 Mattocks (in hard soil)
 Shovel
 Rake
 Wheelbarrows
Quality Control :( to maintain standards)
 At the end of this stripping and grubbing, there shall be neither vegetation nor top soil
containing organic material within the cleared width except for trees and stumps of 0.3m
minimum girth.

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
 At any point along the road centre line, the cleared width shall comply with the values
shown in table 3.0.
 The debris from this activity should be dumped and spread at locations where it will not
be washed back into the road reserve during the rains. (i.e on the lower side outside the
road)
Ensure that:
 The debris is evenly spread at the dumping site to avoid trapping and channeling rain
water there by causing stagnant pools and erosion.
 Where the ground is too dry and prone to raising a lot of dust, water shall be sprinkled to
minimize dust being inhaled by the workers. Also, breathing masks should be supplied to
the workers.
 Workers must be well spaced out to ensure safety.
 A First Aid kit should be readily available on site in case of an emergency.

2.4.4 Tree and stump removal
Defn: In road construction, a tree is a plant having a girth greater than 0.3m. The girth of a tree
is measured as the circumference of the tree at a height of 1 m above the ground level.
The work done includes felling the tree, uprooting its stump, cutting it up and disposing of the
debris at an appropriate location. All trees are to be removed completely (including the entire
root system) from within the bush cleared width.
Trees are removed to:
 facilitate the drying effect of wind and sun on the wet road
 provide good visibility to the traffic on the road
 avoid traffic hazards
 avoid structural damage of the road by expansion of roots
 Have a strong sub grade free from rotting roots.
Tools required.
 Axe ,Bow saw , Hand saw , Pick axe, Shovel ,Wedges , Crow bars ,Rope
Labour:
Sufficient labour must be available to ensure that the trees can be felled depending on workload.
Equipment:
Chain saws may be used where it is necessary to increase the rate of cutting, in order for the
activity to keep up with other activities.
In situations where the extraction of stumps is difficult, a tractor may be used to help pull out the
stump and roots.
Work method:

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
For small to medium size trees (girth of 0.3m to 1m), one of the easiest ways of felling these
trees is by attaching a rope at least halfway up the tree and after excavating the ground from
around the stump, have the gang (or tractor) pull on the rope. This will cause the tree to be
uprooted with the advantage that the stump and most roots will come out of the ground
simultaneously.
This method is more efficient than cutting the tree first and digging the roots later. The
remaining roots should be dug out of the ground.
Fig.20: Felling big trees by Cutting.

Quality Control:
The cleared width (as given in table 3.0) shall be completely free of trees, stumps and roots.
Tree felling is a highly dangerous activity and extra attention should be paid to safety as follows:
 When using the rope method, ensure that the length of the rope is longer than the height
of the tree. This will allow the gang pulling the rope to be well clear of the tree as it falls.
 With both the methods, make sure the area or circle on which the tree is intended to fall is
well clear of people.
 Tree felling should not be attempted when there is strong wind.
 A first aid kit should be available on site in case of an accident.
The following environmental issues should be taken into consideration:
 Proper disposal should be adhered to in order to avoid littering (Rubbish).

 The depressions caused by uprooting large tree stumps (if they fall outside the formation
width) should be backfilled.

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
2.4.5 Boulder removal

Defn: Boulder removal is the removal of large stones or boulders from within the cleared width
of the road, and they should be disposed at suitable and approved locations.
Tools required.
Pick, Shovel, Crow bar, Sledge hammer, Safety goggles, hard hats, Gloves, Rope, Wedges,
Feathers and plugs, Watering cans
Labour
Gangs can vary from a single person to as many as 10 people working on a single boulder.
Fig.21 Boulder removal by labour using Crowbars.

Equipment:
Where boulders are too large for people to handle within the required time, the following
equipment may be used:
 A tractor may be used to pull or push the boulder out of the cleared width. However, it
must be borne in mind that tractor time is very expensive and, therefore, its use should be
limited to deserving situations only.
 A compressor with a jack hammer or explosives may be necessary where the boulders are
even too large for the tractor to pull or push.
 A vehicle jack may be used to assist in moving/lifting the boulder.
Moving the boulders out of the cleared width
Boulders may be carried, rolled, towed or pushed in the following ways:
 physical lifting of boulders by workers and dumping them outside the cleared width,
 workers rolling boulders outside the cleared width with the aid of crow bars,
 workers towing boulders outside the cleared width with the aid of ropes
 tractor towing boulders outside the cleared width with the aid of ropes
Quality Control:
 At the end of this activity, a visual check should be carried out to ensure that the cleared
width (in accordance with Table 1.0 is completely free of boulders.

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
 In the case where boulders are buried, check to ensure that they are buried well below
0.2m of the intended sub grade level.
Environment, health and safety:
 When splitting rocks using hand tools, labourers must wear boots, eye protection goggles
and gloves to protect against bruises on the skin.
 For blasting, only specially trained and licensed people can be allowed to take charge of
the activity. These trained people will be able to implement all the necessary safety
procedures.
 If pneumatic drills are to be used, then the labourers working with this equipment must be
supplied with ear and eye protection gear including boots.
 Stones and boulders from this activity should not be disposed of in such a way that it
blocks any natural waterways or diverts them.
 When boulders are to be buried, care must be taken so that the boulder does not roll into
the pit while workers are still digging or working inside the pit.

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
3.0 EARTHWORKS
Earthworks involve the loosening, removal, disposal and handling of earthen materials in the
construction process-excavation of cutting and construction of embankment.
OR
Earthworks involves digging drains and using the material to build up the camber, excavating cut
to fill to form the road and building up the road on embankments in flat areas with poor drainage.
The earthworks activities include:
 Measuring and calculation of volumes
 Excavation including cutting and borrowing to fill and/or cutting to spoil
 Loading, hauling and unloading (if required)
 Spreading and compaction
Consider the situation where the road is built on land that is level, or nearly level, between
drains with very little cross slope.
The earthworks excavated from the side drains, this material is used to form the camber. (See
fig. below)
(Camber
(Side drain
Fig.22 Flat Terrain

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
3.1 Volume and Slots
Before carrying out any excavation of earth fill works, volumes must be determined in order to
estimate the material needed for the works.
In order to get accurate measurements, the formation, and road bed or drain levels during
construction must be set relative to existing ground by use of slot (slotting) technique. (See
fig2a)
The excavation to level technique, slots are used as a visual guide to the workers on the shape of
the road bed that they are to construct.
Slots are also used to expose the ground conditions where the construction activities are to take
place. Slots must be compacted by ramming at optimum moisture content.
The top of the slot should be 0.5m and the length depends on the road cross section.
The cross section areas of the existing ground in between slots can be accurately measured and
calculated using the following formula. And by multiplying the average area with the length of
work in successive slots give volume of earthworks.

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
Fig2a Show Slots for Excavation to Level
Calculation of volume of excavation for side ditches.

Calculate the volume of excavation required for the ditches including the slopes on both sides of
the road after levelling of the sub-grade has been completed, over a road length of 100m:
1. Divide the ditch-slope area into areas, which can be easily calculated
2. Calculate the area of each part and multiply by two (for both sides)
3. Calculate the total sum of all areas
4. To get the volume, multiply the total area with the length of the road
Calculation of volume of fill for formation
Calculate the volume of fill required for the formation over a road length of 100m:
1. Divide the formation area into areas, which can be easily calculated
2. Calculate the area of all parts
3. Calculate the total sum of all areas
4. To get the volume, multiply the total area with the length of the road

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
3.2 Excavation to level

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
Excavation to level is carried out to provide a level terrace (horizontal ground), in accordance
with the designed vertical alignment, on which the drainage and camber can be constructed in an
accurate and controlled manner.
The level of the terrace should be the same as the subsequent level of the shoulder break point of
the road.
The width of the level terrace is the distance from one outer end of the ditch invert to the outer
end of the ditch invert on the other side of the centerline. (See fig3a)
Fig.3a show Excavation to Level
Work Method:
 The slots are used, as a guideline for the excavation and filling of each 10-metre section
of road to achieve a transversely level terrace.
 Define quantity of work for the day and allocate labourers accordingly. (Calculate
volume of earthworks between two consecutive slots for individual tasks).
 Spread the fill material in thin layers (about 0.15m) and compact to a density as specified.
The operation continues until a smooth terrace is achieved to the same levels as the slots.
 Check the level of the terrace with boning rods or a profile board and correct where
necessary.
 Compact terrace to density specified, Using vibrating roller.
NB: Ensure optimum moisture content of the soil when compacting!
Tools
Pick axes, Mattocks , Hand rammers, Hoes , Shovels, Rakes or Spreaders ,Wheelbarrows,
Straight edge 2mlonger,Spirit level ,Boning Rod Set,

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
Equipment:
Vibrating roller, Water bowser
Material:
• Strings, Pegs
3.3 Excavation to level including borrow to fill
In this case, some material is cut to fill within the formation width, extra (borrow) material (from
outside the formation width) is required to bring the roadbed to the required level.
The productivity for this activity depends on the haul distance of the borrow material, the type of
equipment used like wheelbarrows, tippers etc and the type of material hauled.
This activity involves:
 Excavation of borrow material from the quarry
 Load and haul borrow material
 Offload and spread borrow material
Fig. 4a show Excavation to Level including borrow to fill.
3.4 Cut to spoil
In this case the cut (excavated) material is thrown out of the roadway. This is applied when the
side long slope is too steep that it cannot safely support the fill material and cannot safely allow
workers to work on it.

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
Fig5a show Cut to Spoil
Work method
Slotting is carried out first and the slot interval along the road must be 10m. The slot is
constructed as described in the earlier part of this section by cutting material from the high spots.
Fig. 6a: Slotting of Cut to Spoil
Once the slots are ready, excavation to level will follow to join up the slots.
Guidance to the workers are provided by strings and pegs that will clearly demarcate the limits
of excavation and extents of fill as shown in Fig6a

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
To ensure proper compaction of the fill, the roller must be working in the same area as the
people are working.
The fill layers must be compacted by roller and the loose fill layers must not exceed 150mm
loose.
The fill layers must be watered where necessary, such that the moisture content at compaction is
between 80% and 105%.
A minimum of six passes of compaction shall be applied or until no roller imprint on the surface
can be recognized.
Quality control
 Visual observations must be supported by measurements from level reference marks to
ensure that excavation and filling are completed to design levels at each station.
 With the use of boning rods, the level terrace must be checked so that it is to the correct
grade between the stations.
 The width of the level terrace must be checked by tape every 100m. The longitudinal
levels must be checked every 20m using boning rods or profile boards.
 The compaction should be checked by counting the number of passes made by roller and
checking that no visible roller imprints are present on the finished product.

