AN AUTONOMOUS INSTITUTION

R - 2023

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

PHYSICS LABORATORY OBSERVATION

FIRST YEAR B.E/B.Tech Degree Courses

(Common to all branches) – Semester I

Course Name: Physics Laboratory

Course Code:

STUDENT NAME:

VM NO:

REGISTER NO.

BRANCH:
 INSTITUTION VISION

Elevating well being of humanity by augmenting human

resource potential through quality technical education and training

INSTITUTION MISSION

 To effectuate supremacy in technical education through

articulation of research and industry practices for social

relevance.

 To inculcate the habit of lifelong learning

 To exhibit professional ethics, commitment and leadership

qualities
General Lab Instructions

The objective of the laboratory is to learn hand on experiment. The experiments are
designed to illustrate phenomena in different areas of Physics and expose to measure
instruments. Conduct the experiments with interest and an attitude of learning.
1. You need to come well prepared for the experiment.
2. Work quietly and carefully and equally share the work with your partners.
3. Be honest in recording and representing your data. Never make up readings or doctor
them to get a better fit for a graph. If a particular reading appears wrong repeat the
measurement carefully. In any event all the data recorded in the tables have to be
faithfully displayed on the graph.
4. All presentations of data, tables and graphs calculations should be neatly and carefully
done.
5. Bring necessary graph papers for each of experiment. Learn to optimize on usage of
graph papers.
6. If you finish early, spend the remaining time to complete the calculations and drawing
graphs. Come equipped with calculator, scales, pencils etc.
7. Do not fiddle idly with apparatus. Handle instruments with care. Report any breakage to
the Instructor. Return all the equipment you have signed out for the purpose of your
experiment.

Instructions for Writing In Record Note

Before entering into the lab, the students record note book will be checked in the beginning of
the lab class commence. The students should write the experiment number, date, aim,
formula, least count calculation, ray diagram or circuit diagram, tabular column neatly in the
record note book.
 PROGRAMME OUTCOMES (POs)
POs Programme Outcomes (POs)
Engineering Knowledge: Apply knowledge of mathematics, natural
science, engineering fundamentals and system fundamentals, software development, networking
1
& communication, and information assurance & security to the solution of complex engineering
problems in computer science and engineering.
Problem Analysis: Ability to identify, formulate and analyze complex Computer Science and
Engineering problems in the areas of hardware, software, theoretical Computer Science and
2
applications to reach significant conclusions by applying Mathematics, Natural sciences, Computer
Science and Engineering principles.
Design and Development of Solutions: Design solutions for complex computer science and
engineering problems and design systems, components or processes that meet specified needs
3
with appropriate consideration for public health and safety, cultural, societal, and environmental
considerations.
Conduct investigations of complex problems: Ability to use research based
knowledge and research methods to perform literature survey, design experiments for complex
4 problems in designing, developing and maintaining a computing system, collect data from the
experimental outcome, analyze and interpret valid/interesting patterns and conclusions from the
data points.
Modern tool usage: Ability to create, select and apply state of the art tools and techniques in
5
designing, developing and testing a computing system or its component.
The Engineer and the Society: Apply reasoning informed by contextual knowledge to assess
societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant
6 to professional engineering practice in system development and solutions to complex
engineering problems related to system fundamentals, software development, networking &
communication, and information assurance & security.
Environment and sustainability: Understand and evaluate the sustainability and impact of
professional engineering work in the solution of complex engineering problems related to system
7
fundamentals, software development, networking & communication, and information assurance
& security in societal and environmental contexts.
Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and norms
8
of computer science and engineering practice.
Individual and Team work: Ability to function as an individual and as a team player or leader in
9
multidisciplinary teams and strive towards achieving a common goal.
Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the engineering
community and with society at large, such as being able to comprehend and write effective
10
reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and give and receive clear
instructions.
Project Management and Finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of engineering
11 management principles and economic decision making and apply these to one’s own work, as a
member and leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage in
12
independent and lifelong learning in the broadest context of technological change.
 ENGINEERING PHYSICS LABORATORY
Course Objectives: Students will be able

 To demonstrate an understanding of the scientific method, so that they may use the
training beneficial in their higher pursuits.
 To enhance the fundamental knowledge of interference, diffraction, and lasers.
 To understand the principles of elastic behavior of the materials

