Summary of Technical Interview Questions

Wing Design
Describe a glider’s wing (having done gliding before)
A glider’s wing has a high aspect ratio compared to other wings. This gives a high lift but is
not able to reach the same high speeds as other lower aspect ratio wing. AR= wingspan to
geometric chord.

What is the difference between angle of attack and angle of incidence?

The angle of attack is the angle between the chord line and the relative airflow. The angle of
incidence is the angle between the chord line and the aircrafts longitudinal datum. The AOI
is a fixed value for the wing but can be variable for a tailplane.

What is the critical AoA?

The critical AoA is the highest AoA an aerofoil can have before separation occurs and the
aerofoil stalls.

How does an aerofoil work?

An aerofoil as we know it on aircrafts is usually cambered on the topside and flat on the
bottom. This causes the airflow over the aerofoil on the top side to move faster than the one
on the lower side. This creates a lower pressure above and a higher pressure below. The
pressure difference creates a lift force upwards.

How do high lift devices work?

Trailing edge flaps (fowler flaps) increase the wings surface and camber. In lower angles of
deflection they increase the lift largely while at higher angles of deflection they create more
drag than lift.
Leading edge flaps (Krueger) and slats increase lift by creating longer wing chord line,
camber and area.
Slots prevent or delay the separation of the boundary layer and so increasing the maximum
lift coefficient by allowing to fly at a higher (critical) AoA. Reason is re-energising the
boundary layer.

Why do aircraft have leading edge devices?

To increase the maximum lift coefficient and so decreasing the stall speed.
To fly at higher (critical) AoA’s and so avoiding ‘flat’ landings at low flap settings.

Why and how does a wing stall?

A wing stalls when the airflow boundary layer separates from the wing when exceeding the
critical angle of attack, regardless of airspeed. The airflow becomes turbulent causing the lift
to decrease rapidly. The turbulent airflow makes the pressure above the wing higher than
the one below. The only way to recover is to decrease the AoA.

How does a stall strip work?

A stall strip promotes stall at the root of the wing at high AoA’s without affecting the wing’s
efficiency in cruise. This improves the stall pattern of the wing.

C of P movement during/approaching stall?

The CP moves forward towards the leading edge and during the stall it wants to move
downwards but because of the negative pressure gradient it will break down.
Can you stall a helicopter rotor blade?
Yes since it has a very similar aerofoil shape like a wing. An excessive AoA will stall a rotor
blade just like it does with a wing of an airplane. Recovery is the same as on on airplane:
lowering the AoA of the blade! This can be done by increasing the speed of the blade (RPM,

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not possible on some helicopters or decreasing the angle of incidence i.e. lowering the
collective)

What is so special about modern Jet Airliners?

They can fly faster and higher than propeller aircrafts. This is due to their swept wing design
in combination with high lift devices and high bypass engines.

Why swept wings?

Swept wings are used to obtain a higher critical Mach number so it can cruise at a higher
speed. It also provides some stability in turbulence caused by decreased lift characteristics.

Is swept an effective wing?

No, aside from higher Mcrit and more stability in turbulence it only has disadvantages. For
that reason there is a necessity for high lift devices and other adjustments (stall chars) to
improve it.

What are the lift qualities of a swept wing?

Loss of lift at the tips moves the CP forward giving a nose up pitch moment. Effective lift is
concentrated inboard and maximum downwash now impacts the tailplane adding to the nose
up pitch moment.

Where does a swept wing stall first?

At the wingtips because of the higher aerodynamic loading there due to wing taper causing a
higher angle of incidence at the tips. The spanwise flow also contributes to the tips stalling
first.
These stall characteristics are modified by stall strips at the wing root, vortex generators at
the wing tips, wash-out, wing fences (engine nacelles !), …

On a tapered wing, where would the stall occur first?

At the tip because of the tip is unable to support tip vortices causing them to form closer to
the root. This gives a decreased effective AoA at the root delaying the root stall.

Why do we have swept wings, and what are the advantages?

Swept wings are used to obtain a higher critical Mach number so it can cruise at a higher
speed. It also provides some stability in turbulence caused by decreased lift characteristics.

What are the disadvantages of a swept wing, and how is this compensated?
1. Poor lift qualities caused by reduces lift capabilities due to sweepback.
2. Higher stall speeds due to poor lift qualities
3. Speed instability at low speeds due to poor lift at low speeds below Vmd.
4. Longitudinally unstable if not corrected in design due to wingtips stalling first.
These disadvantages are solved by changes in design and addition of high lift devices.
These devices such as flaps,slats,slots increase lift at lower speeds. Wingfences,vortex
generators,stallstrips…are installed to prevent the tip from stalling first. The design of the
wing is also a factor to improve characteristics of the wing. Greater camber at the tips (root
?!) delays the stall at the tip, washout or twist at the tip reduces the angle of incidence and
so delaying the tip stall.

Tell us about wing tips? What are wing tip vortices?

The wingtip is together with the trailing edge the location where the airflow of lower pressure
above and the airflow of higher pressure below interact. This pressure difference modifies
the direction of the flow and creates a vortex. These strengthen the upwash and downwash
which reduces effective AoA. This reduces the overall lift generated by the wing wich needs
to be compensated by a higher AoA. This is known as induced drag.

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Why winglets?
Winglets are used to dispense the airflow from the upper and lower wing at different points to
reduce the induced drag created by wingtip vortices.

List the advantages and disadvantage of winglets

The big advantage of winglets is the reduction in induced drag by vortices. They improve a
bit the performance of the aircraft but the mayor advantage here is the lower fuel
consumption and increased range of the aircraft.
The disadvantage of winglets is if the gain is outweighed by the extra weight and cost of
winglets. They are most efficient at high speeds for which they are designed. For short and
medium haul they may not always be efficient enough to save costs. (huh ?)
In cruise, we usually fly at a high TAS but when we look to the EAS, we are pretty close to
the Vmd which means that the induced drag is almost as big as the parasite drag. Adding
winglets reduces the induced drag by a big amount.

If you can only use 1 word to answer, tell me why winglets are beneficial to Ryanair?
Money-saving

What is anhedral? What is dihedral?

Anhedral is the downward inclination of a wing from root to tip. Dihedral is the upward
inclination of a wing from root to tip.

Why do we use dihedral?

It improves the lateral stability of the aircraft. It contributes to the dihedral effect during
rolling.

Why is anhedral used instead on some aircraft?

It is mostly used on high wing aircraft to decrease a bit the stability of the aircraft in order to
increase the manoeuvrability. High wing is used on some aircrafts for ground clearance,
mostly military aircraft. (Avro, C130,…)

On a diagram of a fuselage, with wings angled upwards, what’s that feature on the 737 called?
Dihedral.

On A high wing anhedral diagram, like a BAE146, and a high wing straight winged aircraft like
a Fokker 50, why they don’t have Dihedral if it’s so good?
Dihedral increases stability but too much stability gives less manoeuvrability than required.
Diheadral also contributes to Dutch roll.

What is wing loading?

Wing loading is the amount of weight per unit of wing area. The higher the wing loading the
smaller the wing can be for the same amount of weight. Wing loading is a useful measure of
the general maneuvering performance of an aircraft. Wings generate lift owing to the motion
of air over the wing surface. Larger wings move more air, so an aircraft with a large wing
area relative to its mass (i.e., low wing loading) will have more lift at any given speed.
Therefore, an aircraft with lower wing loading will be able to take-off and land at a lower
speed (or be able to take off with a greater load). It will also be able to turn faster.

What do you prefer, a high or low wingload (He was trying to get to the approach where you
need flaps and slats to increase S (lower wingload) in order to be able to fly a lower speed)
A lower wing load is preferred since it gives a lower landingspeed. With a 737 this is
achieved by increasing the area of the wing using flaps. Since the weight is constant the
wingloading is lower and the plane can fly slower.

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Speed (IAS/TAS/Mach)
If you climb to FL300 at a constant IAS of 250kts, what would happen to the TAS?
At a constant IAS, the TAS will increase because of the lower air density.

Why do we measure speed as a Mach number? When does speed change from IAS to Mach?
When we maintain a constant IAS while climbing the Mach number increases as well. But
the Mach number we can fly is limited. The point were the constant IAS is the same as the
Mach number we want to fly is reached is the point to switch from IAS to a Mach number
indication. The altitude where this occurs is the change over altitude. The higher the IAS is at
which we climb the lower this altitude is. The hotter it is, the higher the changeover altitude
as the speed of sound is proportional to temperature.

At high altitudes, what speed do aircraft climb on?

B737: Below 10 000ft we climb at 250kts, above that at 280kts till reaching M.74. This is the
speed we climb at above change over altitude.
General: Best climb IAS at low altitudes (250KIAS restriction below FL100!), best mach
number at higher altitudes.

Why do we bother with Mach number?

Every aircraft is limited to a certain max operating Mach number. Above this speed the
aircraft can suffer from structural damage of a high-speed stall.

Can you explain to me what mach tuck is? At what speed does Mach tuck occur?
It is the nose down pitching moment that an aircraft experiences as it passes its critical Mach
number. This pitch down is caused by the rearward movement of the CP. Passing the Mcrit
creates shock waves toward the leading edge (greater camber causing greater airflow
velocity) causing a rearward shift of the lift distribution. Because of the loss of lift inboard the
majority of lift comes from outboard the wing being more to the back due to the sweep.

What is mcrit?
The speed at which the airflow over the wing becomes sonic.

How do you prevent an aircraft reaching mcrit?

By limiting its max operating speed to a value below Mcrit.

What is a mach trimmer? What does it do?

A Mach trimmer is a system that artificially corrects for Mach tuck above Mcrit by sensing the
aircraft’s speed and signalling a proportional upward movement of the elevator or variable-
incidence stabilizer to maintain the aircraft’s pitch attitude throughout its speed range up to
its maximum demonstrated flight diving speed.