 Where any side-borrow has been made outside the formation width, it must be
rehabilitated to discourage ponding of water.
 At any excavation point, where the use of heavy tools, are combined with falling
material, constitutes a risk situation and labourers must be well-spaced to avoid injury.
 In dry areas, dust reduction measures (e.g. dampening the soil with water) must be
considered if unhealthy levels of dust are suspected.
 If cut to spoil, the material dumped should be spread out and not left in heaps.
 Where there is a high cut face, it should be stepped to reduce landslides in high slopes.
3.5 Embankment (filling)
This method is employed where it is necessary to raise the road level usually across low-lying
land with poor drainage, adjacent to bridges and culverts and on low sections of the road as
dictated by the vertical alignment. (See fig. 7a)
Tools
Picks, Shovels, Wheelbarrows, Heavy duty rakes, Watering cans, String and line level, Straight
edge 3m, Tape measure 30m, ranging rods with profile boards.
Equipment
 Pedestrian roller
 Tractor and tipper
 Water Bowser
Work method
 The quarry and haulage operations are organized in a similar manner to those for
gravelling.

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
 After completion of the clearing activities, the vertical alignment is fixed using ranging
rods with adjustable profiles. However, instead of fixing the centreline profiles at 1m
above the required level, they should be fixed at final level of the centreline.
 It is necessary to set out the toe of the embankment and, as the fill rises, the toe of the
shoulder. Pegs should be established for these points using the details in Fig7a
 When the toe position T is determined, a peg should be installed. A batter profile of 1: 1
should also be erected to guide the earthworks fill. Profile boards should also be erected
to show the position and finished levels of the centreline.
Fig 7a: show Embankment setting out.

Example:
On a flat area, assume that dimensions used in a road construction are: width of 5.5m, side slopes
of 1:2 and a clearance above highest flood water level of 0.5m.
H, is the height of the embankment, fixed by the height of normal flood levels plus a clearance of
0.5m. (See fig below)
The area of the cross-section is calculated as: 1/2 (5.5 +5.5 + 4H) x Hm2, which is equivalent to
cubic metres per meter road length when we calculate volumes.

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
Example: An embankment of 1.35m average height would have a cross-section area of:
(5.5 + 2 x 1.35) x 1.35 = 11.07m2or 11.07 m3 per metre length.
Fig. 8a: Show construction of Fill Layers on a swampy area

To ensure proper compaction of the fill, the roller must be working in the same area as where the
people are working.
The fill layers must be compacted by roller and the loose fill layers must not exceed 150mm
loose.
The fill layers must be watered if it is dry, such that the moisture content at compaction is
between 80% and 105% of the optimum moisture content
A minimum of six passes of compaction should be applied or until no roller imprint on the
surface can be recognized.
The uniformity of compaction of a fill layer is very critical on an embankment in order to avoid
unnecessary differential settlement.
It is, therefore, importance that compaction is carefully monitored throughout the construction of
the embankment.
Quality Control
 The dimensions (width and height) of the embankment must be checked for accuracy
every 20m. The levels should be strictly controlled by continuous boning for each fill
layer in order to ensure the correct height.
 The smoothness of the longitudinal profile must be checked every 20m. This can be done
by using a 3m straight edge.
 The compaction can be checked by counting the number of passes made by roller and
 A proper test should be done to comply with the standard specifications.

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
 Where any side-borrow has been made outside the formation width, it must be
rehabilitated to discourage ponding of water and/or possible erosion.
 At any excavation face the use of heavy tools combined with the threat of falling material
constitutes a risk situation and labourers must be well-spaced to avoid injury.
 In extremely dry areas, dust reduction measures (e.g. dampening the soil with water)
must be considered if unhealthy levels of dust are suspected.
 A first aid kit must be readily available on site for any emergency.
Note: The quarry and haulage Compaction operations are organized in a similar manner to those
for gravelling.

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
4.0 GRAVELLING
Gravelling is the placing of gravel layer (selected granular, mainly laterite) material directly on
the sub grade to provide a strong surface layer which is passable in both dry and wet weather,
and which does not deform under the expected traffic loads.
A good gravel surface and the road camber, prevents water from entering into the road body and
thereby avoiding surface water from deteriorating the bearing strength of the road.
The gravel layer is placed immediately after the completion of earthworks. In some cases, newly
constructed roads are left un-gravelled for a period of time, allowing the base to settle and traffic
to provide compaction.
The following methods are used to gravel a road:
 Use of a mix of labour and equipment,
 Use labour for all activities except hauling over distances longer than 150 metres
.The preparation operations are carried out in advance of the gravelling and consist of:
 reshaping the road
 preparing quarry access roads
 preparing quarries
 Initial excavation of gravel.
The sequence of the actual gravelling works is as follows:
 Main excavation of gravel in the quarry.
 loading
 hauling
 offloading and spreading
 compaction
Excavation depends on the hardness of the rock, and it carried out with, blasting or hand tools
such as pickaxes and crowbars.
The crushing can be done either with rock crusher or by hand.
Spreading is done by a grader or with hand tools. With very short hauling distances (less than
150m), it is even possible to carry out all activities with labour. The hauling can then be
economically done with wheelbarrows.
In some cases, newly constructed roads are left un-graveled for a period of time. This allows the
base to settle and traffic to provide compaction. In other cases, the gravelling layer is placed
immediately after the completion of earthworks.
After a certain period of time, i.e. six to ten years, depending on the traffic volumes, it is
necessary to re-gravel the road.
Standards

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
The thickness of gravel layers depends on the strength of the sub grade material, quality of
available materials and the expected traffic loads.
For rural, low traffic volume roads, a carriage width is 5m wide which is fully graveled with a
layer of 15-20cm (before compaction) is recommended.
The road camber should be maintained at 8% (10% before compaction).
4.1 Gravel Source
When selecting appropriate gravel quarries, a number of aspects need to be considered. These
include:
 the quality of the gravel material,
 The terrain / level where the quarry is located.
 the depth of soil (or overburden) over the gravel,
 the quantity of good quality gravel available,
 how to excavate the gravel,
 how long access road needs to be constructed to access the quarry,
 hauling distance from the quarry to the road site, and
 Land ownership at the quarry site.
Preferably the gravel pit should be located close to your road to limit hauling distances, because
gravelling can be quite expensive and can sometimes cost as much as the construction of the road
itself.
4.2 Preparation of gravel quarry site and access
Preparation of quarry site involves the removal of all vegetation, stumps, boulders, fences,
structures, top soil and any other material considered unsuitable from gravel excavation site.
Where necessary, provide an improved access for haulage equipment.
Tools used
Hoes, Mattocks, Shovels, Bush knives, Pick-axes, Rakes, Wheelbarrows
Labour
The gang size depends on the size of quarry area, access length, nature and difficulty of the
preparation works and productivity targets.
Materials
 Wooden pegs
 Strings/ropes of sisal twine

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
Work method
The area to be cleared is set by using tape measures, pegs and strings so that the quarry can be
exploited as planned.
Cut all vegetation including grass, bush, trees and remove stumps, boulders, fences and
structures that is in the quarry area using bush knives, mattocks and pickaxes.
Haul and deposit all cut or removed materials to approved locations.
Excavate using hoes or mattocks the overburden, load onto wheelbarrows, haul and stock within
10m from the planned quarry area so that it can be reused to reinstate quarry or as directed by the
engineer. See fig. 9a.
Fig9a: Planning overburden and possible extension
4.3 Quarry Plans and Organization
Location
Where possible, gravel quarries should be located in the road reserve and adjacent to the road,
which helps to avoid the need for access roads and additional turning areas.
Where quarry sites are located away from the road, access will be needed for haulage equipment
to use.
Quarry Layout
The quarry site and its layout must be well planned before any work starts. The quarry site must
be planned so that:
 The quarry can be fully exploited with extraction of optimum amount of gravel

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
 The overburden is stockpiled in such a manner as to allow for future extension and ease
in reuse to reinstate the quarry site.
 The best quality gravel is taken in case of variable quality in the site
 Environment damage by erosion or poor drainage is minimized (see Figure10a )
Fig.10a. Drainage of quarry at hill side

The quarry lay out should allow for the following:
 Efficient excavations, stockpiling, loading, ample turning or maneuver space for the
hauling equipment
 Haulage trucks to enter and leave without being in each other‟s way. . If only a single
access road is possible, then a double lane for traffic in both directions is required
(see Figure11a)

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
Fig.11a Typical quarry access plan.
Reshaping
The road to be graveled should be brought to its correct cross section or shape before gravelling.
The reshaping activity is necessary if the road has been used for vehicular traffic for more than 1
- 2 weeks.
The activity will include reestablishment of the camber cross fall, shoulders and slopes to enable
the water to drain off easily.
Tools used (Labour based)

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
Hoe , mattock, Rake, Camber board, Broom, Ditch and slope templates, Pick axe, Shovel, Wheel
barrow, Hand rammer, Spirit levels for templates, Temporary road signs
Equipment
 Grader (for mechanised methods)
 Tractor and towed grader
 Vibrating rollers
 Water browser.
Reshaping using labour-based method will involve the following:

 All tools and safety items delivered to the site checked and placed respectively by the
supervisor.
 Any vegetation from the carriageway or shoulder is removed using a hoe, brushed with
broom, removed and dumped out on the lower side of the road.
 Trimming the surface material with hoe or mattock to restore the road surface shape,
bringing the materials from the sides to the centre and forming to the required camber
cross-fall.
 Re-excavate and clean side drains. If the material excavated from the drains is of good
quality, it is spread on the road surface otherwise it is spoilt.
 The original road surface should be scarified using pick or equipment before spreading
the loose material on the surface, watered (if necessary) and compacted using a hand
rammer or roller.
Quality control checks for reshaping consist of the following:
Table 1
4.4 GRAVEL EXCAVATION AND STOCK PILING

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
This involves the loosening of the insitu gravel, removing from cut position the loose gravel and
stockpiling in heaps alongside for easy loading. It also includes removal of boulders encountered
during excavations.
Tools
Mattocks, Hoes, Pick-Shovels, Wheel barrows, Sledgehammers, Tape measurers
Work methods.
Set out points for gravel excavation such that it is done in bays Fig12a and gravel excavation is
suitable for gang tasks.
Excavate gravel and stockpile ready for loading. One day before it is required to be hauled to the
gravelling site
The gravel is stockpiled alongside bays to allow for easy loading and avoid multiple handling.
Fig. 12a: Gravel Excavation in Bays
Quality Control
Visual inspections are carried out to ensure that oversize particles or unsuitable material are
removed from the excavated material.
Environmental, Health and Safety
 Workmen must have enough room to work safely and comfortably.
 There must be enough room for trucks to maneuver.
 In the case of hillsides high cuts must be avoided.
4.5 Loading gravel
This involves placing of excavated loose gravel from the stockpile onto the hauling equipment,
i.e. truck, tractor-trailer etc.

