Engines, Motors, and

Mobility
[ME F317]
BITS Pilani Dr. Saket Verma
Department of Mechanical Enginerring
Pilani Campus
 BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus

Lecture No.: 15-16

Combustion in SI Engines
Combustion

Combustion is a chemical reaction in which certain elements of

the fuel like hydrogen and carbon combine with oxygen
(oxidizer) liberating energy and causing an increase in
temperature of the gases.
What are the conditions for combustion?
Combustible mixture + Source (to initiate the process)
To overcome
Air+ Fuel Spark/auto-ignition Activation
Energy

Combustion is complex phenomenon, and intense research is still

going on.

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 Combustible mixture

Combustible • In heterogeneous gas

• In homogeneous gas
mixture, the fuel and
mixture
oxygen molecules are
uniformly distributed.
• E.g. in SI engines, a
homogeneous fuel-air
Homogeneous
mixture is prepared in
carburetor/intake
manifold.
mixture, the fuel and
oxygen molecules are
non-uniformly
distributed.
• E.g. in CI engines, a
Heterogeneous heterogeneous fuel-air
mixture is prepared
inside the combustion
chamber.

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 Combustion
phenomenon in SI engine

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 Four Stroke SI Engine

Stroke 1: Fuel-air mixture (homogeneous) introduced into

cylinder through intake valve
Stroke 2: Fuel-air mixture compressed
Stroke 3: Combustion (~constant volume) occurs
and product gases expand doing work
Stroke 4: Product gases pushed out of the cylinder
through the exhaust valve

FUEL
A
I Ignition

R
Fuel/Air
Mixture Combustion
Products

Intake Compressio Power Exhaus

Stroke n Stroke t
Stroke Stroke

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Pressure rise in theoretical cycle

• In SI Engine homogeneous mixture of air and fuel is formed by the

carburetor/injector. (A/F ratio: 2 (cold start) to 20 (lean burn mixture))
• Air – fuel mixture is compressed upto compression ratio 8 to 12.
• Mixture is ignited by spark plug.
• A turbulent flame is developed which propagates through the charge.

The entire pressure rise

during combustion takes
place at ‘constant volume’

Fig.: Theoritical P-θ diagram of a SI engine

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Pressure rise in SI engine
Peak
cylinder
pressure/
spark ends

End of
combustion

Start of
ignition

Start of
spark

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Three stages of combustion

1. Ignition delay (A→B): (preparation phase)

– It is a chemical process (as fuel and air is homogeneous) which
depends on-nature of fuel, temperature & pressure, proportion of
exhaust gas, and rate of burning. It is the growth and development
of a semi propagating nucleus of flame.(At the moment of spark
discharge, the temperature exceeds 10,0000 °c)
– At the end of this stage, the first rise of pressure (on indicator
diagram) can be detected. It is the point where the line of
combustion departs from the compression line.

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Three stages of combustion
2. Propagation of flame (B→C):
• The starting point of the second stage is where first measurable rise
of pressure can be seen on the indicator diagram. i.e. the point
where the line of the combustion departs from the compression
line.
• During second stage, the flame spreads throughout the combustion
chamber.
• During the second stage the flame propagates practically at a
constant velocity.
• The rate of pressure rise is proportional to the rate of heat release
because during this stage, the combustion chamber volume
remains practically constant
• The second stage ends as maximum pressure (on indicator
diagram) is reached.

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Three stages of combustion
3. After burning (C→D):
• End of second stage means peak pressure. But it does not
result in complete heat release (burning of fuel).
• Since the expansion stroke starts before this stage of
combustion, with the piston moving away from the top dead
centre, there can be no pressure rise during this stage.
• The flame velocity decreases during this stage.
• The rate of combustion reduces due to surface of the flame
front becoming smaller and reduction in turbulence.
• Even after the passage of flame, some chemical adjustments
continue throughout the expansion stroke- near the walls and
behind the turbulent flame front.

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Flame front propagation

• Rate of flame front propagation is important for efficient

combustion in SI engine.
• For ideal combustion, it should be constant volume.
• It can be achieved with infinite flame speed, however it is
impossible.
• Hence higher the flame speed, better is the combustion in SI
engine.
It depends on two important factors:
1. Reaction rate: Chemical combination process
2. Transposition rate: Due to physical movement of flame and pressure differential
between burned an unburned gases.

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What are the factors influence flame
speed?
• Important factors which affect the flame speed are:
• Turbulence: Flame speed is quite low in non-turbulent
mixtures and increases with increasing turbulence.
• This is because increased mixing of burned and unburned
particles at flame front, which expedite reaction due to
increase in rate of contact.
• Turbulence in the incoming mixture is provided during the
admission of fuel-air mixture.
• Design of the combustion chamber which involves the
geometry of cylinder head and piston crown increases the
turbulence during the compression stroke.