Prerequisite Chart
 COURSE OUTCOMES:
At the end of the semester the students will be able to:

Course
Course Outcome Statements
Outcome
Demonstrate the properties of matter in determining the various
CO1
elastic nature of the materials
Apply principles of optics and thermal energy for various engineering
CO2
applications

CO3 Attains the basic understanding of concepts of quantum mechanics

Mapping of CO's – POs and CO’s – PSO’s

Mapping CO's with PO's

Course

PO10

PO11

PO12
PO 1

PO 2

PO 3

PO 4

PO 5

PO 6

PO 7

PO 8

PO 9
Outcome

CO1 3 3 2 1 - 1 1 1 - - - 2
CO2 3 3 2 1 - 1 1 1 - - - 2
CO3 3 3 2 1 - 1 1 1 - - - 2
AVG 3 3 2 1 - 1 1 1 - - - 2

Course Outcome with relevant Cognitive Level

Course Course Outcome Cognitive

Linked POs
Outcome Statements Level
Demonstrate the properties of 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7,
CO1 matter in determining the various CL1,CL2 & CL3
elastic nature of the materials 8, 12

Apply principles of optics and 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7,

CO2 thermal energy for various CL1,CL2 & CL3
engineering applications 8, 12

Attains the basic understanding of 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7,

CO3 concepts of quantum mechanics CL1,CL2 & CL3
8, 12

CL1-Remember, CL2-Understand, CL3 -Apply, CL4-Analysis, CL5- Evaluation, CL6-

Creativity
 CONTENTS

Page
Course No.
Sl.No. Name of Experiment Outco Sign
me

SEMESTER - 1

1 Determination of rigidity modulus – Torsion pendulum CO1

Determination of Young’s modulus by Non-uniform

2 CO1
bending method

3 Determination of coefficient of viscosity by Poiseuille's CO3

flow method

4 Determination of wavelength, and particle size using CO2

Laser

Determination of acceptance angle in an Optical fiber CO3

5

Determination of Thermal Conductivity of a Bad CO3

6 Conductor –Lee’s Disc Method

Determination of Planck’s Constant and work function

7 of materials CO2
 1. TORSIONAL PENDULUM- DETERMINATION OF RIGIDITY MODULUS

AIM: To determine
i) Moment of inertia of the disc
ii) Rigidity modulus of a wire
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Torsional pendulum, two equal cylindrical masses, Stop clock, Screw gauge,
Metre scale.
FORMULA:
Moment of inertia of the disc
2m (d22-d12)T02
I = --------------------- kg m2
T22 – T12
Rigidity modulus of a wire

8  IL
n = ------------ N/m2
T02 r4
Where

m – Mass placed on the disc (kg)

d1- Distance between suspension wire and the centre of mass of the cylinder(m)
d2- Distance between suspension wire and the centre of mass of the cylinder(m)

T0 – Time period without mass placed on the disc (sec)

T1 – Time period when equal masses are placed at a distance d1 (sec)
T2 - Time period when equal masses are placed at a distance d 2 (sec)
L - Length of the suspension wire (m)
r – Radius of the wire (m)
PROCEDURE:

 One end of a long, uniform wire whose rigidity modulus is to be

determined is clamped by a vertical chuck.
 To a lower end, a heavy uniform circular disc is attached by another chuck.
The length of the suspension wire (L) is fixed to a particular value.
 The suspended disc is slightly twisted so that it felicitates torsional
oscillations. Avoid vibration while in rotation.
 The first few oscillations are not considered. By using the pointer, the time
taken for 10 complete oscillations is noted. Two trials are taken. The mean
time period To is found.
 Two equal masses are placed on the disc symmetrically on either side;
close to the suspension wire .The closest distance d 1 is noted.
 The disc with masses at a d1 is made to rotate torsional oscillations by
twisting the disc.
  The time taken for 10 complete oscillations is noted. Two trials are taken.
The mean time period T1 is found.
 Two equal masses are moved to the extreme ends so that the edges of
masses coincide with the edge of the disc. The maximum distance d 2 is
noted.
 Then the disc is allowed to rotate by twisting the disc. The time taken for
10 complete oscillations is noted. Two trials are taken. The mean time
period T2 is found.
 The diameter of the wire is measured at different places along its length
using screw gauge. Then the radius of wire is calculated.
 The moment of inertia of the disc and rigidity modulus of the wire are
calculated.