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
Tools used.
 Shovel
 Hoes
Labour
The loading gang should be divided into groups of 4 to 6 labourers. These groups load the empty
trailers in the order in which they arrive at the site.
NB. Sufficient gang size for loading the truck must be selected to reduce idle time.
Work method
Trucks should be parked at the same height below the stockpiles for ease of loading. The gravel
is then loaded using shovels, into the trailers and trucks.
Situations that result into the Truck being far high above the stockpile should be avoided as
loading may be difficult.
Fig. 13a: Loading Tractor Trainer
Quality Control
All trailers and trucks must be loaded to the correct load line.
Health and Safety
Workmen must have enough room to work safely and comfortably.
4.6 Hauling gravel
Hauling involves the movement of excavated material from the source to the point of use of the
material.

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
Or the average hauling distance is the distance from the quarry to the middle of the closest and
furthest road section that you need to gravel.
Transport of gravel can be organised in many ways, depending on the distance from the gravel
quarry to the site and the type of equipment available to the project.
The table2 below is a guide for selecting the type of transport appropriate for different haulage
distances
Tractor towing tipping trailers can be a very economical mode of transport when the hauling
distance does not exceed 8km.
The trailers are more suitable than lorries in cases where manual loading is to be used
DISTANCE TRANSPORT
10 – 150m Wheelbarrows
150 – 1000m Animal Carts
1000 – 5000m Tractors & Trailers
Over 5000m Truck
Table 2
Fig14a: Gravelling Target Trips per Day for Tipper Trucks

Work method
Gravelling work should start from where the quarry access joins the road to be graveled.
At beginning, gravelling can be done away from the quarry access in both directions because of
the short hauls. This will reduce congestion at the off-loading site.

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
When hauls exceed 1km, gravelling should continue in only one direction at a time. It is also
advisable to gravel the road section where the access road meets to reduce the wear and tear of
the road around the access junction.
The advantages of these are that:
 The gravelling equipment compact the material as they haul over the laid gravel
 Damage to existing road camber is minimised
 Gravelling traffic does not interfere with reshaping activities
 Gravelling can restart sooner after rainfall
4.7 Off-loading (unloading) and spreading
This involves removal of gravel material from the equipment and spreading it to the required
thickness and width.
Tractor trailers have to be offloaded by labour. While Trucks remove their load by tipping and
do not require labour to offload.
Off-loading
Drivers should be instructed to dump the entire load within an area which you have clearly
marked with pegs and string lines.
To make spreading easier, instruct the drivers to move slowly forward while dumping, so that the
gravel is evenly distributed along the length of the rectangular area.
Spreading
Once the material is unloaded, you can start the spreading.
Spread immediately before compaction to make use of the natural moisture content of the
material.
The workers should use special spreading rakes, or hoes to spread the material evenly onto the
road base.
The Work should start from the centre line towards the shoulder, and spread one side of the
centre line at a time.
Oversize pieces of rock should be removed or crushed using sledge hammers
Work Method:
This is a combined activity, carried out by one gang of labourers. It is important that the trucks or
trailers are off-loaded in the shortest possible time.
Set out off-loading and spreading boxes using pegs and strings in accordance with the volume of
the haulage equipment.

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
Box width is equal to standard width of road, length of box = trailer or truck capacity divided by
road width multiplied by layer thickness (loose)
Pegs are set at the centre line and edge of box to ensure a satisfactory cross fall (8%) and
longitudinal gradient.
Calculate the total volume of gravel to be spread for the day. Allocate labourers accordingly.
Offload gravel and spread immediately using hoes and heavy-duty rakes or spreaders. Any
gravel lumps or stones larger than 63mm should be broken down using sledge hammers

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
4.8 Gravel Quality
The quality of the gravel needs to be determined in advance of the project commencing
gravelling works. This enables the project to prepare and negotiate gravel rates adequately in
advance and to time the gravelling works to the optimal period of the year (dry season).
Although the process is called "gravelling", various materials can be used such as laterite,
limestone and gravel. Most suitable materials consist of a mixture of stones, sand and clay.
The stone particles will lock together and form a strong skeleton which spreads the traffic load
to the natural soil. The sand and clay acts as a binder keeping the stone particles in place.
Good gravelling material should contain between 35 - 65% stones, 20 - 40% sand, and 10 - 25%
clay. However, in wet weather a high proportion of clay in the mixture would make the layer too
soft and slippery.
Information about soil characteristics is useful both to help in selecting sites, routes and to
facilitate design and specification of the project.
Engineers and technicians are often limited to make some of the field tests but When an
Engineer is used with laboratory tests taken on similar samples for other projects and with a
sound knowledge built up by observing how similar materials have performed, these field tests
can provide sufficient information for making sensible engineering decisions.
4.9 Some Field Testing Methods

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
1) Take a sample, moisten it and mould it into a ball. You can feel the sand and stones
by the gritty feel of the sample when you squeeze it. When, after drying, the ball
retains its shape, you can assume that there is enough clayey binder in the material.
2) You can also make a flat thick piece from the moist sample and try to penetrate it
with a pencil. If the pencil penetrates easily, the material is not suitable because it
contains too much binder or clayey material. If it is difficult to penetrate, there is a
sufficient proportion of fine and course materials which interlocks well.
3) Settling test: used to find out the proportions of the various soil fractions in the
sample.
 The sample is put in a glass jar like this Fig15a. .
 Only half the jar should be filled with the sample.
 Then add water till the jar is three-quarters full.
 Add some salt, as this will improve the settling of the finer materials.
 Shake the jar, and let the soil in the jar settle.
 You will see, the gravel and the course sand fractions settling immediately.
 The finer sand and the course silt fractions settle more slowly.
 The clay and the fine silt will remain in suspension for some time before they settle.
 You can see the proportion of each fraction as layers in the jar.
The results of these tests provide indications on how these soils could react when subjected to
compaction, traffic and weather conditions.
If you are still in doubt about the suitability of the gravel, consult your engineer to carry out
laboratory tests to confirm your observations.
Fig. 15a A grass Jar with a sample
4.10 Water

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
Good water sources are also important. When the gravel operation commences, the projects
needs water haulage equipment available on site, i.e. a water pump, water bowser and an
appropriate spreader. Make sure that this equipment is available and in good working condition
before gravelling works starts.

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
5.0 COMPACTION
Soil compaction is the process whereby soil particles are constrained to pack more closely
together through a reduction of the air voids, generally by mechanical means.
Soil and gravel in its natural state consists of solid particles, water and air.
Air does not contribute to the strength and stability of the soil, it reduces the stability of a soil.
If the soil contains too much moisture and is too wet, the soil particles are kept apart by the
water. When the soil is too moist and you try to compact it, it will simply not compress, but flow
out sideways. (See fig 16a)
Fig 16a; A sample of soil particle

Under compaction, soil will reduce its volume and therefore its density will increase.
In road construction, the compaction of soil is important for three main reasons:
 it increases the strength of soil,
 it reduces the permeability , thus reducing moisture content changes( water cannot enter
the soil easily and change its strength).
 It reduces the settlement and increases resistance to deformation.
The level of compaction to be achieved in the field during construction is normally specified as a
percentage of the maximum dry density obtained in a compaction test in the laboratory.
The layers of fill material shall be compacted throughout to a dry density of at least 95%MDD,
except for the upper 300mm, which shall be compacted to a dry density of at least 100% MDD
Another way of determining compaction is to specify the minimum number of passes to be
carried out with a certain type of roller and with a specified moisture content of the soil. This
method is called Method Specification

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
5.1 Factors Influencing Compaction
 Coarse grained soils (gravel and sand).

Good compaction in coarse – grained soils depends upon particle – size distribution
The best results are achieved with well – graded soil. Poorly graded soils will have a high air
content even when compacted.
 Fine grained soils.

Silty Soils e.g Black cotton soil, are extremely difficult to compact and very unstable in the
presence of water.It should be avoided during construction.
Clay soil can be compacted when in a plastic state and can be used as fill material on some
occasions.
 Moisture Content:
The degree of compaction to be achieved is governed by the moisture content.
If the soil is too dry, friction between particles tends to resist close packing. If the soil is too
wet, the water between particles prevents close packing. Therefore, there is an Optimum
Moisture Content at which a maximum density is achieved.
And the optimum moisture content of the soil can be checked in the field by Squeezing asample
in the hand.
i) If the material is too dry, it will not stick together and must be mixed with water
before compaction.
ii) If water runs out of the material, it is too wet and should not be compacted but left to
dry out until the moisture content has reduced.
iii) If the material is wet enough to stick (you can form a ball), it has the optimum
moisture content and is suitable for compaction.
 Amout of compaction.
The degree of compaction that is achieved in a certain volume of material is a function of
the compactive effort applied. The higher the compactive effort , the higher the density
that will be achieved and therefore more stable the soil will be.
The amount of compaction aplied to a soil vary in two ways.
i) By varying the type of compaction plant.(a 3 tonne roller will achieve a smaller
compactive effort than a 8tonne roller).
ii) By varying the number of passes.
NB. Each plant has an upper limit of compactive effort, beyond which additional passes
have no further effect. And this upper limit is reached after about 6 passes.
 Thickness of layer.
The thicker the layer of loose material that is being compacted, the less the average
density will be and therefore the stability resulting from a certain compactive effort.
The loose layer to be compacted should range from 100mm to 400mm depending on the
roller to be used.