How do you recover from Mach tuck? How do you avoid it?
By reducing the speed to a speed below Mcrit. You avoid it by using a Mach trimmer or by
not flying at speeds above Mcrit.

What are the advantages of an all moving/variable incidence tailplane?

It makes sure that at speeds higher than Mcrit you still have enough manoeuvrability since
an elevator is no longer effective at those speeds due to shockwaves. It also counteracts the
Mach tuck.
That kind of tailplane allows a broader range of airspeeds as it can change the neutral
position of the elevator. It also reduces drag by bringing the stabiliser and the elevator in one
line with the relative airflow.

What increases Mach Crit? Why?

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A swept wing design. Because the relative airflow over the wing follows a longer way over
the wing compared to a non-swept wing. This makes that the relative speed of the airflow is
lower and we can fly at higher speeds before the airflow reaches sonic speed.
A flatter (read: less cambered), sharper aerofoil

What do airlines have to guard against reaching Mach crit?

Overspeed warning in the cockpit: clacker. (?)

Speed and Altitude

Why do we fly high and fast?
Jet aircraft climb as high as possible because their engines are most efficient when the
compressors are operating at high rpm’s. This results in optimal gas flow condition and
achieves best specific fuel consumption. This rpm can only be reached at high altitudes
where the density is so low that the produced thrust is equal to the required cruising thrust.
The manufacturer designs the engine so that this optimal altitude is the same as the altitude
where there is minimum cruise airframe drag. This is at high altitudes because drag varies
only with EAS and because Mach number is limiting the EAS decreases with increasing
altitude.

What is the maximum operating ceiling of a typical jet?

About 41 000ft for the 737NG.

Why will a jet not fly this altitude?

Because the gain of a lower fuel consumption doesn’t outweigh the time lost by slower flight
at higher altitude. Also the margins to buffer are decreasing the higher the aircraft goes.

When will a jet be able to fly this altitude?

When time is not a factor and that altitude gives the best fuel consumption. The weight is
also a contributing factor, the lower the weight the higher its optimal altitude will be.

Explain what coffin corner is and what happens at it.

The coffin corner is the point where the Mach buffet and prestall buffet occur at the same
time. Because of the increasing altitude the stallspeed increases with it, caused by the
decreasing capability of the air to support the weight.
Increasing altitude also means a decreasing temperature causing the speed of sound to
drop and so also the Mach limit. At one point these speeds occus at the same point, the
coffin corner.
At this speed and altitude it doesn’t mather if you change speed or AoA because you will
stall either way.

The coffin corner is the point where the low-speed stall and high-speed stall almost reach
the same value. As you climb higher at a constant Mach number, your EAS decreases so
you have to increase your AoA. Due to compressibility, your induced AoA will increase so
that the overall AoA almost reaches it’s critical value. So slowing down will cause your
airplane to stall. Increasing your speed will create (larger) shockwaves on your wing causing
a high-speed stall which could seriously damage your airplane. Climbing is not an option
because both limits will only move closer to each other. The only option is to try to descend
while keeping your mach number constant and thus creating a larger buffer for both stalls.

V Speeds
Starting with V1 tell me what V speeds we need to consider and where does
VMCA fit in?

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V1: The last speed during take-off at which the pilot must take the first action to stop the
airplane withn the accelerate-stop distance. Minimum equal to Vmcg and maximum Vmbe
and may not exceed Vr.
Vr: Intended speed at which the pilot initiates action to raise the nose gear off the ground
during the acceleration to V2. At a normal rotation rate V2 will be achieved at screenheight
at end of runway if an engine fails at Vef.
Vlof: Calibrated airspeed at which the airplane first becomes airborne.
V2: Target speed to be reached at the screenheight assuming an engine failure at or after
V1
Vmu: Calibrated airspeed at and above which an airplane can safely lift off the ground and
continue the take-off.
Vmca: Calibrated airspeed at which whem the critical engine is suddenly made inop, it is
possible to maintain control of the airplane with that engine still inop and maintain straight
flight with an angle of bank of not more than 5’.
Vmcg: minimum control speed on the ground at which when the critical engine is suddenly
made inop, it is possible to maintail control of the airplane using the rudder alone. Crew must
be able to arrest the lateral motion caused by the inop engine within 30ft of the runway
centerline using rudder only.
V3: All engine take-off climb speed at screenheight.
V4: All engine take-off climb speed at 400ft

Order from first to last: VMCG – VMCA – VEF – V1 – VR - VMU – VLOF – V2 – V3 – V4

What effect does a wet runway have on V1 and V2?

In case of a wet runway we decrease V1 to be able to stop before the end of the runway in
case of an aborted take-off. We do not change V2 because the runwaycondition doesn’t
matter after rotation and this is always calculated with N-1, dry or wet doesn’t matter. To
avoid performance penalties caused by a lower V1 the screenheight may be reduced to 15ft
iso 35ft.

Explain VMCG in layman’s terms

This is the speed at which you cannot control were you are going with the rudder pedals if
you are slower and one of the two engines fails. It is like if you would drive your car and even
with your steering wheel completely to the right, your car still wants to go left if you are below
that speed and something breaks.

Do single engined planes have a VMCG?

No, it is only for multi-engine aircraft.

Can Vmcg be lower than V1? Explain.

Vmcg should always be lower than V1. If V1 was lower than Vmcg and you would have an
engine failure you would not be able to control the aircraft and you would not be allowed to
abort take-off.

Would you be happy if VMCG is higher than V1?

No, see previous question.

What is V2? Why is it important?

This is the take-off safety speed and this is important because it assures the minimum climb
performance after take-off in case of an engine failure at or above V1. You need to have this
speed when reaching screen height at the end of the runway. V2 gives you a stall margin of
13%

Being an excellent pilot, if I can fly at VMCA, do I need a V2 speed?

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Yes, you always need to have a margin above Vmca (1.1VMCA) and Vs (1.13Vs1g). And
actual Vmca is not a fixed speed so you never know exact how much you are above it.

If you take off on 2 engine and are below Vmca, will you have directional control?
Depending on how much below you will either stall or not but below Vmca you will not have
directional control on the moment an engine would fail. Vmca > 1.2Vs (or equal)

As long as you don’t loose an engine, you will have positive control over you're A/C. As soon
as an engine fails, you will either stall or loose directional control (if you limit the bank to 5°).
Anyway, why whould you fly slower than Vmca knowing that (for all A/C I can think off) Vx
and Vy are higher ?

How do you calculate VREF?

Vref is the reference landing approach speed for a defined landing configuration. Vref must
be bigger or equal to 1.23Vsro which is the reference stall speed in landing configuration. It
depends directly on the airplane’s gross weight because it is based on the stall speed.

Final approach speed (target speed) is the speed to be maintained down to 50ft above the
threshold. This is calculated using the Vref plus half the headwind component and the full
gustfactor, limited to minimum 5kts and maximum 20kts.

What is VMBE?
Vmbe is the maximum brake energy speed and represents the maximum speed, for a given
TOW, at which the brakes are able to absorb the built-up energy and still be effective.

What is VS?
Vs is the minimum steady flight speed at which the airplane is controllable. It corresponds to
the point where the lift can no longer be sustained.

Departure
What is a departure?
A departure is the moment an airplane starts to move on its own power with the intention of taking off
until it reaches the point where the plane starts its climb to cruising altitude.

What is the screen height for a single engine?

50ft for propeller driven airplanes
For class A & B 35ft or in case af o wet RWY 15ft.

If whilst taking off in a Seneca you lose the left engine what side do you want
the crosswind to come from?
I would say from the right. Because if the left engine fails the plane wants to turn to the left
because of right engine providing thrust and pivoting the plane around the cg. You need right
rudder to keep the nose centered. If the wind is from the left side the plane wants to yaw to
the left putting its nose into the wind. Combining that will be a worse effect. A right wind will
tend to yaw the nose to the right, giving less control problems to keep the nose centered.
(It is a bit confusing since they don’t talk about being airborne of being on the ground. On the
ground is the opposite effect)
During the take-off roll, you're A/C will have the weathercock effect turning the nose to the
wind. If you loose the left engine, the plane will have the tendency to turn to the left. The right
crosswind will decrease this tendency. As soon as you lift off, you take a wind correction and
you shouldn’t be flying cross-controlled anymore. So after liftoff, you don’t care anymore
where the wind is coming from.

Departure segments, what are they and why do we have them and for what circumstances?

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The 4 segments of departure combined gives us the take-off flight path. This take-off flight
path begins at screen height to a point at which the airplane is at a height of 1500ft above
take-off surface or at which the transition from the take-off to the en-route configuration is
completed and the final take-off speed is reached, whichever is higher.
We have these because regulations require minimum climb gradients in the take-off flight
path, assuming an engine failure at Vef under NO WIND conditions.
Each of the climb segments is characteristic of a distinct change in configuration, thrust and
speed, based on performance without ground effect and zero-wind conditions.

If going around what climb segments do you need to consider?

To ensure a minimum climb gradient capability in the certified approach and landing
configuration in case a go-around becomes necessary at any point during the landing
approach, two separate requirements have to be met.
1. Approach climb: minimum climb gradient with one engine inop and remaining engine
at go-around thrust is 2,1%, calculated at a speed not greater than 1.4Vs1G for the
selected approach flap setting and with gear up.
2. Landing climb: minimum climb gradient with both engines operating where go-around
thrust is available 8 seconds after thrust is moved from flight idle to go-around thrust
is 3,2%, calculated at a speed not greater than 1,13Vsr or Vmcl and not greater than
Vref for the selected approach flaps.
An additional approach climb requirement is that for instrument approaches with a missed
approach gradient greater than 2,1% the approach climb gradient must be at least equal to
or greater than the applicable missed approach gradient.