To determine the time period of the disc:

Length of the wire (L) = ------- x10-2 m

Time for 10 oscillations Time period(one

Position of the oscillation)
Trial-1 Trial-2 Mean
equal masses
sec sec sec sec

Without any masses T0

With masses at
T1
-2
d1 = 2.5 x10 m

With masses at
T2
-2
d2 = 4.5x10 m
To determine the radius of the wire
Least count = 0.01 mm. Zero error = divisions ZC= mm

Observed
PSR HSC Correct
reading=PSR+( Mean = -
S.No reading=OR+ZC
mm div HSCXLC)
mm ---- x10-3
mm
m
1
CALCU
2 LATIO
N:
3

4 Moment
of
5 inertia
of the
disc,
2m (d22-d12)T02
I = --------------------- kg m2
T22 – T12

m= d 1= d2= T0=

T1 = T 2=

Rigidity modulus of a wire,

8  IL
n = ------------ N/m2
T02 r4

I= T 0= r=
RESULT:

Moment of inertia of the disc, I= …………. kgm2

Rigidity modulus of the wire, n =………. N/m2

Outcomes: At the end of the experiment, the students should be able

 To understand the motion of the torsion pendulum satisfies the simple harmonic
 To understand period (or angular frequency) of the simple harmonic motion of the torsion
pendulum is independent of the amplitude of the motion
 To determine torsion constant and the moment of inertia of the torsion pendulum
 2. YOUNG’S MODULUS – NON UNIFORM BENDING

AIM:
To determine the Young’s modulus of the material of a uniform bar by non uniform
bending.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Travelling microscope, knife edges, Slotted weight, meter scale, Vernier caliper, screw
gauge, pin.

FORMULA:
Young’s modulus of the material of the beam,

Mgl3
Y = −−−−−− Newton/metre2
4bd3 y
Where
M – Load applied (kg)
y - Mean depression for a load (m)
g – Acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)
l – Distance between two knife edges (m).
b – Breadth of the beam (m)
d – Thickness of the beam (m).
PROCEDURE:

 The experimental bar belongs to elastic material for loading and unloading
it by slotted weights.
 The weight hanger is taken as the dead weight (W).
 The bar is placed on the knife edges at a distance of l.
 A pin is fixed at the middle of the scale.
 The dead weight suspended from the mid point, the microscope is adjusted
such that the horizontal cross wire coincides with the image of the tip of
the pin.
 The reading of the vertical scale is taken.
 The experiment is repeated by adding weights (Loading) for W+50,
W+100 up to W+250.
 Every time the microscope is adjusted and the vertical scale reading (MSR
and VSC) is taken.
 Then the load is decreased by 50gms and the readings are taken.
 From the readings, the mean depression of the mid-point for a given load
and m/y can be found.
 The bar is removed and its mean breadth b is measured using vernier
caliper and its mean thickness d using screw gauge
 To determine depression (y):

L.C =0.001cm M = 50x 10-3kg.

Microscope reading Depressi

on y for
S.No Load Loading Unloading Mean m kg
x10-3 kg MSR VSC TR MSR VSC TR cm

cm div cm Cm div cm cm

1 W

2 W+50

3 W+100

4 W+150

5 W+200

6 W+250

Mean(y) = ….. 10-2m

To determine breadth of the beam (b):
Least count = 0.01 cm. Zero Error = Zero Correction =
S.No MSR VSC Observed reading = Correct reading =
cm div MSR+(VSCXLC) cm OR+ZC cm

Mean = …….. 10-2m

To determine the thickness of the beam (d)

Least count = 0.01 mm. ZE = ZC=

S.No PSR HSC Observed reading = Correct reading =

mm div SR+(HSCXLC) OR+ZC mm
mm

Mean = …….. *10-3m

Fig 2.1 Young’s Modulus – Non Uniform Bending

CALCULATION:

M – Load applied (kg) =

y - Mean depression for a load (m) =
g – Acceleration due to gravity (m/s2) =
l – Distance between two knife edges (m) =
b – Breadth of the beam (m) =
d – Thickness of the beam (m) =

Young’s modulus of the material of the beam,

Mgl3
Y = −−−−−− Newton/metre2
4bd3 y

RESULT:

Young’s modulus of the given bar (metre scale) = ………. N/m2

Outcomes: At the end of the experiment, the students would be able

 To understand the elastic behavior of the given wooden beam by pin and microscope experimental
method and to find its Young’s modulus
 3. DETERMINATION OF COEFFICIENT OF VISCOSITY BY POISEUILLE'S
FLOW METHOD

AIM

To determine the coefficient of viscosity of the given liquid by Poiseuille’s flow

APPARATUS REQUIRED

1. Capillary tube 2. Rubber tube 3. Wooden stand 4. Beaker 5. Stop watch 6.

Travelling microscope 7. Burette 50 ml 8. metre scale

Formula

Coefficient of viscosity of the liquid

gr 4 ht
 Ns / m2
8lv
 - Density of the given liquid (Kg/m3)
g - Acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)
h - Pressure head of the liquid column (m)
r - Radius of the capillary tube inner bore (m)
t - Time taken for the liquid flow (s)
l - Length of the capillary tube (m)
V - Volume of the liquid flow (m)

S.NO Burette Time Time of Initial Final Pressure Ht

Reading taken for flow level of level of h=
crossing for 5cc water h1 water h1+h2/2- cm
level h2 h0

Mean = ………. 10-2 m

 Fig 3.1 Viscosity of a Liquid

Procedure:

1. The burette is filled with water up to zero ml.

2. The burette is adjusted such that there is steady flow of water out.
3. The flow of water for every 5 ml is noted and corresponding time noted
4. The burette readings and corresponding time of flow of water is entered in table
5. The radius of capillary tube is found out using Travelling Microscope.
6. From the tabular column value of ht is found.
7. Substituting the values coefficient of viscosity is determined.

Calculation:

Coefficient of viscosity of the liquid

gr 4 ht
 Ns / m 2
8lv

Result :

Co efficient of viscosity of the given liquid = ……….. Ns/m2

 4. DETERMINATION OF WAVELENGTH, AND PARTICLE SIZE USING
LASER

AIM:
To determine the wave length of the given laser source and the size of the micro
particles (powder) using diode laser

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Semi conductor diode laser, Grating (2500 lines/ inch), screen, metre scale,
FORMULA:
Wave length of the given laser source of light:
Sin θ
λ = −−−−−− meter
Nn
Where
n – Order of diffraction
λ – Wave length of Laser light (metre)
θ – Angle of diffraction (degree)
N – Number of ruling lines in grating (m)

Size of the micro particles:

nλD
d = −−−−−− meter
Xn
Where
n – Order of diffraction
λ – Wave length of Laser source (meter)
D - Distance between glass plate and the screen (meter)
Xn - Distance between central bright spot and the nth fringe (meter)

PROCEDURE - Wave length of the given laser source of light

 To determine the wavelength of the given laser source, semiconductor diode laser
is switched on and the laser beam is passed through the grating.
 The diffracted rays are collected on a screen. In the diffraction pattern, the circular
spot at the centre and the other orders on either side of the spot is observed on the
transparent scale.
 The distance between the central spot and first order are measured and tabulated.
 The distance between the grating and screen D is also measured.
 The wave length of the given laser source is determined by using the formula ,
Sin θ
λ = −−−−−−
Nn
PROCEDURE - Size of the micro particles
 A glass plate is taken and powder of the particle size in the range of
micrometer is sprinkled on the glass plate.
 This glass plate is kept between laser light and screen.
 Now laser beam gets diffracted by the particles present in the glass plate.
 By adjusting the distance between the glass plate and the screen, a circular
  fringe pattern is seen on the screen. Fringes of different order are seen on
the screen and it is measured.
nλD
Using the formula 2d = ------- the particles size can be found.
Xn
The experiment is repeated for different D values.