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
5.2 Compaction Plant
 Smooth wheeled rollers: Suitable for light clayey and well graded soils.
 Grid rollers: Suitable for light clayey and well graded soils
 Tamping roller: suitable for clayey soils.
 Towed vibrating rollers: Suitable for light clayey and well graded soils.
 Self-propelled double vibrating rollers: Suitable for light clayey and well graded soils
 Pedestrian tandem vibrating rollers: Suitable for light clayey and well graded soils
 Pedestrian vibrating rollers: Suitable for clayey soils.
 Vibro tampers: Suitable for light clayey and well graded soils
 Dropping weight compactors: Suitable for all soils.
5.3 Compaction Methods
There are four methods of compaction:

 manually or mechanically operated tampers or rammers,
 deadweight rollers,
 vibrating compaction,
 Natural compaction.
5.3.1 Tampers and Rammers (Manually)
Tampers and rammers compact the soils by impact. Designed hand rammers are used for this
purpose.
It is cheap to produce, and consist of a long wooden handle with a cast iron at the end. It is lifted
and dropped on the surface repeatedly to produce compaction, weight is usually 6 to 8 kg
Using hand rammers is expensive and difficult to apply evenly over large areas.
A lot of manpower and direct supervision is needed to produce a steady output of reasonable
quality.
Hand rammers are useful in small and confined areas such as around culverts, pot-holes etc.
A hand rammer

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
5.3.2 Deadweight Rollers

There are several types of deadweight rollers, ranging from single or double steel drums, towed
or self-propelled.
Factors to consider when choosing type of compaction equipment are:
 its availability in the region of your road works activities,
 how to deliver it to the construction site,
 how easy is it to operate and how easily can it be reversed
 Its cost and reliability.
Large and heavy towed rollers have good compaction qualities but difficult to turn and operate in
hilly or steep terrain.
Self-propelled rollers are operated in both directions, but they are prone to breakdowns.
5.3.3 Vibrating Rollers

A vibrating roller compact to a greater depth than a deadweight roller.
The effect of the vibrating motion depends on the intensity of the vibrations and the type of
material on which it is used.
They require a lower moisture content than deadweight rollers, to achieve even compaction, an
even speed should be maintained.
The first passes, should be done without vibration, to avoid that the roller gets "bogged down"
into the soil. The speed should be around 3 km per hour.
Fig: Vibrating roller

5.3.4 Natural Compaction
The simplest method of compaction is by leaving soil to settle naturally by just leaving it for a
period of time. The soil by its own weight, rainfall and people, animals and vehicles travelling
on it, will consolidate enough to carry traffic loads.

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
This is called ìndirect compaction' method or natural consolidation. It is only used on very low
fills, and is most effective if the fill material is very moist and must dry out.
Given sufficient time, it has been found that roads compacted by natural consolidation can
achieve similar densities as roads compacted by equipment.
The main disadvantage is that while the soil is not consolidated, it is prone to erode more easily.
It is good to leave the fill for a period of six months to achieve an effective degree of
compaction.
5.4 Field density tests
To check whether the required compaction has been achieved, then the field density tests have to
be taken during the construction period.
5.4.1 Methods used to determine field density:
5.4.1.1 Drive Cylinder:
This is the simplest method where a fixed volume of soil is removed by driving a thin-walled
cylinder down into the soil. The sample is taken to the laboratory where the dry weight is
determined.
The dry density is calculated by dividing the oven-dried mass of the soil specimen by its volume.
This method is not applicable to soils containing too much clay content.
5.4.1.2 Rubber Balloon:
In this method,
 A sample is removed by hand excavating a hole in the soil.
 The volume of the test hole is determined by measuring the volume of water necessary to
fill the hole after a thin, elastic, water tight membrane (balloon) has been inserted into the
hole. .
 A slight pressure is applied to the water to ensure complete filling of the test hole.
5.4.1.3 Sand Replacement:

The sand replacement or sand cone method is widely used to determine the density of compacted
soils.
Procedure.
 A sample is removed by hand excavating a hole in the soil.
 The in situ volume of the sample is determined by measuring the volume of dry, free-
flow sand necessary to fill the hole.
 A special cone is used to pour the sand into the hole.
 The dry weight of the sample is determined in the laboratory.
NB. The method is not recommended for soils that are soft or in a saturated condition.
5.5 Erosion Protection

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
Newly formed slopes on fills and embankments can be easily damaged by runoff surface water,
cattle, etc.
It is necessary to protect the slopes as soon as they have been constructed. The erosion protection
can be of different types, the most common being planting grass.
A more expensive but fast and effective method is to use stones for protection.
Grass can provide very effective protection against erosion if the right method of planting and
the right type of grass is used.
The planting can be done:
 by planting grass runners,
 By covering the slopes with turfs (grass).
6.0 Construction of drainage system

Drainage: is the Interception and removal of ground water and surface water by artificial or
natural means.
6.1 Drainage terms
Side Drain: is the Long flat-bottomed excavation running along the road side, designed to
collect and drain surface runoff water from the carriageway and adjoining land, away from the
roadway to a suitable point of disposal.
Ditch (Drain): A long narrow excavation intended to collect and drain off surface water.
Mitre Drain: is the drain which leads the water out of the side drains and safely disperses it
onto adjoining land.
Catch Water Drain: is a ditch constructed on the uphill side designed to intercept or collect and
drain away surface runoff water flowing towards the road from the uphill side, and lead it to a
suitable point of disposal.

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
Scour Check: is a small structure placed across the drain on steep gradients and is designed to
slow down the flow of water to prevent erosion of drain invert and slopes.
Apron: is the flat paved area at the culvert inlet or outlet to prevent erosion.
Headwall: is a Retaining wall at the entry or exit of the culvert to retain and protect the
embankment or retained soil.
Wing wall: is a Retaining wall at the side of the culvert or large structures to retain and protect
the embankment or retained soil.
Soffit: The highest point in the internal cross-section of a culvert, or the underside of a bridge
deck.
Basin: A structure at a culvert inlet or outlet to contain turbulence and prevent erosion.
Cut off Wall: is the vertical wall under the headwall to prevent Water from seeping (Leaking)
under the structure.
Invert: is the lowest point on the cross section through the culvert opening.
Weep hole: is an Opening provided in retaining walls to permit drainage of water in the filter
layer or soil layer behind the structure. They prevent water pressure building up behind the
structure.

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
Fig1: Drainage components and Typical Culvert Feature

Water is the main contributor to the wear and damage of roads. It can be ground water, surface
water (streams and rivers), and rain etc.
Water can damage the road in two ways:
 By washing away the soil (erosion).
 By making the road body less strong to traffic (i.e. lowering the road Strength).
It is important to install an efficient drainage system which allows for the water to flow off from
the road as quickly as possible.
This is achieved by a system consisting of the following components:
 road surface drainage which enables the water to flow off the road surface,
 side drains and mitre drains which collect and lead the water away from the road,
 catch water drains which catches surface water before it reaches the road,
 Scour checks which prevent erosion in the ditches by slowing down the flow of the water.
 Culverts which lead the water from the side drains under the road to another lower side.
 Small bridges and drifts which allows the road to cross small rivers and streams in a
controlled manner throughout the seasons.
Above all, Rainwater is the biggest enemy of roads, there is a need to construct side drains with
sufficient capacity to collect all rain water from the road carriage way and dispose of it quickly
and in a controlled manner to minimise damage.
Side drains are constructed in three forms:
 V-shaped,
 rectangular

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
 A trapezoid.
The V-shape is the standard shape for ditches constructed by a motor grader. It can be easily
maintained by heavy equipment, however it carries a low capacity.
The rectangular shape requires little space but needs to be lined with rock or concrete to maintain
its shape.
A trapezoid shape carries a high flow water capacity by carefully selecting the gradients of its
side slopes and resist erosion. It is easy to construct using labour based methods.
V-shaped Rectangular
Trapezoid
Fig 2: Shapes of side drain
6.2 Ditching and Spreading
It involves the excavation of the ditch, leaving the walls vertical and throwing suitable
excavated material onto the road centre line.
The material thrown into the road centerline area is then spread, watered and compacted.
This forms the first part of camber construction.
Tools Used:
Pick, mattock, hoe, Spades, Heavy duty rake for spreading, Shovels, Watering cans
Equipment
 Vibrating roller
 Water bowser
Work Method
 Set out the width of the ditches on both sides using pegs and strings.
Establish the material pegs and show edge of fill in the middle with strings. (See fig3)

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
 Excavate the ditches for the correct size. Use the ditch template to control width and
depth. (seefig4).
Throw the excavated material to the middle in between the material pegs.
 Spread and level the material in the middle
 Compact middle layer with vibrating roller
Two situations exist for ditching:
 Ditching after excavation to level
 Ditching where excavation to level has not taken place
Ditching after excavation to level

Four strings are fixed along the level road bed terrace.
 One string on each side of the centreline will demarcate the width of the ditches.
 Another string shall be placed at the centre of the roadway to define the exact area where
the material excavated from the ditch are thrown. (Seefig3)
The strings are fixed in place by a number of pegs.

Excavation of the ditches may then commence. Each worker must be given sticks which has
been cut to the required depth and width of the drain for guidance on how much to excavate.
Supervision of this work is importance as the drain must be excavated to the correct width and
depth at all points.
Fig3 :Ditching

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
Fig4: Control of ditch excavation with a Ditch Template
6.3 Ditching where excavation to level has not taken place

Some cases the land is not flat and horizontal. This means the depths of excavation for the
ditches will vary from point to point.
A situation where land is not flat, the excavation requires ditch slots to be dug first at intervals of
10m to guide work during excavation.
Four strings are fixed along the road.
 One string on each side of the centre line will demarcate the width of the ditches.
 Another string shall be placed at the centre of the roadway to define the exact area where
the material excavated from the ditch are thrown.
 The strings shall be fixed in place by a number of pegs.
 The slots are then excavated at each 10m peg.
 The ditch slot is excavated to the correct width and depth of the drain but for a length of
1m along the road.
 The material from the slot is thrown in the middle of the road as demarcated by the
strings.
 Once the slots have been excavated, the rest of the ditch can be excavated by joining up
the slots.
 The level control of the bottom of the ditch is done by fixing ranging rods with profile
boards 1m above the bottom of alternate slots on the same side of the road
 . Alternatively, the level control can be done by fixing strings on the levels marked on
shoulder break point pegs. The string is tied so tightly that there is no slack. The bottom of the
ditch will be at a fixed distance below such a string.
. The spread material is watered if dry and compacted in layers not exceeding 15cm loose.
Natural moisture content should be utilized by compacting excavated material as soon as
possible after excavations. This will help to reduce the amount of water to be brought in by water
bowser.