What does the third segment of a departure mean to you? Where does it end?
This is the segment where the plane accelerates and retracts flaps according to the
recommended speed schedule. This is mostly done in level flying conditions. It ends when
the airplane is in clean configuration and starts it climb at MCT.

What are the four stages of take-off and why do we need them?
1. Extends from end of take-off distance tot the point where the landing gear is
assumed to be fully retracted, using take-off flaps at a constant V2 speed with TOGA
thrust.
2. Extends from the gear up point to a gross height of at least 400ft (max 1500ft), using
take-off thrust on the remaining engine and take-off flaps at a constant V2 speed.
May be extended above 1500ft AAL to clear obstacles in the 3rd segment, provided
MCT is sufficient to maintain the required climb gradient in the 3rd segment.
3. Is the horizontal distance required to accelerate, at constant altitude using take-off
thrust on the remaining engine, to the final climb speed while retracting flaps in
accordance with the recommended speed schedule.
4. Extends from the end of the third segment to a gross height of at least 1500ft, with
flaps up, MCT on the remaining engine and at final climb speed. This is finished
when the aircraft has reached 1500ft AAL or the altitude at which the transition from
the take-off to the enroute configuration is completed and Vminclean is reached,
whichever is higher.

When does the final take off segment end?

See previous question.

If on a go-around, which take-off stages still apply?

What are TORA, TODA, ASDA clearways, stopways, and screen heights.

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TORA: The length of runway which is declared available by the appropriate authority and
suitable for ground run of an airplane taking off. Basically the runway itself. Basically
threshold to threshold.
TODA: TORA plus the length of the clearway available
ASDA: TORA plus the length of the stopway if such is declared available by the appropriate
Authority and is capable of supporting the mass of the airplane under the prevailing
conditions.
Clearway: An area beyond the runway, not less than 500ft wide, centrally located about the
extended centreline of the runway and under the control of the airport authorities. No
obstacles within a 1,25% slope.
Stopway: An area beyond the runway, no less wide than the runway and centred upon the
extended centreline of the runway able to support the airplane during an abortive take-off,
without causing structural damage to the airplane and designated by the airport authorities
for use in decelerating the airplane during an abortive take-off.
Screenheight: the height an airplane needs to be above end of the runway, 35ft for jets (15ft
if wet runway) and 50ft for propeller airplanes.

Cruise
What setting would you set the trim to for long range cruise
To the setting appropriate for the speed of LRC which will be slightly lower slightly more
nose-down than MRC because we fly faster for a small increase of fuel burnoff. It should be
a setting with as less drag of the tailplane as possible to avoid big stresses on the structure.

Do airlines have an optimum CofG and where is it?

There is not an exact optimum CG since it will always be a compromise between stability,
stick forces and drag. But there is a range in which the CG needs to be between to ensure
sufficient stability and controllability of the aircraft.
The more forward the CG the more stability but also the more stick force and drag and less
controllability.
The more aft the CG is the less stability and stick force but also less drag and more
controllability.

What are the advantages of an all-moving/variable incidence tailplane?

The purpose of the horizontal stabilizer is to provide a longitudinal balancing force to the
aircraft. Thus the elevator range and aircraft’s pitch manoeuvrability are not compromised
and remain available to be used solely to control the pitch of the aircraft.
It provides a large balancing force for a large CG range and a large speed range.
It can cope with large trim changes as a result of position changes to the wing leading and
trailing edge high lift devices.
It reduces elevator trim drag to a minimum.

Q already answered some pages ago!

Critical Engine
Explain the term “critical engine”. Does a jet have a critical engine? Why(not)?
For 2/3 engine airplanes:
The critical engine is the engine that would cause in case of failure of that engine the most
adverse effects on controlling the aircraft.

No, because there is no difference in moment arm of the thrust of the both engines so the
effect of a failed engine is the same for both.

For 4 engine airplanes: Yes, the outboard engines

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What is induced drag?
Induced drag is the drag caused by the creation of lift. This is caused by the vortices created
at the wingtips the moment lift is generated.

What is adverse yaw?

Adverse yaw is the secondary effect of rolling. When you are rolling in one direction the nose
tends to go the opposite way of the direction you want to turn to. This is compensated in
flight by using the rudder on a smaller airplane, the yaw damper solves this on bigger jets.
Cause: the up going wing has more lift due to aileron deflection. More lift also means more
drag. The opposite effect takes place on the other wing. The changes in relative airflow due
to a rolling airplane even strengthen these phenomena.

Aircraft Design
Why was the PA34 Tomahawk designed with a T tail?
The tailplane surfaces are kept well out of the airflow behind the wing, giving smoother flow,
more predictable design characteristics, and better pitch control. This is especially important
for operating at low speed, where clean airflow is required for control. T-tail configuration
also allows high performance aerodynamics and excellent glide ratio as the empennage is
not affected by wing slipstream.
A disadvantage is that these airplanes can develop a deep stall which is very difficult to
recover from because the tail is in the wake of the wings.

What are yaw dampers?

Yaw dampers are devices with as a primary goal to prevent Dutch roll. The secondary goal
is coordination of turns. It is a gyro system sensitive to changes in yaw and corrects this by
sending signals to the rudder to compensate for this.

If the yaw damper fails and the aircraft enters Dutch roll how can the pilot stabilize the
aircraft?
By using opposite aileron to the direction of the turn. Using rudder would make it worse since
the pilot’s reaction is to slow for the oscillating yawing cycle. For the aileron cycle there is
sufficient time for the pilot to correct. Two or three aileron may be necessary to dampen the
oscillation.

Propellers/Turboprops
What is the advantage of a variable pitched prop? Why not have a fixed prop?
They are used to adjust the blade angle of attack to its optimal setting in order to maintain
propeller efficiency and aircraft thrust over a wide range of aircraft speeds, phases of flight
and differing operating conditions. Its maximizes the props efficiency through a large speed
range by maintaining a constant blade angle of attach that thereby produces a constant
thrust value.
A fixed prop is only working at its maximum efficiency at one determined engine rpm, altitude
and forward speed condition. But it is cheaper, easier to construct and to maintain.

If turboprops are more efficient A/C why do they not climb that high?
Because the engines are less efficient at high altitudes and the props are limited in RPM due
to compressibility effects. So at higher altitudes the props cannot reach sufficient RPM to
create the required thrust.

Explain electricity
It is the movement of electrons in a circuit.

What is the difference between Volts and Amps?

Volts are a unit of the amount of force/pressure from the electrons. Amps are a unit of
amount of electrons moving in the circuit.

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What is the difference between a Generator and Alternator.
The key difference between an alternator and a generator is what spins and what is fixed.
On a generator, windings of wire (the armature) spin inside a fixed magnetic field. On an
alternator, a magnetic field is spun inside of windings of wire called a stator to generate the
electricity.
A generator creates therefore a direct current whereas an alternator creates alternating
current.

How does an alternator work?

The basics of an alternator, which is a AC generator, is that an armature of field windings will
be rotated in a magnetic field. As long as the rotation continues there will be a continuously
changing flux through it so that a voltage will be induced. When a load is connected to this
armature in a closed circuit, there will be a current flowing through the circuit.
We get an alternating current since the poles are changing due to the rotation. This is a
sinus shape current. Depending on speed and field strength the voltage will be bigger.

Various changes to the design give several kinds of alternators. It can be that the armature
is rotating and the windings are stationary or vice versa.

Why do you need a battery if you have two alternators? What does it power?
To have power for essential systems in case both alternators fail. For instance when both
engines fail in case of fuel starvation.
And to have a power supply to start the engines.

How can you tell if the battery is charging?

When the indicated voltage is higher that it output voltage of the battery. It should be about 2
volts for every 12V’s of potential. It should decrease again after a short amount of time. The
best indication is to look at the Ampère-meter. It can indicate a positive or negative flow of
electrons. Negative means that a battery is discharging, positive is the opposite. Especially
after start the indication can be high. If it remains that high or fluxuates it can indicate a faulty
battery.

How does the battery get recharged?

By putting a voltage on the battery that is higher than the output of the battery.
Most lead acid batteries have a constant voltage charging system to maintain the battery in
fully charged condition during flight.

What is an anti-servo tab?

It is a servo-tab which moves in the same direction as the control surface. It makes the
movement of the control surface more difficult and increases stability for that axis of
movement. It is commonly used for too light controls and to increase stability.

What is tyre creep, is it important?

It is the movement of the tire around the rim. It can cause tire bursts on landing if not
detected on time.

What are Fusible plugs, where are they used, how do they work, why do we have them?
Fusible plugs are plugs that can melt inside the rims of airplane wheels. They melt if a
certain temperature is reached to prevent the tire from exploding and causing more damage.
If they melt the tire will just deflate.
How does anti-skid work?
Anti-skid is a sort of ABS system like we have in cars. When it detects slipping on a certain
wheel it will release a bit of the pressure of the brakes to let it spin again and than put

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pressure on the brake for that wheel again. It basically adds and removes pressure of the
brakes to let it spin in a lot of short bursts in a short amount of time. It prevents the tire from
blocking and skidding on the runway causing a loss of directional control of the airplane. It
works separately for each wheel assembly.

Systems - Jet Engines/Gas Turbine Engines

Explain to me how a jet engine works. How does a Gas Turbine engine work?
A jet engine work on the principle of accelerating air and using the reaction to create thrust.
If you release air out of a balloon it wants to move away because of the air coming out at
higher speed. The jet engine uses the same principle, air is coming in via a divergent duct
where the pressure increases. Using combustion of fuel the total energy is increased and at
the convergent duct at the end the hot exhaust gasses are propelled with a high velocity
rearward creating thrust. But there is a need for an initial acceleration because without
external help to make it move and generating a flow or air inwards it won’t work.