DIAGRAM

Fig 4.1 Laser Grating

Fig 4.2 Diffraction Pattern

Fig 4.3 Particle size determination by LASER

Fig 4.4 Particle size determination by LASER

Determine the wavelength of the given laser source:

Distance between screen and grating (D) = 10-2 m

Mean
Order of λ=
Left side Right side θ=(θ1+
diffraction sinθ/Nn
θ2)/2
Distance Distance
between between
central the central
bright tanθ1 θ1=tan-1 bright tanθ2 θ2=tan-1
spot and =xn/D xn/D spot and =xn/D xn/D
nth order nth order
diffraction diffraction
xn 10-2m xn 10-2m

1
2
3
4
5
6

MEAN =
Determination of Particle Size using LASER source

Distance between
Distance between Particle size
Order of the central bright
S.No screen and glass d = nλD/xn x
diffraction spot and nth fringe
plate (D) 10-2 m 10-5m
(xn ) 10-2 m

1 1
2 2
3 3

Mean =
Calculation:

RESULT

Wave length of the laser light source =…………… meter

Average size of the particle = ……… x 10-5m

Acceptance angle of the optical fibre = ………..

Outcomes: At the end of the experiment, the students would be able

 To determine the size of particles using the given Laser source

 To determine the angle of divergence of the laser beam
 To understand the importance of laser beam compared to ordinary light
 To understand the applications of Lasers in Engineering and Medical fields

Precautions : It is dangerous to view the laser light directly. So direct exposure of eye to laser light
should be avoided.
 5. DETERMINATION OF ACCEPTANCE ANGLE IN AN OPTICAL
FIBER
AIM:

To determine the acceptance angle in an optical fiber.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Numerical Aperture Scale, Screen, fiber optic source and cable

FORMULA:

r
Acceptance angle θa = -----
d
Where,

θa – Acceptance angle
r - Radius of the circular image (metre)
d – Distance from fibre end to circular image (metre)

Fig 5.1 Experimental setup for Acceptance angle in an optical fiber.

PROCEDURE

 Using LASER, we can find the numerical aperture of the fibre optic cable.
 The given LASER source is connected to the optical fibre cable.
 The other end is exposed to the air medium in the dark place.
 The emerging light is exposed on a plain paper.
 Now, we get illuminated circular patch on the screen.
 The distance from the fibre end to circular image (d) is measured using metre scale.
Similarly the radius of the circular image is also measured.
 Thus the acceptance angle is calculated.
 Fig 5.2 Acceptance angle Measurement

To determine the Acceptance Angle

S.No Distance from the Radius of the circular Acceptance angle
fibre end to circular image
image ‘d’ 10-2m r
‘r’ 10-3m
θa = -----

Mean

CALCULATION:

r
Acceptance angle  a  degree
d
RESULT

Acceptance angle of the optical fibre = ………..

Outcomes: At the end of the experiment, the students would be able

 To determine the size of particles using the given Laser source

 To determine the angle of divergence of the laser beam

Precautions : It is dangerous to view the laser light directly. So direct exposure of eye to laser light
should be avoided.
 6. DETERMINATION OF THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF A BAD
CONDUCTOR –LEE’S DISC METHOD

Aim:

To find the thermal conductivity of the given bad conductor

Apparatus required:

Lee’s Disc , Card Board, Two thermometers, Stop clock, Steam boiler, Vernier caliper.
Screw gauge

Formula:

Thermal conductivity of the bad conductor

Where

M – Mass of the metallic disc in kg.

S – Specific heat capacity of the metallic disc C = 500 J kg-1 K-1

– Rate of cooling at steady temperature

d – Thickness of the bad conductor in meter

h – Thickness of the bad conductor in meter

r – Radius of the metallic disc in meter

– Steady temperature of the steam boiler in K

– Steady temperature of the Metallic disc in K

Procedure:

 Radius of the Lee’s disc is measured using vernier caliper

 The thickness of the metallic disc is measured using Screw gauge
 The mass of the Lee’s disc is measured using digital weighing machine
 The bad conductor is inserted in between the Lee’s disc and the steam chamber
 A thermometer is inserted in the steam chamber
 Another thermometer is inserted in the Lee’s disc
 Steady state temperature ϴ1 and ϴ2 of the steam boiler and the steam chamber is measured
 The bad conductor is removed
 Oven is switched off