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Air-movement in the cylinder

Fig. Careful placement of inlet valve to

produce swirl and tumble motion

Fig. Masking of inlet valve for enhance

swirl

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factors influence flame speed
Temperature and pressure
• Flame speed increases with an increase in intake
temperature and pressure.
• A higher initial pressure and temperature may help to form
a better homogeneous air-vapors mixture which helps in
increasing the flame speed.
• This is possible because of an overall increase in the
density of the charge.

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factors influence flame speed
Compression ratio
• A higher compression ratio increases the pressure and temperature of
the working mixture which reduce the initial preparation phase of
combustion and hence less ignition advance is needed.
• Increased compression ratio reduces the clearance volume and
therefore increases the density of the cylinder gases during burning.
• Increasing the density increases the peak pressure and temperature
and the total combustion duration is reduced.
• Thus engines having higher compression ratios have higher flame
speeds.

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factors influence flame speed
Engine Output

• With the increased throttle opening the cylinder gets filled to a

higher density.
• The cycle pressure increases when the engine output is increased.
• When the output is decreased by throttling, the initial and final
compression pressures decrease and the dilution of the working
mixture increases.
• The smooth development of self-propagating nucleus of flame
becomes unsteady and difficult.
• The main disadvantages of SI engines are the poor combustion at
low loads and the necessity of mixture enrichment (Ø> between
1.2 to 1.3) which causes wastage of fuel and discharge of unburnt
hydrocarbon and the products of incomplete combustion like
carbon monoxide etc. in the atmosphere.
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factors influence flame speed
Engine Speed

• The flame speed increases almost linearly with engine speed

since the increase in engine speed increases the turbulence
inside the cylinder.
• The time required for the flame to traverse the combustion
space would be halved, if the engine speed is doubled.

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factors influence flame speed
Fuel-Air Ratio
• The fuel-air ratio has a very significant
influence on the flame speed
• The highest flame velocities (minimum
time for complete combustion) are
obtained with somewhat richer mixture
(point A)
• When the mixture is made leaner or
richer from point A, the flame speed
decreases.
• Less thermal energy is released in the
case of lean mixtures resulting in lower
flame temperature.
• Very rich mixtures lead to incomplete
combustion which results again in the
release of less thermal energy.

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Stoichiometry of combustion

When the combustion of the fuel is such that there is no fuel remaining in any
form after combustion nor there is any oxygen left, then the combustion is know
as perfect combustion. The air to fuel ratio for such combustion is known as
stoichiometric A/F ratio.

stoichiometric A/F ratio:

BURNING OF STOICHIOMETRIC METHANE Gasoline – 14.7:1
MIXTURE IN AIR Diesel – 14.6:1

stoichiometric A/F ratio could be

by mass or by volume (9.6 for
gasoline).

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Stoichiometric Ratio and Equivalence Ratio

The theoretical air required to complete combustion of fuel results from the equation
of stoichiometry of oxygen/fuel reaction. Stoichiometric air means the minimum air
in stoichiometric mixture. The stoichiometric air/fuel ratio (AFR) can be calculated
from the reaction equation (g/g). For gas AFR is usually determined in m3/m3
Stoichiometric Ratio

Equivalence Ratio

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RATE OF PRESSURE RISE and PEAK
PRESSURE
• The rate of pressure rise is mainly dependent upon the rate of combustion (heat
release rate) of mixture in the cylinder.

• Higher peak pressures closer to TDC

produce a greater force acting through
a large part of the power stroke and
hence, increase the power output of
the engine.
• The higher rate of pressure rise
causes rough running (Detonation) of
the engine because of vibrations
produced in the crankshaft rotation.
• A compromise is accomplished that
peak pressure should not achieve by
the time the piston reaches TDC.

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Abnormal Combustion

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Abnormal Combustion

Detonation or knocking or Pinging in SI engine

A= Source of ignition causing nucleus to be

formed and flame front to propagate further.
BB’ = intermediate position of the flame front
CC’ = intermediate position of flame front
CC’D = unburnt end charge reaching critical
temperature

In abnormal combustion, the end charge

auto-ignites before the flame front reaches
it.

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Abnormal Combustion
These abnormal combustion phenomena are of concern because:
1) when severe, they can cause major engine damage; and
2) Even if not severe, they are regarded as an objectionable source of noise by
the engine or vehicle operator.
• Because of the auto ignition, another
flame front starts traveling in the
opposite direction to the main flame
front.
• When the two flame fronts collide, a
severe pressure pulse is generated.
• The presence or absence of knocking in
combustion is often judged from a
distinctly audible sound.
• A scientific method to detect the
phenomenon of knocking is to use a
pressure transducer.

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Ignition delay and abnormal
combustion
• In abnormal combustion, called detonation, end charge auto-ignites
before the flame front reaches it. To auto-ignite, the last unburnt
charge must reach above critical temperature and remain at this
temperature for certain length of time. This time required in the
chemical preparation phase is called “Ignition Delay”.
• If ignition delay period is longer than the time required for the
flame front to burn through the unburnt charge, there will be no
detonation in S.I Engine.
• Only when the critical temperature is reached and maintained, and
the ignition delay is shorter than the time it takes for the flame front
to burn through the unburnt charge, there will be detonation.