The gas turbine solved this problem by introducing a turbine-driven compressor. This will
create thrust at lower speeds.
The air is first compressed by several stages in the compressor before it is combined with
fuel and ignited in the combustion chamber. This expansion of the hot gasses drives the
turbine and finally is exhausted by the exhaust duct. The turbine drives the front fan to
maintain a constant airflow inwards to maintain thrust, even at low speeds.

Where is thrust produced in a gas turbine engine?

At the last part, the exhaust gasses that are accelerated by the exhaust ducts create the
thrust of a gas turbine engine.

What are the benefits of a free turbine?

A free turbine is a turbine, which is not connected to the compressor but only to the propeller
of rotor reduction gearbox. This allows the turbine to seek its optimum design speed. This
also means that the propeller can be held at low rpm during taxi, reducing noise pollution
and wear on brakes.
Other advantages are less starting torque required and the possibility to fit a rotor parking
brake to eliminate the dangers of propellers rotating in windy conditions on the ground.

What is a turbo fan? What is a high bypass ratio engine?

A turbo fan is a version of a gas turbine engine that has a big fan fitted in front of the engine
compressor assembly. This fan is driven by the turbine to increase the pressure of the
airflow before it is split. The amount of thrust is almost completely dependent on the by-pass
airflow, which has a high mass and relatively low velocity. A high bypass ratio engine is an
engine from which the amount of air going around the core of the engine is very high
compared to the amount of air going into the core of the engine.
How much air around?
About 80-85%. The bypass ratio for the CFM56-7B24 in use by Ryanair has a bypass ratio
of 5.3:1.

What is N1, N2, EGT, EPR?

N1 is the Low pressure compressor/turbine assembly RPM
N2 is the high(intermediate if trispool) pressure compressor/turbine assembly RPM
EGT is the exhaust gas temperature and is a good indication of the temperatures
experienced by the turbine.
EPR is the engine pressure ratio, the ratio of turbine discharge pressure to compressor inlet
pressure. P7/P1 is most commonly used with RR engines.

How much thrust comes from the N1 fan?

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About 80%.

Explain how the N1 compressor produces thrust.

It sucks in huge amounts of air and speeds this air up before it splits up in two parts. 80%
goes around the core of the engine via the bypass duct. The other 20% goes into the
intermediate and high pressure compressors to increase the pressure even more before
being ignited in the combustion chamber, after mixing with fuel.

Turbochargers/ Superchargers
How do turbochargers work?
An assembly will increase the amount of air that is going into the induction manifold. This will
increase the amount of air/fuel mixture that can go into the cylinders per amount of time
compared to a normally aspirated engine.
TC consists of a turbine wheel and an impeller fitted on a common rotor shaft. The turbine is
connected to the exhaust system and the compressor is connected to the intake system.
Exhaust gasses are guided onto the vanes of the turbine wheel causing it to rotate, the
gases then pass between the vanes and are exhausted overboard. The more exhaust
gasses are diverted the faster the turbine will spin and therefore the bigger the pressure ratio
of the compressor will be.

If you had two A/C, one turbocharged and the other not, which one would reach 2000ft first and
why?
The turbocharged one would reach 2000ft first because the turbocharged engine has an
increased engine power for take-off and initial climb.

What do you know about superchargers and turbochargers?

They are used to increase take-off power and initial climb and depending on type they are
also used to maintain engine power at high altitude. They increase the pressure (and thus
density) of the air that enters the engine. The more air that enters the cilinders, the more
power that can be produced. They use the exhaust gasses to make a turbine spin which is
connected to a compressor, which increases inlet pressure. They work on the same principle
but there are some differences between superchargers and turbochargers.

What is the difference between a supercharger and a turbocharger?

A supercharger is internally driven vs externally driven for the turbocharger
Rotational speed is controlled by RPM for the SC vs the waste gate with the TC
A SC compresses the fuel/air mixture vs the TC that only compresses the air
Automatic Boost Control senses manifold pressure and controls the throttle for the SC vs the
Absolute Pressure Controller that senses compressor discharge pressure and controls the
waste gate with the TC
Compressor discharge pressure is the same as the Man.Press vs Compressor discharge
pressure is greater than Man Press. Throttle controls manifold pressure for both
Decreased exhaust back pressure in the climb vs increased exhaust back pressure in the
climb for the SC.

The essential difference between the two is the source of power. A TC-assembly is
externally driven ie. the exhaust gases spin a turbine which is connected to a compressor
that compresses the air that is going in the engine. A SC-compressor compresses the
mixture of air and fuel instead of just air like the TC. It gets its power from the accessory belt
connected to the camshaft.

What's the benefit of turbocharged engines?

Increased take-off power and during initial climb and you keep your engine power at higher
altitude.

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Carburettors/Fuel Injection
What do you know about carb icing? Would you experience it today?
Carburettor icing is the icing on the induction valves of the engine caused by the low
pressure created by expansion. The increase of speed and evaporating of the fuel also
causes a drop in temperature. It can cause serious engine problems and even a shutdown if
not solved in time. You can experience it even at warm days up to 38’ C because the
temperature drop is about 20’C. The humidity is a factor for icing, more than the outside
temperature. A cold day is even less likely to cause carb icing since there is less moisture in
the air.

When would you use carb heat in a SEP?

At low power settings in a moist environment, eg a long descent at idle or low power. Also in
case of a clogged air filter carb heat can be used since carb heat most of the time uses
unfiltered air.

How does a carb heat system work?

It uses hot air from the engine and bypasses that hot air to increase the temperature in the
venturi section of the engine.

While climbing with a SEP, temp range for carb icing.

You can experience carb icing up to 38’C and with humidity levels as low as 50%. The
temperature drop in the venturi area can be as much as 21’C.

Is it an electrical system?
No, is uses hot air from the engine.

Why don’t you use Carb heat on the ground for long periods?
Because it uses unfiltered air and it can cause ingestion of sand,dust,FOD in the engine and
cause wear to the engine.

What are the advantages of fuel injection vs carb?

A low operating pressure, good fuel distribution, no icing problems and the ability to use a
pump which doesn’t need to be timed to the operating cycle. This system is also more
responsive to fast throttle changes compared to carburettor systems.

what would happen if your primer kept operating?

The mixture may become too rich causing a less efficient regime, increasing temperature
and maybe flooding the engine.

Explain the Otto cycle.

4 Cycles: induction,compression,power,exhaust.
1. Air flowing in through open inlet valve. Piston is moving down and cylinder volume is
increasing, cylinder pressure is decreasing below ambient. The charge temperature
is increasing, the mass of the charge is increasing.
2. Both valves are closed trapping the induced mixture in the cylinder. The piston is
moving up decreasing the volume, increasing the pressure and temperature. Mass is
constant.
3. Both valves are still closed, piston is stationary at top of stroke, top dead center. The
temperature is increasing rapidly during combustion, volume is unchanged due to
stationary piston. Pressure increases rapidly with temperature increase. The piston is
forced downward by pressure increase, volume is increasing. Because of that the
pressure is decreasing causing the temperature to decrease.

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 4. Exhaust valve is open, piston moving up forces gasses out, atmosphere provides
resistance, termed exhaust back pressure. Pressure and temp rise slightly because
of this.
How does a 2-stroke engine work?
A two-stroke engine is an internal combustion engine that completes the process cycle in
one revolution of the crankshaft (an up stroke and a down stroke of the piston, compared to
twice that number for a four-stroke engine). This is accomplished by using the end of the
combustion stroke and the beginning of the compression stroke to perform simultaneously
the intake and exhaust (or scavenging) functions.

What sort of things would they be used for?

Lawnmowers, scooters, chainsaws,…and also in diesel engines found in big industrial
applications such as marine ships, some tractors,…

What is the difference between a 2 stroke and a 4 stroke engine?

A 2 stroke engine does its cycle in one rotation of the crankshaft instead of in 2 rotations with
the 4 stroke. A 2 stroke has a high specific power in a narrow range of rotational speeds. It
has less moving parts making it cheaper to maintain than a 4 stroke engine. But the 4 stroke
is more efficient, less noisy and it has a longer lifespan.

Procedures and SOP’s

How do you recover from a spin in a small aircraft?
Throttle idle, ailerons neutral, rudder opposite of rotation, stick forward and when rotation
has stopped gently pull on the stick to avoid secondary stall.

How do you get out of a spiral dive on a Cessna?

Throttle idle, get wing level using rudder (ailerons neutral) and when wings level we gently
pull on the stick to avoid secondary stall or overstressing the aircraft.

If you have a fire from the engine in the Warrior, what do you do?
Fuel selector off, throttle idle, mixture cutoff, fuelpump off, cabin and windshield air off.
Prepare for power off landing. Look for a place to land, make an emergency call,
transponder to 7700.
Talk me through an engine failure on a DA42
First of all maintain directional control using the rudder (look where the nose goes and react)
While giving rudder you advance the levers forward: first throttle, prop and mixture. FLY
BLUE LINE SPEED!
Check gear up, flaps up
Identify the dead engine (dead foot, dead engine)
Confirm this by reducing throttle a little bit on that engine and see if there is reaction in yaw.
Look at engine instruments as well. (look outside might also be good indication, if you see
damage, fire, prop standing still,…)
If conditions permit you might want to troubleshoot the engine and try a restart, but if it is
clear the engine is beyond restart you secure the affected engine.
After conformation you go throttle idle on affected engine, prop to feather, await effect of
feather and adjust pitch to keep blue line speed.
Mixture goes to cut-off, alternator off, fuel selector off. CONSIDER X FEED FOR FUEL
INBALANCE!
Confirm before every action with PM to make sure you have correct lever!
When engine secured we go to the nearest possible airfield suitable to land the DA42. We
make an emergency call to ATC and land ASAP.