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
Quality Control.
 Ensure that the ditch dimensions i.e width and depth are as per the design.
 The ditch invert gradient must be checked for compliance at all points. It is very
important that the ditch invert slopes are accurately constructed as errors may lead to
water flowing in the wrong direction.
 The compaction can be checked by counting the number of passes made by roller and
Environment, Health and safety
 In extremely dry areas, dust reduction measures (e.g. dampening the soil with water)
must be considered if unhealthy levels of dust are suspected.
6.3 Sloping and camber formation
6.3.1 Sloping
The sloping operation involves two activities, namely,
 fore sloping
 Back sloping.
The sloping involves excavation of both fore slope and back slope and throwing the excavated
material into the road centerline. The suitable material is used to form camber.
6.3.2 Sloping (fore Sloping)
Procedure
 Set out the shoulder break-point line using pegs and strings. Establish the material pegs
again and show edge of fill in the middle with string.
 Allocate labourers quantity of work for the day accordingly.
 Cut the slopes to the correct shape. Use the ditch-slope template to control the slope.
 Throw the excavated material to the middle in between the material pegs.(seefig5)

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
Fig5: Fore sloping

6.3.3 Back Sloping
Procedure
 Set out the outer side of the back slope using pegs and strings. Establish the material pegs
again and show edge of fill in the middle with strings. (See fig6).
 Allocate labourers quantity of work for the day accordingly.
 Cut the slopes to the correct shape. Use the slope template to control width and slope.
 Throw the excavated material to the middle in between the material pegs.
Fig6: Back sloping
After throwing the excavated material for both fore slope and back slope to the road
centerline, It is spread evenly from the centre line out towards the shoulder break points.
The camber cross fall should be about 10% before compaction and 8% after compaction.
 Use a chamber board and a spirit level to check the final camber.
 Use a 3m straight edge to check the longitudinal smoothness of the compacted
camber

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
Fig7: checking of ditch and sloping with ditch template

Environment, Health and Safety
 The waste material from the back slope must be evenly spread at the disposal area so as
not to encourage erosion.
6.4 Camber formation
Camber formation is the spreading of the material excavated from the side drain and compacting
it to the required cross fall.
Procedure:
Set out the shoulder break-point line, using pegs and strings and establish centre line pegs
(Seefig8).
Spread the material that has been heaped in the middle towards the edge (shoulder break Point).
Form the camber by ensuring that the cross fall from the middle to the edge is about 8% to
10%. Check with the camber board and spirit level. The spread material are Compacted with a
pedestrian vibrating roller or tractor towed death weigh roller.

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
Fig8: Camber formation.
Tools and Equipment used;

Pick axes, Mattocks, Hoes, Shovels, Rakes or Spreaders, Slope templates and spirit
level, Straight edge, 2m, Pedestrian vibrating roller.
Materials
Strings, Pegs
Quality Control.
 The slope must be checked for correctness using a slope template and a spirit level.
 The camber must be checked for correctness at least every 20m along the road.
 The width of the formation needs to be checked every 100m along the road.
 The waste material from the backslope must be evenly spread at the disposal area so as
not to encourage erosion.
The compaction can be checked by counting the number of passes made by roller and checking
that no visible roller imprints are present on the finished product.
6.5 Mitre drains
Mitre drains are outfalls of the side drain, which are dug at regular intervals.
Their function is to release the quantity of water collected in the side drain and lead it away from
the road.
The location of mitre drains should be determined during the initial stages when setting out the
road alignment, thereby ensuring that the road receives a good off road drainage.
NB: Sufficient number of mitre drains should be located before side drain excavation starts.
As a general rule where possible,

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
 Provide a mitre drain for every 100m or less. This ensures that the quantity of water
being discharged at each mitre drain is small, and does not cause erosion damage to the
drainage system or on the adjoining land
 Provide mitre drains at every 50m along the side drain. when the road gradient is very
small,
Table1: Mitre drain spacing

Work Method:
 Set out the mitre drain as per the drawing below. Where possible constructed mitre drain
at intervals of 50 metres along the road alignment.
 When excavating mitre drain, back slopes on both sides should considered. And use
excavated material as blockage on inner side of the mitre drain
 Where the gradient of the mitre drain is more than 4% scours checks are required.

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
Fig9: Plan of mitre drain
Angle of Mitre Drains

The angle between the mitre drain and the side drain should be between 30- 60 degrees. An
angle of 30 degrees is ideal.
Fig10: angle between mitre drain and side drain

NB: If it is necessary to take water off at an angle greater than 45, it should be done in two or
more bends so that each bend is less than 45
Fig11: bend of mitre drain greater than 45degrees

Tools and Equipment:
Hoes, Pickaxes, Mattocks, Shovels
Material:
Strings, Pegs
6.6 Catch water drains
Where the road is situated on a hillside a significant amount of rainwater may flow down the hill
towards the road.

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
This may cause damage to the cut face of the road and even cause land slips.
Where this danger exists a catch water drain should be installed to intercept this surface water
and carry it to a safe point of discharge.
The catch water drain should be discharged at least every 200 - 300 metres through a cross
drain to avoid the accumulated water volume.
On side cuts and in full cuts, catch water drains are required to intercept run-off water from big
catchment areas above the roadway, which may overload and silt the side drains.
Work Method:
 Set out the catchwater drain using string and pegs. Make sure the gradient of min 2 %
but not steeper than 4% are used
 . The drain should not be too close to the cut face, it will cause the land slip (see fig12).
The drain should be minimum 60cm wide and at the valley side 40cm deep.
 Excavate the drain with slopes of min. 3:1. Heap the excavated material below the drain
and Compact slightly with hand rammer.
 Plant grass or fast growing bush consolidate and retain the material of the block.
 Where the gradient of the drain is more than 4% construct scour checks for erosion
control.
Fig12: Catch water drain construction.
6.7 French drains:
French drains are drainage systems in which a pipes are laid at the base of a ditch and protected
by a thick layer of gravel. (A French drain is a term for a gravel-filled trench.)
These trenches are built to block or divert the flow of water through the soil and direct it to a
desired location.

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
It commonly contains a perforated pipe covered with gravel or rock. It may appear on the surface
to be a gravel pathway, or it may be covered with a grid through which water can pass
French drain to function appropriately, the correct type of stones or gravel are necessary. (See
fig. 13)
Fig. 13. A section through French drain without and with a pipe
The drain with no perforated pipe, they are filled with gravel or stones and they contain voids.
These voids hold water and allow it to flow down the French drain and away from the road
section towards a water outlet.
.How do French drain work

French drains are built in the ground, due to a drainage problem in an area where there is either a
lot of water, lack of sunlight for evaporation or where the ground does not drain well.
With a French drain, the water is distributed along various points, and by doing so, pulls the
water away from a problem area.
Ditches are dug by hand or with a trencher at an inclination of 1 in 100 to 1 in 200
Modern French drain systems are made with perforated pipe surrounded by sand or gravel and
geotextile material.
The main purpose for the perforation
 To drain the area along the full length of the pipe.
 To discharge (release) any surplus water at its end.
NB. The direction of percolation depend on the relative conditions inside and outside the
pipe
Material Needed:
Shovel, striping spray paint, top soil, sand, drain pipe, gravel, turf, landscaping stones
6.7.1 How to Build a French Drain

Steps taken:

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
i) Determine area for re-routing

Locate the appropriate area of the road for excess water to be re-routed. Choose a location where
the flow of water won‟t affect neighboring properties
ii) Locate the Best Route for Drainage
Determine a slightly downward-sloping route at least 1 meter from the road that is clear of any
obstructions such as posts, trees, shrubs etc.
iii) Mark Route
Use striping spray paint to mark drainage route
Fig. 14: Marking drainage route

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
Fig. 15: Cross-section view showing French drain with one or two underground pipes
6.8 Culvert inlet & outlet
6.8.1 Culvert inlet

Culvert inlet is the highest side of culvert pipe where water to be drained enter from to the lower
side of the road to be discharged
The culvert inlet should be built at the same level as the bed of the stream or the level of the
surrounding ground because:
 If the culvert inlet is higher than the existing ground levels, this will cause scouring
(Rubbing) of the soils around the inlet
 If the level of the pipe is lower than the surrounding terrain, this leads to silt deposits
inside the culvert.
Drop inlet structure should be constructed to the side of culvert inlet:
 To collect water from the side drains and feed it through the pipe culvert dispersing the
water on the lower side below the road.
Drop inlets are made of the same materials as the headwalls and wing walls, such as Reinforced
concrete, stones and brick masonry.

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
The drop inlet is constructed in a square shape with its inside dimensions equivalent to the
outside diameter of the culvert pipe. (See fig. 16)
The thickness of the walls of the drop inlet should follow the thickness of the headwalls and
wing walls. The height should be minimum 40cm higher than the outside diameter of the pipes
and its bed level should flush with the culvert pipe.
The level of the inlet of the collectors should be at the same level as the side drains, and its size
and shape should follow the size and shape of the side drains.
After construction of the drop inlet Gratings should be provided to control debris entering in the
culvert pipe which may cause the blockage (see fig. 16)
Fig 16: Culvert inlet and Debris Control

Accumulation of debris at a culvert inlet can result in the culvert not performing as designed.
The consequences may be damages from inundation of the road and upstream property.
The designer has three options for coping with the debris problem:
 Retain the debris upstream of the culvert.
 Attempt to pass the debris through the culvert.

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
 Install a bridge.
6.8.2 Culvert outlet
The gradient of 3% is preferred when placing culvert pipes because:
 Lower gradient will cause the risk of sediments being deposited in the culvert pipe.
 The 3% or higher gradients the flow of water will keep the culvert free of deposits and
APRON
thereby reduce future maintenance requirements.

Fig 17: Culvert outlet, constructed with Apron
After establishing the level at the inlet, the depth of the trench at the outlet can be determined.
Example: With a gradient of 3% on a 5 m long pipe culvert, the level at the outlet can be
calculated as follows:
Length of culvert x gradient = level difference
With a 5m long culvert of 600mm diameter, the difference in levels at the inlet and the outlet is:
The level of the outlet = the level of the inlet plus the level difference caused by the gradient.
Depth of trench (inlet Level) = Backfill (Camber formation) of 3/4 of the inside diameter of the
pipe (3/4 x 600 = 450mm) Plus The trench depth which is based on the outer diameter
of the culvert pipe.
With a pipe thickness of 60mm, the outer diameter would then be: (600mm + 2 x 60mm) =
720mm Plus Finally, with a 100mm trench bed of imported materials
Depth of trench (inlet level) = 450mm + 720mm + 100mm = 1270mm

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
Therefore outlet level =450mm + 720mm + 100mm + difference in levels at the inlet and the
outlet
Outlet level =450mm + 720mm + 100mm + 150mm =1420mm
When laying pipes, are placed on a well-compacted foundation, thereby avoiding any future
settlements.
Materials for the culvert bed used consist of gravel or Blinding or concrete (1:3:6) if the soil in
the trench is too soft. Stone can also be used to create adequately strong foundation.
Fig 18: Culvert inlet & outlet

6.8.3 Construction of Headwalls, Wing Walls and Aprons
Culvert headwalls, wing walls and aprons are constructed in concrete, stone or brick masonry.
The work should be carried out by skilled workers with good experience in masonry works.
The choice of materials to be used depends on:
 The availability of material in the area where the structures are to be constructed.
 The aesthetic preferences of the agency in charge of the construction works.
Headwalls are built parallel to the centre line of the road in order to take the pressure from the
traffic evenly.
6.8.3.1 Headwall.
The purpose of Headwalls around the culvert inlet and outlet are to:
 To protect the surrounding road body next to the culvert pipe.
 to protect the back fill of the road from water damage
 also act as front walls structure on the culvert pipe
 Head walls and Wing walls acts as collectors, directing the water to the pipes.