  The Lee’s disc is allowed to cool
 A graph is drawn by taking time along X-axis and temperature along Y-axis
 From the slope the rate of cooling is calculate

Time

(i) To find the thickness of the metallic disc(h) using screw gauge
Observed Reading ‘OR’ = PSR + (HSC x LC)
LC = 0.01mm ZE = ZC=
S.no PSR HSC ‘OR’ = PSR + (HSC x LC) CR = OR+_ZC
(mm) (mm) mm

(ii) To find the thickness of the bad conductor(d) using screw gauge

LC = 0.01mm ZE = ZC=

S.no PSR HSC ‘OR’ = PSR + (HSC x LC) CR = OR+_ZC

(mm) (mm) mm
 (iii) To find the Radius of the metallic disc(r) using vernier calliper

Observed Reading ‘OR’ = PSR + (HSC x LC) LC = 0.01cm

ZE = ZC=

S.no MSR VSC ‘OR’ = MSR + (VSC x LC) CR = OR+_ZC

(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)

Mean 2r =
Radius r =
(iv) Determination of rate of cooling of the metallic disc

S.No Temperature ºC Time in sec

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
 Fig 6.1 Lee’s Disc Arrangement

Result :

Thermal conductivity of the given bad conductor is ____________watt meter-1Kelvin-1

Outcome: At the end of this experiment, the students would be able

 To know about differentiate the different modes of heat transfer

 To understand the principle of Lee’s disc experiment
 To determine the coefficient of thermal conductivity of a bad conductor using Lee’s disc
 To understand the difference in heat loss in good conductor & bad conductor
7. DETERMINATION OF PLANCK’S CONSTANT AND WORK FUNCTION OF
MATERIALS

AIM:
To determine Planck’s constant and work function of materials using Photoelectric
effect

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Basic apparatus with photocell, voltmeter, nano-ammeter, and power supply for light
sources 5 LEDs in casings with connector leads,1 Plug-in power supply 12 V AC

FORMULA:

The Planck’s constant


h 
e
where
h = Planck’s constant
E = Energy in eV
λ = wavelength of LED in nm, c = velocity of light in m/sec
Work Function Φ is given by
Φ= hc / λ + e (eV )
Where
e = charge of electron in volts
V0 = Stopping Potential (volts)

PROCEDURE:-

Circuit Connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram as on Panel. The
Wavelengths of the given LED’s are noted in the tabular column. The terminal P is
connected to LED. The Supply voltage is varied slowly by varying the fine voltage
knob of the regulated power supply. The Voltmeter reading is noted down when the
LED just glows this is the turn on Voltage for the LED . The same procedure is
repeated for the other LEDs & by connecting the respective terminal. In each case
the turn on Voltage is noted. A Graph of energy along Y-axis and Frequency (ν= c/λ)
along X-axis is plotted. The Slope of the Graph gives the Planck’s constant.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:-

Fig. 7.1 Planck’s Constant Arrangement

OBSERVATION:-

hc / λ Φ= hc / λ + e
LED
(eV )
S.NO λ (nm) E=e
1. RED 660 h=
(volts)
2. ORANGE 610

3. GREEN 525

4. BLUE 450

CALCULATIONS:

c=3x m/s

e = 1.6 x V
 GRAPH:-

RESULT

Calculated value of Planck’s constant using

Red LED -----------------

Orange LED -------------------

Green LED ----------------------

Blue LED ---------------------

Work function also

calculated.

Outcomes:

At the end of the experiment, the students would be able

To demonstrate the dependency of Energy of light wave with wavelength and to

determine the Planck's constant of proportionality.
 I. SCREW GAUGE

Aim: To determine the thickness of a glass plate.

Apparatus required: Screw gauge and glass plate

Description: It is based upon the principle of a screw. It consists of a U-

shaped metal frame. One end of which carries a fixed stud A whereas the other end B
is attached to a cylindrical tube as shown in Fig.. A scale graduated in millimeters is
marked on the cylindrical tube along its length. It is called Pitch scale. The screw
carries a head H which has a beveled edge. The edge is divided into 100 equal
divisions. It is called the Head scale H.S. When the head is rotated, the head scale
moves on the pitch scale.