What is the EFATO drill on the DA42?

If there is sufficient runway remaining we should go idle and try to reland on the remaining
runway. If not possible due to obstacles, not enough runway we check full throttle, full prop,

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full mixture, put the gear up and put flaps up. We maintain directional control and pitch for
blue line speed (almost pitch down).
We identify the dead engine and feather asap by going idle on affected engine (confirm!), put
the prop to feather on affected engine (confirm!), repitch for blue speed, mixture cutoff for
affected engine (confirm!). Once this is done we climb out on one engine flying blue line
speed. Once sufficient altitude we turn crosswind making sure not to bank more than 15’!
We climb to pattern altitude and advice atc of the emergency. We fly the one engine pattern
and return to land asap. We finish the securing of the engine time permitting (alternator and
fuel selector off) and perform the non-normal checklist followed by the after take-off
checklist. In case of obstacles on runway heading we turn crosswind early while climbing out
to pattern altitude.
If you are flying your light twin would you ensure minimum obstacle clearance if your engine
fails on take off? How would you do this, or, where can you find the relevant information?
If possible off course, if not you turn slightly left or right while climbing out on blue line speed.
You need to secure the engine asap and get clean asap as well. The sooner the engine that
failed is feathered the faster you will climb out to a safe altitude.
Before you take-off you need to be prepared in case an engine failure occurs. You need to
plan what you will do, taking into account the obstacles, you have a one engine climb rate
and you need to plan that you will be able to clear obstacles even in event of an engine
failure.

QUESTIONS ABOUT THE BOEING 737-800

Aircraft structure and general knowledge

What wings do 737-800 use?
Swept wings with winglets and high lift devices.
Why are they effective wings?
They produce a high amount of lift and the addition of high lift devices make it work in a wide
range of speeds but are most efficient at high speeds and high altitude.
What angle of sweep do our aircraft have? Why not 27° instead?
25’ of sweep, a compromise between a higher mach number and low speed characteristics.
If you increase the sweep, it can fly faster but it needs faster approach speeds and therefore
longer runways.
What is optimum ISA cruise altitude for 737?
About 39000ft depending on weight of the aircraft.
What is the pressurization of cabin in the cruise?
8000ft
What is the fuel capacity of the 737–800?
6,875 U.S. gal (26,020 L) maximum
What are the G-limits of the Boeing 737-800?

Flaps up from +2,5 to – 1.0

Flaps down from +2.0 to 0.0

Technical General Knowledge about Ryanair and the Boeing 737-800

How many aircraft do Ryanair have?
275 and counting…
How many seats do our Boeing 737 aircraft have? 189
What is the minimum number of Ryanair crew required to operate a flight? 4
Our 189 seats, are they in an economy and first class arrangement?
No, one class only.
Why don’t Ryanair use turbo props?
Too noisy, not efficient for the destinations Ryanair flies to.
What are the advantages of operating a one aircraft fleet, and why don’t we use an A320 / B737
mixed fleet?

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Less training since every pilot can fly every plane of the fleet.
Less costs since maintenance only needs training for one type, parts can be stocked in big
amounts since they fit on every plane in the fleet making it cheaper for maintenance.
Every destination can be reached with every plane since they are all the same.
In case a plane needs to be switched because of maintenance problems, the crew doesn’t
need to be changed to because of other type rating.
Same SOP’s and checklists for the entire fleet/crew making mixing of SOP’s unlikely.
Big purchase of new planes of same type is cheaper.

Imagine us being in charge of making a decision of whether to increase the fleet with either
A320, which Frank is in favour of or B737 (which Steve was in favour of). Sell the B737 to us.
The cost of training new crew and maintenance for the A320 would be quite substantial and
it would take a lot of time. There is a need for external experienced personal, having to fly
without the experience with Ryanair. The adaptation of SOP’s for the A320 to fit Ryanair’s
standards would take a lot of time/money.
Mixing of two complete different philosophies of flying can cause problems in case of non-
normal and emergency situations. Destinations may need to be adapted to receive the a320.

Aircraft Avionics/Instrumentation
Tell me about the MCP and the FMA’s.
The MCP is the way the pilot communicates to the aircraft. You select different items such
as altitude, speed, the way you change altitude, you arm the approach modes, turn on
autopilot,…
The FMA is the only place in the cockpit where the aircraft talks back to you. It displays the
flight modes the aircraft currently has activated or armed. You can change as much things
on the MCP but if the FMA doesn’t display it as being armed or activated it won’t happen.
The FMA is used for the pilots to confirm a certain change he/she made on the MCP is
actually happening, eg level change to change altitude. If you change the altitude but don’t
push level change or you do but the system doesn’t allow it and it is not displayed on the
FMA, the plane won’t change its altitude.

Why not use the MCP instead?

MCP selections are only happening if the mode is armed/activated on the FMA. As a pilot
you spend most of your time on that screen to scan your instruments. The MCP is not in the
scan of instruments. The chance of missing a change would be way to big.

He also asked me to explain why we select VOR/LOC, for example, on the MCP but it's
displayed on the FMAs (you need to describe Armed and Captured modes on the FMAs)
VOR/LOC is used when you are on an intercept heading for the localiser or for a selected
radial of a VOR and you are within range. This mode is armed and allows an automatic
intercept of the radial or the localiser. This makes sure you have a perfect interception and
you don’t overshoot. When you arm it, the plane will still continue in present mode (probably
hdg sel) but the system is ARMED to sense the needle. When in range the system goes into
CAPTURE mode and automatically intercepts.

What navigational instruments does the 737-800 have?

The PFD, ND, standby instruments, conventional compass.
VOR, ILS, IRS/VNAV, GPS, ADF
Why the speed tape on the PFD reads 45kt when the aircraft is stationary
At 45kt the dynamic pressure is not large enough to get (accurate) to the ADC. That’s why
Boeing probably chose not to give indications below that speed instead of inaccurate data.

Powerplants
What engines do we use on our aircraft?
CFM56-7B 24000lbs thrust, High bypass Turbofan engines.

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What is special about this engine?
It is a high bypass engine with a high level of reliability that offers a high thrust consuming a
relatively low amount of fuel.
Does the 737 have a critical engine?
No
Do both engines on the 737 turn the same way?
Yes, clockwise as viewed from the rear.

Aircraft Systems
How many hydraulic systems does the 737 have?
2 main systems, A and B and a standby system.
What is the fuel consumption of the Boeing 737?
18,5l/h/seat or about 3200l/h total.
Describe the landing gear on the 737
It is a hydraulically driven retractable landing gear. There are two units forming the main
gear under the fuselage and one nose gear. Each unit has a shock strut to absorb the weight
and shocks. Two wheels per unit and each has its own braking system. There are also other
items like locking pins, anti-shimmy units, wear indicators for the brakes, torsion links,…

What powers the Gear? What is the PSI of the system?

Hydraulic system of about 3000psi
If the Engine driven pump failed how would the gear lower?

Every systems has two pumps: an engine driven and an AC electric pump. If the engine driven one
fails we can try to use the electric pump. This one delivers 4 times less pressure so it might not deliver
enough pressure. If that doesn’t work we can manually extend the landing gear and let gravity bring
down the LG into a locked position.

Tell me about the Boeing 737-800 electrical system (115V AC)

Each generator has a transfer bus which consists of a main bus, two galley busses and a ground
service bus. Transfer bus 1 also has a standby bus. The transfer busses can also be powered by ground
power or the APU in case the engines are not running (ground). Transformer rectifier units convert
AC to DC. There are two DC main busses and a Battery bus. The battery is also connected to the hot
battery bus.

METEOROLOGY

Weather Documentation
He got out a weather chart and pointed at different lines and symbols, which I had to tell him
what they were. Below is what he pointed at:
o Jet stream
o The speed of the jet stream
o Warm front
o Occluded front
o Tropopause level
o Front direction and speed
o Cloud Type
o Turbulence
o Icing
Can you explain to me this symbol on an upper air chart? 260
Tropopause height.
Shown an upper level air chart and shown a route I was flying and asked what weather I would
experience en route.
What is a METAR?

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An aviation meteorological report for an aerodrome as noted by an observer at the
aerodrome.

The Atmosphere
What is density altitude?
The altitude above the 1013hP line (?) for which the current density of the air is experienced.
Density altitude is the ISA altitude at which the density would be the same as the density at
the place of observation.

What is pressure altitude?

The altitude in the standard atmosphere for the current pressure experienced at that
location.
What is an isobar?
Line of equal pressure
Tell me about adiabatic lapse rates.
There are two adiabatic lapse rates: the dry and saturated LR. The DLR is the change of
temperature of dry or unsaturated air that is forced to rise or descend. The change of
temperature here is 1°C per 100m (3° per 1000ft).
The SALR is het change of temperature of saturated air that is forced to rise or descent. The
change is 0.6°C/100m (1,8/1000ft).The SALR varies strongly with the moisture content,
which when saturated, depends on temperature and pressure of the air parcel.
The reason for the difference is the release of absorption of latent heat when saturated air is
heated or cooled. This slows down the cooling or warming up of the air parcel.

Tell me about environmental lapse rates

Environmental lapse rate is the lapse rate for the actual conditions the air is experiencing.
Depending on the ELR the air can be stable, unstable or conditionally stable/unstable.
When the ELR is smaller than 0,6’C/100m the air is stable.
When the ELR is more than 1’C/100m the air is unstable.
When the ELR is between 0,6 and 1’C/100m the air is stable if dry and unstable if saturated.

What’s the temperature at FL150?

Roughly 30°C lower than the temperature at sea level if we take the rounded value of
2°/1000ft decrease when altitude increases.
What is the speed of sound?
Depends on the temperature but an average value of 343m/s or 660kt at MSL. The local
speed of sound in kt is calculated using 38,94. √absolute temperature.