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
Fig 19: Construction of head wall

6.8.3.2 Wing Walls
The purpose of the wing walls are:
 to protect the side slope of the road embankment from water damage
 To stabilise the side slopes adjacent to the headwall.
They are constructed at an angle of 30° or 45 ° to the culvert centre line.Seefig20
Fig 20: Construction of wing wall

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
6.8.3.2 Aprons and toe wall

Aprons and toe walls are constructed to avoid scouring of the soils close to the culvert inlet and
outlet.
The depth of the toe walls is normally the same as the depth of the headwall foundations.
The aprons should be constructed at the same gradient as the culvert pipe.
The toe walls are set out at the outer edge of the aprons. See fig. 1 & 21
Toe wall
Fig 21: Construction of apron and toe wall

Stone masonry
Stone masonry are used in construction of wing walls and aprons on culverts and used for the
foundation work on such structures.
Good Stones to be used should provide decorative surface texture (see fig 22) and needs to be
hard, clean and compact and should be carefully selected to ensure roughly flat sides.
When using mortar for the joints, the stone needs to be wet before laying in order to prevent any
absorption of water from the mortar.
The stones should be fully surrounded by mortar covering both the bed and the vertical joints.
When laying the stones, they should be carefully settled in place and a wooden mallet used
immediately after so that they are firmly embedded before the mortar sets.
Fig 22: Construction of stone masonry

Brick masonry

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
If stones are not available, a good alternative is using brick masonry.

When laying bricks, they need to be soaked in water for a minimum of one hour before being
placed. After having been soaked, they are taken out of the water sufficiently in advance so that
the skin of the bricks is dry at the time of laying. The soaked bricks are stacked on a clean place
where they will not be soiled by dirt.
Bricks are laid in an appropriate bond ensuring good interlocking between the bricks. A plumb
bob and line level are used to ensure that the work is even and true in both vertical and horizontal
directions. Joints should be maintained at a uniform thickness and level.
All joints should be properly flushed and packed with mortar so that no hollow spaces are left.
The thickness of joints would normally not exceed 10mm.
Fig 23: Construction of Brick masonry

Mortar
Mortar consists of cement, sand and water and is mixed in the proportion 1:4 (cement: sand).
If hand mixing is permitted, the operation should be carried out on a clean watertight platform.
In order to obtain a good mix, it is useful to:
 first mix dry cement and sand in appropriate portions until a uniform colour is obtained
 Mix the mortar for at least 2 minutes after the addition of water.
.NB: If the headwalls and wing walls are omitted, the side slopes of the backfill should not be
steeper than 1:2. However with well-graded and cohesive (consistent) natural soils, the gradient
of the side slopes can be increased. The culvert should be long enough to reach the end of the
side slopes on each side of the road.

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
Fig 24: Culvert pipe end with no headwall and wing wall
Assignment 1:
Write short notes on the following equipment for the drainage work:
1). Boning rods.
2). Camber string line
3). Camber Boards
4). Ditching boards
5). Sloping Board
6). Spirit Level
7). Width and depth stick
Assignment 2:
List and explain wholly the advantages the nation can get from labour based road construction.
(Final work will be power point presentation and typed bound report)

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
7.0 CONSTRUCTION OF ROAD STRUCTURES
7.1 Culvert
It is a structure constructed under the road and is designed to allow water from the drains and
natural water course to safely cross under the roadway.
The basic guidelines for use of culverts on roads are given below:
 Culverts are generally less expensive than drifts. However, transportation costs to remote
areas may make concrete pipes more expensive than drifts.
 Culverts require regular routine maintenance.
 Culverts concentrate the collection and dispersal of water, which implies that serious
attention must be paid to inlet and outlet works in order to avoid erosion.
 Culverts provide a more comfortable ride for motorists than drifts.
 Culverts are preferred where cross drainage is at low point where the level of the road is
to be raised to improve its longitudinal gradient.
7.1.1 Installation of culvert pipes

The correct installation of culvert lines is critical for a well-functioning drainage system.
Therefore, it is important to install and construct culverts in advance of the road formation
works, once the exact location for a culvert has been determined, the right of way has been
cleared and .excavation to level at the location of the culvert has been established.
If culverts are installed after the road formation works are completed, a lot of extra and double
work and corrections may be required, which require extra input of labour and equipment
resources leading to increased cost.
7.1.2 Setting Out.
Culvert pipes are placed perpendicular to the horizontal road alignment. Stream culverts must be
set out in the direction causing the lowest possible disruption to the natural flow of the
watercourse.
Fig 25: Setting out of culvert pipes

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
7.1.3 Procedures followed when installing culvert pipes

 Once the location of the culvert has been determined, the culvert trench is excavated.
If a 600mm culvert pipe is used, the width of the trench needs to be at least 1m to achieve good
working space when placing the culvert.
 Once the trench has been excavated, check the level of the bottom with a traveller to
ensure that it is level and with the desired slope. If necessary, use a 100mm layer of compacted
gravel to achieve a solid foundation for the culvert. During excavation, ensure that any water
which may enter the trench can run off.
Example:
Establish two pegs (peg A and peg B) at both

road edges of the completed formation. Make
sure that pegs are on the same level (use line
and level or Abney level).
Measure distance between peg A and peg B

(usually 5.50m for cross section A1 and
5.00m for A2)
Calculate the depth to be excavated at the inlet
to ensure adequate cover (peg A).
Calculate the difference in level gradient in

these terrain conditions between peg A and B
with the chosen gradient. 4% is normally
selected as the ideal
Calculate the depth to be excavated at the

outlet (peg B).
Establish the excavation level for the culvert by measuring vertically down 1.39m from peg B
and 1.17m from peg A by using boning rods and a stick or rod of length 1.39m.
 The culvert pipes are gently lowered into the trench see fig.26. Avoid the pipes falling onto
each other. This may damage the pipes. Using crowbars, ease the pipes up tight against
each other and ensure that all are in a straight line.

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
Fig 26: how culverts are lowered in atrench

 When laying the pipes on the prepared foundation, start from the outlet and proceed towards the
inlet. The pipes should be oriented so that the bell or socket is facing the inlet. If the pipes are
fitted with a bell and spigot, a void should be excavated to fit the bell joints snugly into the
trench bed, ensuring that the full length of the pipe is resting on the bed.
 . The pipes must be placed in the right position forming a straight line along the culvert pipe axis.
Any pipe found defective or damaged during laying should be replaced.
 After laying the complete run, the joints are sealed with cement mortar. When sealing the joints,
the mortar must be flush with the inner surface of the pipe, thus securing a smooth inner surface,
easy to maintain and keep clean of debris and silt.
Fig 27: types of joints and how they are sealed

 The backfill around the pipes and the overfill should be placed in 150mm layers of
suitable fill material, and needs to be well compacted using hand rammers. Be careful not to hit
and damage the pipes when compacting. The minimum thickness of the fill above the culvert
rings should be not less than half the pipe diameter.

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
 Finally, give serious concern to the outfall and undertake any additional works required
such as properly forming an adequate outlet drain to discharge the water, providing grassing or
stone gabion steps, or other interventions to ensure good erosion protection.
Fig 28: levelled, well compacted base & alignment, inlet, outlet construction of a culvert
NB: During installation of culvert lines, it is very important that the supervising officer is
involved frequently and checks all stages of construction, because many things can go wrong.
Like to discover that concrete foundation, correct slope are absent during final inspection, this
situation may cause erosion and washout of the culvert during the rainy season

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
Fig 29: Main features of a culvert
A mistake often made in the installation of culverts is, that the side drains on the downstream
side are excavated until they reach the outlet structure, after which the water is expected to make
a 90º-turn into the culvert
The water flowing through the culvert pipe, and the water accumulated in the downstream side
drains, will come together at the outlet of the culvert, causing flow turbulence and as a result,
unnecessary erosion and scouring.
A better and safer option is to excavate mitre drains just 10 to 15 meters before the outlet
structure and divert the water from the side drain into the culvert discharge drain. (See fig below)
Fig 29:Green colour lines show Constructed mitre drain diverted before culvert
outlet.

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
Bedding and haunch profiles types I& II

lOMoARcPSD|34367947

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
Fig 30: Section through bedding and haunch of the culvert pipes:
7.2 Drifts; (Ford)

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
Drift is a low level structure constructed to allow water from the drains and natural water course
to safely cross over the road at bed level.
Drifts are very common structures especially in areas where rivers are seasonal.
Where a constant flow of water has to be accommodated, vented drifts (Irish bridges) are built.
Drifts are built where there is only little or no water flowing in a river during most of the times
(seasonal).
During rainy season when floods are high, the water overtops the drift. Drifts are built using
locally available materials like stones, (masonry, gabions) or concrete where no stones are
available.
Drifts provide an efficient and economic method of allowing water to cross from one side of a
road to the other.
This is done by constructing a stone packed or concrete surface where the water will pass. The
level of the drift is lower than the road on each side, to make sure that water does not spill over
onto the unprotected road surface.
During rains, most drifts carry shallow flows of water through which vehicles can pass, deep
drifts are flooded for short periods and the road will be closed for traffic.
With seasonal flows of water, a concrete slab would be sufficient, however, with all-year-round
flow of water, it is more appropriate to design a vented ford, or a combination of a vented ford
and a drift slab.
7.2.1 Advantages of using adrift:

 The drift is a low-cost structure which carries a good capacity of water.
 In places with only seasonal flows of water, but with large and intense flows during parts
of the year, the drift provides an economic and technically feasible approach to deal with
water crossings.
 Drifts do not face blockage problems created by excessive amount of debris and silt
While such debris often poses a danger to culverts and bridges,.
 Drifts require limited maintenance compared to other structures and the most common
maintenance tasks for drifts are far less complicated.
7.2.2 Construction procedure:

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
Once the site has been established, the finished level of the drift is set out at the same level as the
present level of the riverbed.
The level of the drift should not be set below or above the level of the riverbed, any disturbance
of the natural flow of water may cause scouring at or next to the drift.
But where the river is suffering from silting up, it is better to lift the drift 200 – 250mm above
the natural rived bed. This will speed up the water passing over the drift and reduce the danger of
the drift becoming silted up.
The actual river crossing should be at least the same width as before the drift was constructed.
No attempt should be made to constrain the width of the river by reducing the length of the
actual drift. This may seem feasible during the dry season, however, during high flood periods
this may lead to scouring and eventually wash-outs of parts of the river crossing structure.
7.2.2.1 Drift Approaches

The slope for a drift approach is 5%. Steeper approach slopes cause problems for the traffic.
All drift approaches should have the same gradients, so that drivers can establish a good
estimate of safe speeds to travel across the drifts.
The road connecting to the drift approaches should have a standard cross-section shape with a
camber.
At the bottom of the approach, the drift should be flat (seefig30). The cross-section of the drift
approach need to be designed so that there is a gradual change from a camber at the top, to a flat
surface at the bottom of the approach.
When planning the construction of a drift, the approaches are set out first to assess how much
excavation is required.
The traveller is used to measure the depth of the excavation along the proposed approach, and
this is used to estimate the volume of excavation required.
Fig 31. Section through adrift:

Surface Materials
It is important to select the appropriate surface material for the drift, which will support the
traffic as well as stand up to the expected water flow in the rainy season.