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Effects of detonation

• Noise and vibration: the presence of vibratory motion causes crankshaft

vibrations and the engine runs rough.
• Mechanical damage: the cylinder head and valves may be pitted, increased
rate of wear may occur.
• Decrease in power output and efficiency: due to increase in the
rate of heat transfer the power output as well as efficiency of a detonating engine
decreases.
• Carbon Deposits: detonation results in increased carbon deposits.

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Control of detonation

As detonation is mainly due to attainment of auto-ignition

temperature earlier than flame front, following are the
fundamental ways to control detonation:
– Octane number of fuel should be high (FUEL COMPOSITION)
– Flame travel distance should be small (TIME FACTOR)
• Suitable combustion chamber design to reduce flame length and to reduce
temperature of end gas.
• Relocating spark plugs or use of two or more spark plugs.
• Increasing turbulence
– Temperature and pressure should not be high (DENSITY FACTOR)
• Use of low compression ratio.
• Charge intercooling

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FUEL COMPOSITION

Octane Value of the Fuel

– A higher self-ignition temperature (high octane) of the fuel and a low pre-flame
reactivity would reduce the tendency of knocking.
– In general, Paraffin series of hydrocarbon have the maximum and aromatic series the
minimum tendency to knock. The naphthene series comes in between the two.

Fuel-Air Ratio
– The flame speeds, flame temperature and reaction time are different for different fuel-air
ratios.
– Maximum flame speed and temperature is obtained when Φ≈1.1-1.2.

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TIME FACTOR

Turbulence
– Turbulence depends on the design of the combustion chamber and on engine speed.
– Increasing turbulence increases the flame speed and reduces the time available for the
end charge to attain auto ignition conditions thereby decreasing the tendency to knock..

Engine Speed
– An increase in engine speed increases the turbulence of the mixture considerably
resulting in increased flame speed, and reduces the time available for pre-flame
reactions. Hence knocking tendency is reduced at higher speeds.

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TIME FACTOR

Flame travel Distance

– The knocking tendency is reduced by shortening the time required for the flame front to
traverse the combustion chamber.
– Engine size, combustion chamber shape, and spark plug position are the three important
factors governing the flame travel distance
– a larger engine has a greater tendency for knocking than a smaller engine since there is
more time for the end gas to auto ignite. Hence, an SI engine is generally limited to size
of about 150 mm bore.
– Generally, the more compact the combustion chamber is, the shorter is the flame travel
and the combustion time and hence better antiknock characteristics.
– In order to have a minimum flame travel, the spark plug is centrally located in the
combustion chamber, resulting in minimum knocking tendency. two or more spark
plugs in case of large engines.

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DENSITY FACTOR

Compression Ratio
– Increase in compression ratio increases the pressure and temperature of the gases at the
end of the compression stroke, increases the tendency for knocking.

Inlet temperature of the mixture

– Reduced temperature of the unburned charge reduce the possibility of knocking by
reducing the temperature of the end charge for auto ignition.

Effect of density
– A reduction in the mass of the inducted charge by throttling or reducing the amount of
supercharging reduces both temperature and density of the charge at the time of ignition
.Lower is the density, lower is rate of energy release.

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Combustion Chambers For SI
Engines
The design of the combustion chamber for an SI engine has an
important influence on the engine performance and its
knocking tendencies.
• The design involves: • The important requirements of
an SI engine combustion
chamber are:
• The shape of the
combustion chamber, • to provide high power
• The location of spark plug output with minimum
and octane requirement,
• The location of inlet and • high thermal efficiency and
exhaust valves.
• smooth engine operation

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T-Head Type

• The T-head combustion chambers were

used in the early stage of engine
development.
• Since the distance across the combustion
chamber is very long, knocking tendency
is high in this type of engines.
• This configuration provides two valves
on either side of the cylinder, requiring
two camshafts. From the manufacturing
point of view, providing two camshafts
is a disadvantage.

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L-Head Type

• A modification of the T-head type of

combustion chamber is the L-head type
which provides the two valves on the
same side of the cylinder and the valves
are operated by a single camshaft.
• The main objectives of the Ricardo's
turbulent head design, Fig (c), is to obtain
fast flame speed and reduced knock.

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F-Head Type

• The F-head type of valve arrangement is a

compromise between L-head and I-head types.
• Combustion chambers in which one valve is in
the cylinder head and the other in the cylinder
block are known as F-head combustion chambers
• Modern F-head engines have exhaust valve in the
head and inlet valve in the cylinder block.
• The main disadvantage of this type is that the
inlet valve and the exhaust valve are separately
actuated by two cams mounted on to camshafts
driven by the crankshaft through gears.

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I Head Type or Overhead Valve

• In which both the valves are located on the

cylinder head.
• The overhead valve engine is superior to a side
valve or an L-head engine at high compression
ratios.
• Some of the important characteristics of this type
of valve arrangement are:
– less surface to volume ratio and therefore less heat
loss
– less flame travel length and hence greater freedom
from knock
– higher volumetric efficiency from larger valves or
valve lifts
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