What is the height of the Tropopause?

Average of about 11km but depends on temperature of the air bear the surface. The warmer
the higher and vice versa. Near the poles it can be between 8-10km and over the equator
16-18km. Surface temperature variations due to latitude, season land and sea will all cause
varying heights of the Tropopause.

How are contrails formed?

The main products of hydrocarbon fuel combustion are carbon dioxide and water vapour. At
high altitudes this water vapour emerges into a cold environment, and the local increase in
water vapour can push the water content of the air past saturation point. The vapour then
condenses into tiny water droplets and/or deposits into ice. These millions of tiny water
droplets and/or ice crystals form the contrails. The vapour's needs to condense accounts for
the contrail forming some way behind the aircraft's engines. At high altitudes, super cooled
water vapour requires a trigger to encourage deposition or condensation. The exhaust
particles in the aircraft's exhaust act as this trigger, causing the trapped vapour to rapidly

Page 19 of 31
turn to ice crystals. Exhaust contrails usually occur above 8000 metres (26,000 feet), and
only if the temperature there is below −40 °C (−40 °F).
As a wing generates lift, it causes a vortex to form at each wingtip, and sometimes also at
the tip of each wing flap. These wingtip vortices persist in the atmosphere long after the
aircraft has passed. The reduction in pressure and temperature across each vortex can
cause water to condense and make the cores of the wingtip vortices visible. This effect is
more common on humid days. Wingtip vortices can sometimes be seen behind the wing
flaps of airliners during take-off and landing.

Weather Phenomena
What is a Jet Stream?
Jet streams are strong upper winds where the speeds exceed 60kts, usually found just
below the Tropopause. They are caused by large mean temperature differences in the
horizontal.
Are jet streams there all the year round?
Some of them are there all year round but can move about 15’ N in July or S in January.
The Artic jet is only in the winter and the Tropical or equatorial jet is only in NH summer.
Which way do jetstreams travel?
They mostly go westerly with maximum speeds near the Tropopause. In the equatorial
regions there are some easterly jets.

On a flight from London to New York, New York to London, which will take the shortest time
and why?
To go to London is quicker because there are tailwinds from the jet stream.

What are the dangers of flying into thunderstorms?

High windspeeds in quickly changing directions with high gusts, severe turbulence, hail,
severe rainfall causing a very low visibility, lightning strikes, up and downdrafts,…

What are the problems associated with icing

Icing changes the aerodynamic shape of the wings and severely disrupts the creation of lift
due to disturbed airflow. It also adds a lot of weight, can block flight controls, cause damage
to engines, block pitot tubes/static ports.

What is windshear?
Windshear is a quick change in wind speed and/or direction over a very short distance or
altitude.

What weather is associated with windshear?

Wind shear occurs over a very small distance, but it can be associated with weather features
such as squall lines and cold fronts. It is commonly observed near
microbursts and downbursts caused by thunderstorms, fronts, areas of locally higher low
level winds referred to as low level jets, near mountains, radiation inversions that occur due
to clear skies and calm winds, buildings, wind turbines,…
It can be detected by on board windshear detection systems and by a Doppler weather radar
on the ground if present. Pilot reports are also a big help detecting windshear.
It doesn’t show on weather radar since it is a change of speed and or direction.

Why are jets wary of windshear?

It can seriously effect the creation of lift over the wings since the airflow over the wing can
change in a very short amount of time and very low to the ground. The engines need about 8
seconds to respond and that might be too much.

What would happen to an aircraft’s performance if it passed through an inversion.

It can change quite a bit and cause turbulence, icing, performance loss,…

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Weather Patterns
What is advection fog?
Fog formed by the movement of warm and moist air over a cold surface with a temperature
lower than the dewpoint of the moving air.
What is radiation fog?
Radiation fog is the fog created at night at the ground when the air just above the ground
cools down but the layer above it is still a bit warmer. Occurs at clear skies with a high
relative humidity and a light wind of about 2-8kts.

Have you heard of a coastal breeze?

This occurs during the day when the pressure over land is lower due to rising air(higher
temperature). This creates a higher pressure over the land at higher altitude that will flow
toward the lower pressure over the sea, this makes that the air there sinks and creates a
higher pressure over the water. Air moves from High to Low pressure, from sea to land
creating the sea breeze.
During the day the land warms quicker than the sea causing the air to rise and create a
lower pressure above the land. Thus the air from over the sea is ‘pulled’ to the land.

Tell me about occluded fronts.

They are created when cold and warm fronts merge. Mostly Always when the cold front in a
depression catches up with or takes the warm front. An occlusion forms because the cold
front normally moves faster than the warm front. If the air ahead of the warm front is colder
than the air behind the cold front, then we have a warm type occlusion. Of the air behind the
cold front is colder than the air ahead of the warm front, then a cold occlusion will be formed.

What sort of weather would you find at an occluded front?

It us usually bad because the normal frontal depression weather is concentrated into a
smaller horizontal band and therefore a mixture of clouds can occur. AN occlusion forms
towards the end of the life of a depression, when it is slow moving and hence the weather
can last for a longer period of time.

What is orographic cloud?

Clouds on the sides of or on the top of a hill or mountain generated by movement of humid
air up the hillside.

Explain the Fohn wind.

Moist air is forced to rise up a mountainside, this makes it become saturated and it cools
adiabatically. When reaching condensation level clouds will form and the air cools at SALR.
If the air is stable it will follow the downwind side and descend. Moisture is lost due to
precipitation. The air descending the hill will warm at the DALR, it is a dry warm wind blowing
on downwind side of the mountain. The increase in temperature will be about 10’C.

AIRMANSHIP/ INFLIGHT PROCEDURES

SOP’s
What are SOP’s?
Standard operating procedures.
Why do you think Ryanair or any other company have SOPs?
To standardise the used procedures for the company so that everybody uses the same
procedures since a cockpit crew is rarely the same. It improves safety and is immediately
accessible in the memory of the pilot to use when required, no matter who you are flying
with.

Failures (Engine/Radios etc)

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If you had an engine failure on takeoff what procedure would you follow?
The required engine failure procedure for that airport/runway you are using. = The escape
route. I would if obstacles allow keep runway heading till 400’ controlling the aircraft and
doing no action accept bell and gear. After that I would remain on runway heading and clean
up the aircraft, asses the failure (fire?) and contact ATC as soon as practical. Once reaching
the MSA we can fly according to ATC instructions or fly a published procedure to enter a
hold to prepare a return to the airfield as soon as possible. We fly a bank angle of max 15’
and try to turn towards the dead engine if possible/practical. After cleaned up we first do the
non-normal checklist and after that the normal after take-off checklist.

What would you do in the event of an engine failure below V1? How?
Reject the take-off by putting the thrust levers to idle, then deploying the speed brakes and
then pulling reverser of the good engine. Autobrake should already be set to RTO before
take-off, if not working we apply manual braking to stop the airplane to a taxispeed to exit the
runway if possible. If not possible to make a taxiway due to too high speed to turn we stop
on the runway and advise atc. We keep directional control using rudder only and ailerons for
possible crosswind. NO NOSEWHEEL STEERING!
In case of heavy AC, short runway, and a failure very close to V1 you might consider to take-
off anyway. The aircraft is able to accelerate a bit more till Vr on the runway and take off on
one engine only. It is the captain who makes the descision but a high speed rejected take-off
might not always be the better option when engine fails just below V1. Several conditions
can cause the plane to still overshoot or skid of the runway (heavy, short runway, obstacles
at end of runway to slide into).

How do you know if the hydraulics for the gear has failed during flight?
The hydraulics for the gear are also used for other controls. In the 737 the gear works on
system A. If these hydraulics would fail there would be an indication in the cockpit. This can
be a low pressure, high pressure, temperature,… The pressure in the system is also visible
on the overhead panel.

What's the procedure?

The procedure would be the one applicable for the situation, being a non normal checklist.
The pumps will probably be shut off and if the standby system cannot be used (not familiar
with use of that system) we will manually extend the landing gear using the levers under the
cockpit floor.

Green landing gear lights are inop, how would you know that the gear is down?
If the lever is down and there are no red lights it means it is down and locked. If also the red
lights are inop you can check the standby gear indicator lights on the aft overhead panel.
I am not sure if the NG has it too but the classics used to have windows under the floor
panels to check with a flashlight if the gear is in a lock position.
You can also call ATC to confirm if the gear seems to be down and locked.

You are on a flight from Stansted to Amsterdam and just after T/O you are at your cleared level
of 2000ft when you have a complete radio failure. What are your actions?
We squawk 7600 to advice ATC there is a communications failure. After that I will continu
the route assigned in the last ATC clearance. If no route is assigned or being advised to be
expected we fly the route filed in the flight plan. I maintain the highest of the following
altitudes of flight levels for the route segment. The last altitude or FL assigned (being 2000ft
not likely to be kept flying) the minimum altitude or the altitude of FL to be expected (not
applicable here I guess)
Since there is not expect further clearance point here we commence descent and approach
as close as possible to the estimated time of arrival as calculated from filed EET.

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In the meanwhile you try to establish radio contact again by switching frequencies to nearby
navaids, other aircrafts, AFFS,…and checking the equipment such as headsets, mics,…

Tell me about the radio failure procedures on a SID.

For an SID there will be a radio failure procedure published to follow in case two way
communication is lost. The aircraft will follow this procedure while squawking 7600.

Normal Procedures
You are flying in a straight line on an airway when your company calls and requests you to
return to base, how will you turn around?
You will contact atc and ask clearance. You most probably have to descend or climb 500ft
and turn or continu to the next fix where you will receive vectors to turn toward another fix to
return to base.

If you had to approach the landing gear, where do you approach from?
From the front or the aft side for safety in case the tire would explode due to hot brakes.

What do you need to descend from MDA on a non-precision approach?