Procedure:

1. To find the least count (LC) of the screw gauge

2. To find the zero correction (ZC)
i) Nil error
If the zero of the head scale coincides with the zero of the pitch scale and also lies on
the base line (B.L), the instrument has no zero error and hence there is no zero
correction

ii) Positive zero error

If the zero of the head scale lies below the base line (B.L) of the pitch scale then the
zero error is positive and zero correction is negative. The division on the head scale,
which coincides with the base line of pitch scale, is noted. The division multiplied by
the least count gives the value of the positive zero error. This error is to be subtracted
from the observed reading i.e. the zero correction is negative

iii) Negative zero error

If the zero of head scale lies above the base line (B.L) of the pitch scale, then the zero
error is negative and zero correction is positive. The division on the head scale which
coincides on the base line of pitch scale is noted. This value is subtracted from the
total head scale divisions. This division multiplied by the least count gives the value of
the negative error. This error is to be added to the observed reading i.e. zero correction
is positive

3. To find the thickness of the glass plate

The glass plate is gently gripped between the faces A and B. The pitch scale
reading and the head scale coincidence are noted. The readings are tabulated.

Pitch Scale Reading (P.S.R)

Number of pitch scale division just in front of the head scale fully completed
is noted. It is measured in millimeter.
Head Scale Coincidence (H.S.C)
Coincidence of head scale division on the base line of the pitch scale is
also noted.
Example:

Screw gauge readings:

Zero correction (Z.C.) = +0.03

LC = 0:01 mm Zero error = -3 divisions mm

Corrected
Reading =
P.S.R H.S.R = (H.S. C x Total Reading = T.R. ± Z.C.
S.No. mm H.S.C div LC) mm P.S.R+ H.S.R mm mm

4 56 0.56 4.56

1 4.59
 II. VERNIER CALIPERS

Aim: To measure the dimensions of the given object.

Apparatus: Vernier Calipers and Wooden block

Description:

The vernier calipers consist of a long rigid rectangular steel strip called the
main scale (M.S) with a jaw (A) fixed at one end at right angles to its length. The main
scale is graduated both in centimeters and inches. The second jaw (B) carrying a
vernier scale and capable of moving along the main scale can be fixed to any position
by means of a screw cap S. The vernier scale is divided into 10 divisions, which is
equivalent to 9 main scale divisions (M.S.D). So the value of 1 vernier scale division
is equal to 9/10 M.S.D. The value of 1 M.S.D. is 1 mm

Procedure:

1. To find the Least Count (LC) of the vernier calipers

It is the smallest length that can be measured accurately by the vernier calipers and is
measured as the difference between one main scale division and one vernier scale
division

Least Count (LC) = 1 M.S.D — 1 V.S.D

Value of 1 M.S.D = 1 mm

No of divisions on the vernier scale = 10 divisions.

10 V.S.D =9 M.S.D

1 V.S.D =9/10 M.S.D = 9/10 x 1 mm = 9/10 mm L.C.=1 M.S.D —1

V.S.D

= 1 mm - 9/10 mm

= 0
.1 mm = 0.01 cm L.C. = 0.01 cm
2. To find the Zero Correction (ZC) : Before taking the readings with the vernier
calipers, we must note the zero error of the vernier calipers. When the two jaws of the
vernier calipers are pressed together, if the zero of the vernier scale coincides with the
zero of the main scale the instrument has no error, otherwise there is a zero error. The
zero error is positive if the vernier zero is after the main scale zero. The zero error is
negative when the vernier zero is before the main scale zero. Ordinarily, the zero error
is negligible in the case of vernier calipers and so zero error can be considered to be
nil.

3. To find the length of the given object: The given object is firmly gripped
between the jaws, taking care not to press it too hard. The main scale reading and the
vernier coincidence are noted. The main scale reading is the reading on the main scale
that is just before the vernier zero. The vernier scale coincidence is found by noting
the vernier division that coincides with any one of the main scale. Then the vernier
scale reading is found by multiplying the vernier coincidence with the least count. The
observations are repeated for various positions of the object.