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
There are a number of solutions ranging from gabions with gravel, stone paving or constructing a
concrete slab.
The choice depends on the following issues:
 the expected force of the water flow,
 the availability of materials, such as gravel, stone, aggregate and sand,
 the quality and strength of the existing river bed foundation, and
 Costs of labour and materials.
For slower flowing water, graveled drifts with gabions or dry pitched stone paving is adequate.
The construction drift using gabion and gravel is a simple and economical. A one-metre wide
trench is excavated along the downstream edge of the road.
The gabions are then placed in position, filled with rock and bound together with binding wire.
Gravel is then placed upstream from the gabion to form the road surface. An apron on the
downstream side of the gabion should be constructed to resist scouring.
Gabions have the advantages that;
 they are easier and faster to build,
 stone of lesser quality and size can be utilized, which are easier to find locally,
 gabions are more resistant to erosion and
 they do not require skilled masons.
A typical cross section of gabion, gravel and a concrete slab is shown below (see fig. 32).
If the foundation is made of gabions, the concrete is laid on an adjustment layer of gravel/sand
which is placed on the top of the gabion mattresses.
The gravel needs to be levelled to provide a uniform and well-compacted surface on which the
concrete deck is constructed.
Once the concrete has been placed, it should be kept damp and allowed to cure for 7 to 10 days.
An adequate supply of water must be available on site during the curing period, and a worker
should be assigned to keep the concrete surface moist during this period. The traffic needs to be
diverted away from the drift during the curing period.
If the length of the slab is less than 12m there is no need for an expansion joint. On the longer
river crossings, expansion joints are required for approximately every 10 to 15 metres.
(See fig. 32)

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
Fig 32: a plan and a Section of adrift:
7.3 Splashes
Splashes are minor crossings that carry water from a side drain across the road to the lower side.
Splashes are located at low points along the road alignment when the side drain cannot be
emptied by mitre drains and the water has to be lead across the road.
A splash is a low-cost solution to cross road drainage and provides an inexpensive alternative to
culverts.
This drainage structure is normally only applied to rural roads with very limited traffic volumes.

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
The splash is basically a simplified version of the drift, however, while drifts are used to cross
natural streams and rivers, the splash is mainly used to lead road surface water across and away
from the road.
The main purpose of the splash is
 To lead water from the hillside drain across the roadway to be discharged on the
downstream side of the road.
The main design element when building a splash is to secure a surface on which the water can
flow without creating any erosion or reducing the bearing capacity of the road.
In exceptional cases, where there is a limited flow of water, good natural soils and little traffic,
the splash can be built using gravel.
However, in most cases it is necessary to install a more durable surface made from materials
such as stone or concrete.
Similar to drifts, the splash is designed at a lower level than the road with descending approaches
on both sides. The splash needs to be deep enough to cater for the highest flow of water, without
reaching the unprotected road sections on each side of the water crossing.
As with all drainage structures, the frequency and capacity of the splashes need to be assessed in
relation to the overall drainage system of the road
Downstream from the splash, it is necessary to protect the area where the water is discharged.
Using gabions.
Fig. 33 A Plash
7.4 Vented ford: (vented drift or causeway)

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
Vented ford is a medium level structure designed to allow the normal flow of water in a natural
water course to pass safely through openings below the roadway and to be overtopped during,
periods of heavy rainfall.
Vented fords are used for crossing rivers and streams which carry a minimal flow of water
throughout the dry season while drifts are appropriate for streams which dry out during periods
of the year,
. The advantage of the ford is that
 It is a relatively inexpensive structure appropriate for both narrow and wide river
crossings.
 Vented fords use a combination of culvert pipes to discharge water under the road during
low water flows, and a drift slab allowing water to overtop the structure during high
water flows.
Like to drifts and culverts, the installation of vented fords needs to be carefully designed, taking
into consideration the topography, the features of the river or stream and the water flow.
The key design parameters for a vented ford are to:
(i) Establish the appropriate drainage required through the culvert pipes during low
flows.
(ii) Provide a sufficiently solid structure with adequate capacity to cater for the highest
water flows.
Important factors for the design of a vented ford are low and high water levels, design and
protection of approach roads and protecting the structure and its surroundings against scouring.
Once the location for the river crossing has been selected, the ford can be set out using the same
methods as when building a drift.
This includes establishing the exact location of the end points of the ford bed and designing the
approach roads with a gentle and uniform slope.
With the highest flood levels established, it is possible to determine the appropriate length of the
sections of the approach roads that need to be protected with a reinforced surface.
Allow between 300mm and 500 mm in elevation between the top of the reinforced roadbed and
the highest level of the floodwater.
The ford need proper aprons on the downstream side of the structure because the stream will
cause some form of disruption in the natural flow of water which may cause scouring in the soils
surrounding the ford.
To avoid the water from scouring the soils close to the inlet and if the ford foundation is weak, it
is useful to install a cut-off wall upstream and strengthen the riverbed next to the inlets. Gabion
mattresses provide low-cost and effective protection for this purpose.
Also the sides of the approach road need to be protected from scouring during high flood levels.
7.4.1 Construction procedure

The construction of fords should take place during the dry season when water level is low.

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
Equipment and construction materials need to be assembled in advance, so work is ready to start
when the stream is at its lowest.
Before any construction work to take place, the existing stream needs to be temporarily diverted
away from the work site as well as the equipment and materials should be read in adverse.
The steps are to
 Excavate the trenches for the cut-off walls.
 Level the culvert bed and compact between the cut-off walls.
 Provide the concrete bedding on which the pipes are to be placed.
The bedding should be indented to accommodate the shape of the culverts and its joints.
The bedding is set out at the correct level and ensure that the culvert pipes are flushing with the
riverbed.
After laying the culvert pipes, the headwalls are constructed up to the road level and built from
cement bound masonry.
The space between the pipes is backfilled with a well-graded stony material.
For the road surface, provide 100mm reinforced concrete layer with a 3% cross-fall.
The surface slab needs to be strong enough to protect the culvert pipes from the expected traffic
loads.
The connection between the approaches and the horizontal stretch should be rounded to provide
a smooth riding surface. The concrete slab must be kept moist for at least 10 days during curing.
Traffic should be kept off the slab for two weeks.
Aprons should be constructed from stone masonry, concrete or gabions.
NB: Marker stones should be placed along both sides of the road surface slab to provide traffic
with proper guidance when the ford is immersed in water (seefig 34).

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
Fig34: Vented Ford and a section through
Fig35: a detailed construction of a vented ford

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
Fig 37: Scouring
7.5 Bridge
A structure providing a means of crossing safely above water, railway or other obstruction
whether natural or artificial.

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
8.0 Management of road works
8.1 Measurement of Work Done
a) Task allocation
The labour required for this activity will vary depending on the workload. However, the limits to
the numbers of labourers will be related to the capacity of the hauling and compaction
equipment.
The gang sizes will vary according to the intensity of the workload. The workload is directly
proportional to the amount of material that must be brought into the formation of the camber.
b) Gender and family issues
Gender issues and Women participation Introduction to Gender Concepts, Issues & Women
Participation
Objectives
By the end of this module, the trainees should be able to:
 Define term "Gender"
 Explain existing gender concepts
 Explain what practical and strategic gender needs are
 Explain what is meant by the expression "women participation"
8.2 Definition of Gender
Gender is a social construction that determines the relationship between men and women in the
society.
 It is referred as a social construction because it is constructed through a socialization
process.
 The nature of relationship between men and women is unbalanced, with men treated as
superior human beings (and yet people are born the same).
These can be further elaborated as in the discussions to follows

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
8.3 Gender as a Social Construction
A social construction is achieved through socialization process, which is determined by the

process of growing up and staying in a society. During the process of growing up, a person
learns many things including how to live within the female/male society.
■ Socialization process takes place in and outside the homes.
■ The family institution plays a key role in the socialization process. During the upbringing of
a child in a family, the parent guides the children on how to grow up into a good woman or
man.
■ In most cases, the mothers are responsible for the upbringing of girls into "good" women and
fathers are responsible for the upbringing of boys into "good" men.
■ Apart from being guided by the parents, the children also learn through observation of their
parents with fathers and mothers being models to boys and girls respectively. In these cases,
boys will treat what their fathers do as good practices and girls treat what their mothers do as
good practices and they will copy accordingly.
■ Outside homes, socialization takes place in by peer groups through learning and peer
pressure through sanctioning what is good and bad.
■ Socialization outside the homes also takes place in other institutions such as schools. From
school textbooks, subjects and assignment of roles, pupils/students go through a process that
shapes how they relate with one another when they grow up.
8.4 Gender as a Relationship between Men and Women
Generally the relationship between men and women is unbalanced, as a result of socialization
process and culture in general that treat women as an inferior group.
■ The unbalanced relationship is further reinforced by cultural institutions such as marriage,

poor education of girls and poor access to food among others. The result is poor women's
participation in decision-making, access to and control over productive resources, and more
workload
■ The low women's participation in decision making at household, community and national
levels (and globally) can be attributed to factors such as marriage (payment of bride price),
poor education of girls, few women in middle and high positions in organisations and
government among others.