Anything identifying the runway in use like approach light systems, runway lights,
papi/vasi,…visual on the runway in short. And a clearance to land if you want to land
ofcourse.

If you had to explain to your neighbour what is the difference between a precision and a non-
precision approach.
If you would take a slide that would go from very high down to the runway and you need to be
directly on the line in the middle of the slide. That would be a non-precision approach. You only
know if you are too much left or right to end up at the beginning of the runway but centered in the
middle.
With a precission approach you have the same help to make sure you remain in the middle of the
slide, so centered on the runway. But added to that you have about the same help to keep you on the
correct slide and not too high or too low. See it as a sort of cross in the cockpit where you need to
keep a dot in the center of the cross. If you are too low it will be below the center and vice versa and
if you are left on the center the dot will be left of center and vice versa.
Basically the non-precision approach only tells you if you are left or right of the ideal centre position.
The precision approach tells you both left or right and below or above the ideal flight path.

What is RVSM?
Reduces vertical separation minima. It reduces the vertical separation between FL290 and
FL 410 to 1000ft vertically (i.s.o 2000ft) to allow more planes to fly in that airspace. It is only
allowed for aircraft that have equipment aboard for the safe operation in rvsm and are
approved by the authorities.

AIR LAW (Plates and Briefings)

Plates in general
Why do we use Jeppesen plates?
To know how to fly published approaches, SID’s, STARS’s, get airport information,
separation minima’s,…
Where do Jeppesen get the information from to make their plates?
AIP’s of every country.

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Decoding of Plates
What is MSA?
Minimum sector altitude, also referred to as minimum safe altitude sometimes.

What are the different MSA sector values & why are they relevant?
There are different MSA sector values because each sector is relevant for a certain zone a
plane is departing in or is arriving from. It is relevant for the obstacles or terrain in that zone.
A big mountain in the south of the airport is not significant if the airplane is coming from the
north and will never be south of the airport for the approach or missed approach. But it is still
necessary to know what the safe altitudes are around a certain fix or navaid.

What clearance do MSA values give?

1000ft above highest obstacle excluding antennas on obstacle till 100ft..
What distance does the MSA cover?
Standard 25NM from used fix unless otherwise depicted on the chart.
Where does this radiate from?
Usually a navaid like a VOR but it can be another fix or navaid. This is depicted under the
MSA circle.
What’s the reference point for these MSA figures?
Highest obstacle in that area
What is this (pointing at the Maltese Cross - FAF)?
What is this (pointing at the arrow above obstacle)?
What is this (pointing at the locator)?
What is this heavy black arrow on the picture? (Highest point)
What is DA?
Decision altitude for precision approaches
What is MDA?
Minimum decision altitude for non precision approaches
Can you go through DA or MDA?
If cleared and visible on runway or anything related to the runway like approach light
system,…
What are these (pointing to range altitude checks)?
Quick reference missed approach diagram? (This is found near the bottom of the plate and
normally is a line with a DME or an altitude)
What is this box containing an arrow and 2000ft (A. Initial part of the go-around. Climb
straight ahead 2000 feet and then pick up the rest of the info at the top of the chart where it’s
written out in full).

Approach Aids
What is PAPI?
Precision approach path indicator. 4 lights indicating if you are above, on or below the
flightpath for that runway. Going from 4 white to 4 red.

GENERAL NAVIGATION

What is convergency?
The angle of inclination between two meridians measured at the same latitude. Minimum at
the equator (0’) and maximum at the poles (60’)

What is departure?
The distance between two meridians along a specified parallel of latitude, expressed in NM.
Maximum at the equator where 1’ change of longitude equals 60’ of arc of a great circle.
Zero at the poles since the meridians converge and meet at those two points.

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What is a Rhumb Line?
This is a line on the surface of the earth that cuts all meridians at the same angle. On a
Mercator chart (meridians are parallel to each other) it is a straight line. On a globe it is a
curved line.
Why would someone fly a Rhumb Line track?
Because you can fly a constant track which is not the case with flying a great circle. But it will
not be the shortest distance between two points.
What is a Great Circle?
A great circle is a circle on the surface of the earth whose centre and radius of the earth
itself.
Why do we fly a great circle?
Because flying a great circle is the shortest distance between two points on the surface.
Great Circle – describe what the line looks like between two meridians
Depending on which chart, Mercator: concave to equator, Lambert: concave to parallel of
origin.

Why is a great circle the shortest distance between two points?

Because it follows the curvature of the earth.
If you only have a compass, which is easier to navigate along: a line of longitude or a line of
latitude?
A line of longitude since the North doesn’t change. If you follow a line of latitude the north will
always shift and to keep the same direction you will have to adjust heading all the time.
What is the formula for departure?
Change in longitude (minutes) times the cosinus of the latitude gives the departure in NM.

RADIO NAVIGATION

NDB
What is an NDB?
Non directional beacon. It is a low powered navigation aid.
What frequency range and band is this in?
190kHz and 1750kHz. It is in both Low frequency and medium frequency band.
What is the typical range?
For a enroute NDB the range is about 50NM or more, for oceanic services it can be several
100’s NM. The locator NDB’s only have a 10-25NM range.
Why is an NDB powered so that it only has a range between 15-25 miles?
These are locator NDB’s and they are used only for airfield and runway approach
procedures or co-located with an IM or OM of an ILS.
How reliable are they?
Not that reliable since there are some factors that influence the needle you use to navigate
on it.
What errors does an NDB suffer from?
Night effect: radio waves reflected back by the ionosphere can cause signal strength
fluctuations 30 to 60 nautical miles (54 to 108 km) from the transmitter, especially just before
sunrise and just after sunset (more common on frequencies above 350 kHz)
Terrain effect: high terrain like mountains and cliffs can reflect radio waves, giving erroneous
readings; magnetic deposits can also cause erroneous readings
Electrical effect: electrical storms, and sometimes also electrical interference (from a ground-
based source or from a source within the aircraft) can cause the ADF needle to deflect
towards the electrical source
Shoreline effect: low-frequency radio waves will refract or bend near a shoreline, especially if
they are close to parallel to it
Bank effect: when the aircraft is banked, the needle reading will be offset

VOR

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What is a VOR? What frequency range and band is this in?
VHF Omnidirectional Range radioaid. It operates between 108 and 117,95Mhz, the VHF
band.
What is the range of a VOR?
For an enroute VOR the range is about 200NM. The reception range is calculated using a
formula: 1,25*(√H1 + √H2 ) H1 is the receiver height AMSL, H2 is the transmitter height
AMSL

What is the range at 20,000ft/32000ft?

If the transmitter station is at sea level than the range will be respectably 177NM and 224NM
How would you navigate if all VOR's and NDB's en route fail?
Using the FMS, which will navigate on a database using information, received from the IRS
systems. There is also a GPS and in a last resort we can use the standby compass thinking
about magnetic deviation and other factors.

ILS
How does an ILS work?
It has two major components, the localiser and the glideslope. The localiser works by
sending two frequency-modulated signals at different frequencies. The plane will receive
more of one signal if it deviates from the centreline. The difference in frequency modulation
relates to angular displacement of the AC from the centreline. This engages the needle of
the localiser in the cockpit.
The glideslope works on the same principle but a VHF carries is used and the lobes are in
the vertical plane. It also uses two lobes.
Tell us what ranges the glideslope and localiser beams are checked out to?
25NM coverage within plus minus 10 degrees from centre line
17NM coverage between 10 and 35 degrees from centre line
10NM outside 35 degrees if provided.
These limits may be reduced to 18NM within 10’ and 10NM within remainder of coverage if
alternative navigational facilities provide satisfactory coverage within the intermediate
approach are.
The glide path coverage extends from transmitter to at least 10NM in sectors of 8 degrees in
azimuth on each side of the centre line. The vertical coverage is provides from 0,45 to 1,75
times the promulgated glide path angle.

What frequency range it the ILS glide-scope / localiser?

LSS: VHF, 108-111,975Mhz (40 channels)
GS: UHF: 329,15-335Mhz (40 channels)
What is the purpose of the locator?
A locator is a low powered NDB at the site of OM beacon. It is used for non precision
approaches or as an OM from the ILS.
If you are at the locator, on glide-scope, on localiser, but your altimeter is reading 500ft high
what could be the cause of this?
You are following on a false glide perhaps?

INS/IRS/GPS
If you are outside the range of any VOR’s/NDBs how does the aircraft know where it is?
By using the IRS system.
How does an IRS work?
Before an aircraft leaves it departurepoint it needs to align the IRS platforms. We have to
insert the current location of the aircraft by coordinates of the gate of if not available the
referencepoint of the airport. When aligned on the runway for take-off it will change to exact
coordinates since the system recognises that you are taking off and should be on the runway
and not on another part of the airport.

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The IRS uses gyroscopes to measure accelerations around all axis’ to determine how much
it has moved from the initial point that you have put in the system. It will also do checks
every so many time to make sure the calculated position is still the correct one compared to
the actual one. It can use GPS, navaids,… for that.
Basically it can determine in 3D the point the plane is compared to a start point we
determine in the system using gyroscopes.

AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE
• What are the performance categories?
A,B,C and D in reference to their reference speed. (Vref = 1.3x Vs)

Mass and Balance

• Why do we calculate Mass and Balance (structural, stability, and T/O and landing
performance)?
To make sure we will be inside the limits for structural, stablility, manoeuvrability
reasons and also for take off and landing performance (distance, clearance…)
• What is the relevance of the Mass and Balance document?
It is obliged to be aboard any aircraft as a proof in case of an incident that the
airplane was inside its limits during the entire time it was operating for that flight.
• What is BEM (Basic Empty Mass)?
The mass of the aircraft plus unusable fuel and oil plus the basic equipment required
to be aboard.
• What is OM (Operating Mass)?
Dry operating mass with fuel load included.
• What is DOF (Dry Operating Mass)?
The BEM plus all the variable load like crew, catering, potable water and food.
Basically the aircraft ready for service where you only need the pax and the fuel.
• What is a moment arm?
This is the distance of a force to the point it is acting from (cg, center of pressure)
• How would you load an aircraft for max range?
To the most aft CG limit. This makes that the tail has to provide a minimum of
download that is actually extra weight and causes extra drag.