Vernier Calipers readings: LC = 0.01cm

S.No. M.S.R cm V.S.C.-div V.S.R = (V.S.0 x Total Reading Corrected

LC)cm =M.S.R+ V.S.R cm Reading
1 1.3 6 0.06 1.36 1.36

Mean length of the given object =

 III. THE TRAVELLING MICROSCOPE

Aim: To learn the parts of a Travelling Microcope and to read a reading

Apparatus: Reading lens and capillary tube

Description: It is a compound microscope attached to a graduated vertical pillar,

which is mounted on rigid platform (Fig. 1). The platform is provided with three
levelling screws. The microscope can be set with its axis either in the vertical or the
horizontal position. The microscope can be moved in the vertical or horizontal
direction by means of a screw arrangement attached to it. The distance through which
the microscope is moved is read on the scale. There are two scales one for horizontal
movement and the other for the vertical movement. Each scale has a main scale (M1,
M2) and a vernier scale (V1, V2). The vernier moves with the microscope. As in the
spectrometer, there is a set of main screw and fine adjustment screw, for the horizontal
and the vertical movements. One set is fixed to the pillar for vertical movement and
the other set is fixed to the platform for horizontal movement. The eyepiece of the
microscope is provided with cross-wires. The image of an object is focussed by the
microscope using a side screw (focusing screw) attached to the microscope.

Procedure:

1. To find the Least Count (LC) of the travelling microscope

The main scale is graduated in mm. There are 50 V.S.D equivalent to 49

M.S.D. The value of one M.S.D. is 0.5mm=0.05cm

LC = 1 M.S.D –1 V.S.D.

1 M.S.D = 0.05 cm

50 V.S.D = 49 M.S.D

1 V.S.D = 49/50 x 0.05 = 0.049 cm

LC = 0.05 -- 0.049 cm

LC = 0.001cm

2. To read a reading

When the microscope is clamped by the main screw or fine adjustment screw at
any position, the reading is taken in the vertical scale or in the horizontal scale
according to the requirement. M.S.R and V.S.R are taken as in the vernier calipers.
Travelling microscope readings:
LC = 0.001cm

S. No. V.S.R = T.R =

M.S.R V.S.C (V.S.C x LC) M.S.R + V.S.R
cm div Cm cm

1 5.05 20 0.02 5.07

2 5.10 25 0.025 5.125

Page 49
 STANDARD VALUES OF THE EXPERIMENTS

Name of the
S. No
experiment Skilled values
10 -2
1. Aluminium →2.5×10 nm
10 -2
2. Brass →3.5 to 3.4×10 nm

10 -2
3. Cast iron →5.0×10 nm
Torsional pendulum – 10 -2
4. Copper →3.4 to 3.6×10 nm
1 rigidity modulus 10 -2
5. Steel(cast) →7.6×10 nm
10 -2
6. Steel(mild) →8.9×10 nm

10 -2
1 .box wood →1×10 nm
Determination of 10 -2
2. Teak wood →1.7×10 nm
young’s modulus –
2 3 .wrought iron and steel →
Bending of a beam.
10 -2
20×10 nm
3 Water=8.90x10-4 Pa.s
Coefficient of viscosity by Kerosene= 1.64x 10-4 Pa.s
2 Poiseuille's flow method

Wavelength
4 Semiconductor Laser Helium–neon laser→632.8 nm
Viscosity Argon laser→ 454.6 nm, 488.0 nm,

Semiconductorlaser
514.5 nm diode→0.4-20
3
Ruby laser→ 694.3 nm
μm
Nd:YAG laser→ 1.064 μm

Semiconductor laser Semiconductorlaser diode→0.4-20

5 Optical Fiber Ɵ = 0.3 to 0.6
μm
NA=0.005 to 0.010
5 1. Card board → 0.04 wm-1k-1
Thermal conductivity of the
6 bad conductor – -1 -1-1 -1
2.
1. Ebonite →0.7
Card board wm wm
→0.04 k k
5

6
Page 49
 -1 -1
Lee’s disc 3. Glass →1 wm k
-1 -1
4. Wood & rubber →0.15 wm k
Specific heat capacity
-1 -1
1. Brass →913 jkg k
-1 -1
2. Copper →385 jkg k
-1 -1
3. Water →4186 jkg k
1. Red → 6234 Å
7 2. Yellow I → 5791 Å

Planck’s Constant 3. Green → 5461 Å

4. Blue → 4358 Å
h = 6.6260X10-34m2kg/s