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
■ In most cases, women do not have control over productive resources such as land, a factor of
production, which has resulted into their inability to make decision on production. This has
often led to low levels of livelihood among them.
■ Compared to their female counterparts, men do less work and spend less time in undertaking
the "so called" productive work.
■ In summary, the relationship is that of male superiority and domination. Under this, women
tend to do more work around the homes, which is not recognised as productive, thereby
referred to as reproductive.
Exercise 1
a) List all the productive resources owned by a family. Against each of them, write A for
those accessed by women and "C" for those women have control over.
b) List all the decisions taken in a family on a regular basis. In which of them do women
have a say?
8.5 Gender and Sex
Gender and sex can be categorized as social and biological respectively.
■ Gender is attitudinal and behavioural while sex is purely reproductive.
■ Gender is attained through a socialization process while sex is attained through a

reproductive process.
■ Sex is inborn while gender is adapted and adopted.
■ Since gender is socially constructed and has to do with attitudes and behaviour, it can be
deconstructed through a similar process outlined under social construction of gender above.
8.6 Gender Roles and Division-of-Labour
Are roles performed by women and men on a routine basis due to their being in a particular
responsibility positions?
■ Through the socialization process, women and men develop distinctive roles in the
households and communities with women involved in domestic-related responsibilities and
men being active outside the domestic sphere.
■ Some of the roles performed by women within the homes include housekeeping, child caring,
cooking, washing and cleaning among others. Traditionally, no values are given to these
activities and are therefore referred to as reproductive activities.
■ The so-called reproductive roles tend to overwork women, limiting their participation in
productive activities outside homes such as participation in road works
Exercise 2

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
Construct daily activity profiles for men and women. Giving your analysis of the Activity
Profiles, who does more work and how can the situation be improved?
8.6 Practical and Strategic Gender Needs
■ Practical gender needs can be addressed by providing for the immediate needs of women. For
instance, construction of a borehole to solve women's problem of walking long distance to
collect water.
■ However, it should be pointed out that addressing practical needs does not challenge the
status quo (or change the status of women). “Strategic gender needs are those that are long-
term and cannot be solved at one time. Examples include low literacy rates among women,
few women in formal employment and few women in decision-making positions in the
formal and informal sector.
■ Addressing these needs would require a long-term approach such as sending and maintaining
girls in schools. Addressing the strategic gender needs would change women's status quo.
8.7 Gender and Affirmative Action
Affirmative action refers to measures designed to favour persons who are at a disadvantage or
treated unfairly because of their status.
■ In gender, affirmative action is female favoritism, which recognizes the disadvantaged
position of women.
■ While providing opportunities to both men and women, factors that put women at a
disadvantage are taken into consideration and attended to as appropriate.
■ Examples of affirmative action in Uganda include:
admission of girls to secondary schools with lower marks
the 1.5 additional points to female students seeking admission to Makerere University
the requirement that a third of Local Council members be women, and
Woman members of parliament from each district.
■ All these have been done in recognition that "the playing field is not levelled" therefore, there
is need to have women supported.
Exercise 3
Discuss how affirmative action can be applied in the roads sector.
8.8 Women's Participation
Women's participation in. number of areas is low For instance, very few women can take
decision on their own and own property

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
 Only highly educated and single women are able to make decision on their own and own
property. Even so their male friends or relatives sometime control this class of women.
 Low women's participation in various areas is a result of their upbringing and culture
responsible for that (poor education, early marriages low presence in decision-making
position and payment of bride price among others).
 This has resulted in women's issues being poorly addressed, generally leaving women to
lag behind.
Exercise 4
List the advantages and disadvantages of women's participation in road works
8.9 Safety and Traffic Control
When road workers build, maintain, repair, or conduct other work on public roads/ highways,
they must be protected from traffic or haulage hazards. A variety of traffic control measures such
as signs, lights, and other devices, along with continuous patrol, detours, and barricades can be
used as traffic control measures, depending on the type of road and the work being done.
When you start work near a road, evaluate the work site for hazards. Look for blind corners, how
heavy the traffic is, and how fast it flows. Note the weather, temperature, and visibility and how
they will affect the work that you are doing and how motorists will respond. Plan and draw out a
diagram of your work site layout including the staging area, buffer area, transition area, and work
area.
Determine, based on the road type and the typical vehicle speeds, how many advanced warning
signs you will need and how long the buffer area and tapers need to be.
Use at least one warning sign before the road work area begins to inform motorists that they are
approaching an area where workers may be in the road. You may need more signs depending on
sight distance along the road. Use a tapered line of cones to establish and separate the work area
and redirect traffic away from workers. Use clean, unbroken, and highly visible safety cones to
outline traffic lanes. Inspect all signs, signals, and lights to make sure they are working properly
seefig1

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
Fig1: Traffic Control.

To protect your labourers who work on the road and to enable the traffic to pass unhindered the
following specific safety measures are recommended:
Routine maintenance work on low traffic volume roads:
 Either traffic signs ¨Men Working¨ or yellow / orange flags are to be placed on the road
shoulder before and after the site where the labourers are working,
 Preferably labourers should wear yellow or orange coloured safety vests or harnesses.
Rehabilitation or re-gravelling work on earth and gravel roads
Wherever possible diversions should be established so that traffic can be directed away from the
road section under rehabilitation or re-gravelling. Properly installed road signs, which clearly
show the diversion, are essential and the road or road section under work needs to be blocked by
adequate barriers and signals.

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
After the e work starts, diversion has been completed and before starts, warning sign barriers and
cones must be placed around the work area. Signs must be placed in the following order:
 ¨Men Working¨ signs should be placed 200 metres in front of the work area.
 ¨Turn Left/Right¨ arrows should be placed 100 metres in front of the work area.
 Cones should be placed diagonally across the road to lead into the diversion
 ¨Keep Left/Right¨ arrows should be placed at the ends of the lines of cones.
 Barriers should be placed behind the lines of cones
 ¨Speed Limit¨ signs should be placed at the start of the work area,
 Barriers should be placed at each end of the work area
 End of Restriction¨ signs should be placed beyond the ends of the diversion
 At night yellow lamps should also be used to mark the extent of the work at the
diversions.
8.10 Quality Control for Gravelling
GRAVEL SOURCE TESTS (FOR BASE LAYER)
(i) Type of tests:

Check on the suitability of a gravel source for surface layer. Unlike most other tests, the client
can only carry out these tests in the laboratory before construction commences.
However, if you are doubtful about the quality of the material you may use a simple field test to
identify the suitability of the chosen gravel. If the test described below shows doubtful results,
then the client should be consulted for further instructions.
(ii) Methods used:
- “Bottle” test to identify the grading.
- Moulding and drying test to identify plasticity and strength
Test Method Location When? Tolerance
Grading Bottle Field When in doubt of quality NA
Plasticity Moulding Field When in doubt of quality NA
Strength Drying Field When in doubt of quality NA
8.11 GRAVEL SURFACING

lOMoARcPSD|34367947
GRAVEL LAYER TESTS (FOR BASE OR SURFACE LAYER)
(i) Type of tests:

Tests on the thickness and degree of compaction of the finished base layer.
(ii) Methods used:
- Tapes are used to measure the gravel thickness the client to measure the degree of compaction.
- Special laboratory tests are used by the client to measure the degree of compaction.
A simple way of ensuring the compaction is achieved is by ensuring passes, at optimum moisture
that the required minimum number content, are actually made.
This method does not provide the contractor with the actual result but ensures that the desired
compaction is achieved in most cases.
Test Method Location Test Interval Tolerance

(every.)
Thickness of gravel tape field 50 m (in centre +/- 10 mm

layer and towards
edge)
Degree of compaction Counting compaction field Always 0

passes

Labour Based Notes Detailed

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Labour Based Notes Detailed

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

lOMoARcPSD|34367947

Labour Based Notes - DETAILED

Building construction (Uganda Technical College-Lira)

Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university

COURSE UNIT: TDCE 221; LABOUR-BASED ROAD CONSTRUCTION

Sub-module 1: Introduction to labour-based road construction

Sub module 2: Clearing and Stumping

Sub-module 3: Earthworks / Gravelling

Sub-module 4: Construction of Drainage System

Labour based Road construction Notes; By Andrew +256789129342 Page 1

Downloaded by Kevin Lando (kevinlando800@gmail.com)

ditching boards, sloping board, spirit level, width stick, depth.

Sub-module 5: Construction of Road Structures

Sub-module 6: Management of Road Works

Sub-module 7: Quality Control Tests, Facilities and Equipment

Sub-module 8 : Road Maintenance

Labour based Road construction Notes; By Andrew +256789129342 Page 2

Downloaded by Kevin Lando (kevinlando800@gmail.com)

1.1.1 Objectives of labour –based road construction

Labour based Road construction Notes; By Andrew +256789129342 Page 3

Downloaded by Kevin Lando (kevinlando800@gmail.com)

Labour based Road construction Notes; By Andrew +256789129342 Page 4

Downloaded by Kevin Lando (kevinlando800@gmail.com)

1.1.3 What is the labour-based method?

Labour based Road construction Notes; By Andrew +256789129342 Page 5

Downloaded by Kevin Lando (kevinlando800@gmail.com)

Labour based Road construction Notes; By Andrew +256789129342 Page 6

Downloaded by Kevin Lando (kevinlando800@gmail.com)

1.1.10 Labour related problems

Activity Mechanized Labour Based Comparison

Bush Bulldozer Pagers, hoes, Time: mechanized take less

Fuel Machines under mechanized

Labour based Road construction Notes; By Andrew +256789129342 Page 7

Downloaded by Kevin Lando (kevinlando800@gmail.com)

Foreign & Mechanized requires foreign

Contractors Labour based are mainly done

Employment Labour based employs more

Profits Under labour based, a

Materials Time taken: while spreading

Labour based Road construction Notes; By Andrew +256789129342 Page 8

Downloaded by Kevin Lando (kevinlando800@gmail.com)

1.2 Road Layers

Figure 3a: Definition of Road layers (Paved)

Labour based Road construction Notes; By Andrew +256789129342 Page 9

Downloaded by Kevin Lando (kevinlando800@gmail.com)

Figure 3b: Definition of Road layers (Unpaved)

Labour based Road construction Notes; By Andrew +256789129342 Page 10

Downloaded by Kevin Lando (kevinlando800@gmail.com)

Labour based Road construction Notes; By Andrew +256789129342 Page 11

Downloaded by Kevin Lando (kevinlando800@gmail.com)

Fig.4 Shows surfacing Layer.

Labour based Road construction Notes; By Andrew +256789129342 Page 12

Downloaded by Kevin Lando (kevinlando800@gmail.com)

1.3 Road Terminology:

Labour based Road construction Notes; By Andrew +256789129342 Page 13

Downloaded by Kevin Lando (kevinlando800@gmail.com)

Fig. 6 A cross –section through road

Labour based Road construction Notes; By Andrew +256789129342 Page 14

Downloaded by Kevin Lando (kevinlando800@gmail.com)

Labour based Road construction Notes; By Andrew +256789129342 Page 15

Downloaded by Kevin Lando (kevinlando800@gmail.com)

Labour based Road construction Notes; By Andrew +256789129342 Page 16

Downloaded by Kevin Lando (kevinlando800@gmail.com)