• What is pitot pressure?

This is the total pressure being the static and the dynamic pressure combined.
• How does an ASI work?
We have a pressure sensitive capsule, where the pressure in the capsule being the
pitot pressure (static plus dynamic). This capsule is surrounded by static pressure
inside a casing. The expansion of the capsule is only sensitive to the dynamic
pressure since both inside and outside of the capsule experiences the same static
pressure and cancels each other out. This capsule is connected to a pointer from an
ASI via a temperature compensated magnifying linkage.
• How does an altimeter work?
We have a vacuum capsule inside a casing that contains static pressure. When the
static pressure changes due to changes in altitude the capsule will expand or
contract. This change is controlled by a leaf spring. A mechanical link magnifies this
and converts it into a rotational movement of a single pointer over a scale. There is a
temperature-compensating device to minimise errors due to temperature. There is
also a setting knob to set the altimeter to zero or aerodrome elevation when on the
ground.

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 A more sensitive version has several refinements to give a more accurate reading. It
incorporates a bank of two or more capsules to give increased movement to drive
three pointers.
Jewelled bearings give less friction and associated lag in indications.
There is a temperature compensated D spring and a suitable linkage of gears and
leavers to transfer the movement of the capsules into rotary movement of the
pointers.
A subscale and knob allow the pilots to set a altimeter setting currently in effect at the
aerodrome in use.
• Explain how an altimeter / ASI works to me assuming I know nothing about aviation?
To keep it simple, you will have a sort of small capsule that will change if the
pressure changes. It is the same as with a balloon, when you squeeze it gently the
balloon will contract, when you release it, the balloon will expand again. The same
happens with that capsule, when the air presses harder on the capsule it will
contract, when the air presses less hard it will expand again. This movement of
expansion/contraction is measured via fine tuned linkage to a scale that will indicate
your altitude. Because the higher you go, the less air pressure there will be. That is
because there is less air above that is pushing on it.
For the ASI it works similar but the difference is that for the altimeter the capsule is
vacuum and it only measures the difference in outside pressure. For the ASI it
measures the difference between two pressures being the total pressure and the
static pressure. Static pressure is the pressure like the air we have around us. Total
pressure is the pressure we have around us combined with the pressure the plane
feels because it is moving in the air. Like if you take your flat hand and you wave
quickly aside in water, there is resistance and that is dynamic pressure. Because we
cannot measure that pressure separately we take the difference between the total
pressure and the static pressure.
• What would cause an altimeter to malfunction?
The capsule that is leaking, linkage being broken, static port being blocked
• You are at the end of the runway with the static ports blocked. What will be the reading
on the altimeter after departure?
It will read the altitude of the airport above sealevel since it will measure the pressure
present at the airfield and keep that pressure after departure.
• How does TCAS work?
It works via de Mode S of the aircraft and it interrogates other aircraft to determine
the distance from the aircraft and its probable route. Using that information it can
determine if other aircrafts are on a collision course or might be too close to
eachother at a certain point if the current settings for heading, altitude, speed are
being maintained. It will give warnings in both cockpits to make sure sufficient
separation will be made before that point is reached. The warnings will not conflict
eachother if the system works as it should.

• How does GPWS work?

This works using the radio altimeter. It sends signals to the ground and based on the
time the signal is returned it calculated the distance from the ground. Disadvantage is
fast rising terrain ahead is not seen since it only sends signals below the aircraft and
not ahead.

• What is EGPWS?
Enhanced ground proximity warning system. EGPWS uses aircraft inputs such as
position, attitude, airspeed and glideslope, which along with an internal terrain /
obstacle / runway database to predict a potential conflict between the aircraft's flight
path and terrain or an obstacle.

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FLIGHT PERFORMANCE AND PLANNING
Conversion calculations
• How do you convert litres to kg?
Liters times the SG to get kg
• How do you convert between lbs and kg?
Devide pound by 2,205 to get kg
• You need to uplift four tonnes of fuel, how many litres would you ask for if the SG is
0.8?
4000kg/0.8=5000l

Fuel Uplift/Requirements
• Why do the fuel gauges read in kg, yet fuel is delivered it litres?
The volume changes with specific gravity being different. The actual SG for the day
determines the amount of liters you get from an amount of kg’s. Mass will remain
constant, volume changes.
• If you where picking up 10,000 litres of fuel in Newfoundland (cold weather), and 10,000
litres of fuel in Lima, Peru (hot weather), where would you have picked up the most
fuel?
In cold weather you will get more mass for an amount of liters compared to warm
weather.
• What are the components that make up a fuel plan for a minimum-fuel trip?
Taxi fuel
Trip fuel: fuel from take-off, SID to TOC to TOD to point where approach is initiated
(STARS), approach and landing
Reserve fuel: contingency (5% trip or 5min holdingspeed at 1500’), Alternate fuel,
Final reserve (30’ jets, 45’ props), and additional fuel(only in case of no alternate or
no en route alternate)
No extra reserve fuel for minimum fuel trip.

• Explain how total fuel is calculated for a commercial flight in a piston single engined
aircraft
First there will be a certain amount of fuel taken for start, taxi and runup. This
depends a bit on the company, we used 1 gallon in the DA40 for this.
Then we calculate fuel needed for following stages in flight:
Take-off till top of climb
Top of climb to top of descent in cruise
Top of decent till landing
We add a minimum of 45’ at holdingspeed at 1500’ for final reserve
We add contingency, alternate, additional fuel depending on company, route, wx,…
The values of these amounts of fuel needed are found in tables depending on
altitude, cruisespeed (eg. 45, 65, 75%) and are adjusted for temperature, wind,
density,…

• Why do you need contingency fuel?

To allow changes in fuel consumption due to diversions, not being allowed to fly at
ideal altitude, more wind than calculated,…
• Your Captain wants to go with less than the fuel required as there are no refuellers
available for 12 hours and the weather is CAVOK. He waves you away and loads the
passengers on the airplane… . If you were a manager of the company involved what
would you do to them when you found out if two pilots had gone in that situation.
I would call them both to the office, let them tell their side of the story and probably
give them some sort of punishement (grounded for some time, deskjob for a while,…)
because leaving below required fuel without stopping enroute or with an altered

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 flightplan is not tolerable. Everything affecting safety even if the chances are slim
should be handled firmly to prevent such thing happening again in the future.

• You have planned for min fuel, you arrive at destination and your captain accepts a 20
min hold. What is your reaction?
You check the current fuel status, fuel consumption in the hold and if not able to hold
for 20min without going into reserves you advise the captain about this and look at
the options left. It is possible that you can hold 20min but after that you won’t be able
to reach your alternate in case the airport will be closed for some reason. And you
advise ATC about this.

• With 10 minutes to go to the destination, I’ve been advised by ATC that I will have to
hold. What 3 things should I immediately consider?
Time left on current fuelstatus before I need to leave at the latest to my alternate.
Time left on current fuelstatus before I will enter on reserve fuel.
Time left before I run out of fuel completely.

• What is the critical point?(ETOPS)

This is the point where it would take an equal time and fuel in still air to reach two
adequate airfield along an ETOPS route in one these three events:
1. Simultaneous failure of an engine and the pressurisation
2. Total pressurisation failure but no engine failure
3. Engine failure but no pressurisation failure
The amount of fuel required to reach those two airfields will be the greatest of these
three situations. If this amount is higher than the one planned the additional fuel
needs to be increased.
So the planned fuel from the critical point to either one of the two airfields must be
equal or greater than critical fuel to field one or field two.
Enroute there are several points where you are equally far from the two nearest
adequate airfields, for al those critical points the planning must be sufficient in case
on of these three occurs.

There is also the PET, point of equal time that can be referred to as the critical point.
Explanation two questions lower.

• What is Point of No Return (PNR)?

This is the furthest point along a planned rout to which an aircraft can fly and return
to the departure airfield, or departure alternate, within the SAFE ENDURANCE of the
aircraft. The safe endurance is the length of time the aircraft can fly without
consuming the mandatory reserves you need when above the departure aerodrome
in case you return.

• Tell us about point of equal time and point of no return? Do you think Ryanair pilots
should be concerned about these?
The point of equal time is the point where it would the same time to continue to your
planned destination as it would be to return to your departure aerodrome. This
calculation takes into account head and tailwind so this point will almost never be
exactly halfway distance wise.
It can also be two suitable airfields in relation to the aircrafts track. It allows the pilot
to make a quick decision which of the two airfields is closer in time to divert to in case
of an engine or a major system or a serious illness aboard.

The point of no return is explained in the question above.

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 I believe Ryanair pilots should not worry too much about these points since the
destinations of Ryanair are all located in Europe where there are sufficient airfields
enroute to divert to in case of an emergency. It is most useful when enroute there are
almost no suitable airfields or when you fly across the Atlantic under ETOPS.

HUMAN PERFORMANCE AND LIMITATIONS

• What is CRM?
Crew Resource Management, the study of using al means at your disposal to
manage a certain situation and not only man to man but also man to machine,
machine to man, …
• What is the role of Pilot Monitoring ?
The pilot monitoring has the task of doing basically everything not related to the task
to fly the aircraft and monitoring the instruments to make sure the pilot flying is not
missing something necessary to safely fly the aircraft (speed, altitude, route, …)
The tasks outside monitoring are most of the time atc, fuel follow up, traffic
awareness,…

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