Introductory Lecture

What is Diplomacy?
 Art of negotiations
 Has always been there with human beings because humans are very hostile towards each
other since there are associated to each other
 Self-interest and they are in need of each other at some time - Collective survival
 Traced back to Greeks – City states
 This diplomacy then was only like sending messages
 Diplomats used to send messages - Only conveyed messages - Representation of Kings
Egyptians
Romans – actually codified the laws and rules of diplomacy
 It was not an independent profession at that time too
 Contribution to diplomacy are limited because they themselves were authoritarian
 They used to conquer people, government and territories – No compromise
Byzantine - East Roman Empire
 Developed more skills of diplomacy
 Not only messages, but also conveyed observation (kia dekha, kia scenario tha)
 They used to give their observation to their kings
Muslim rule
 Art of diplomacy flourished
 Entails Observation , representation and negotiation
 7th AH Prophet sent letters to kings and emperors
 People who conveyed were given responsibility to answer the questions and come and tell
what happened to them and this connected east to the west and developed a diplomatic link
between the east and the west
 They conveyed the Islamic religion, culture and values and it spread the Islamic empire on
three continents
 Muslim rule started form 600 ad we can see a strong diplomacy
Muslim Rule Vis a Vis west – court diplomacy
 One king to another One court to another
 This is called old diplomacy or secret diplomacy
 Govt to govt, state to state
 Initially it was folk diplomacy
Diplomacy - Art of negotiation
Tool for foreign policy

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Who do the works? Diplomats
Evolution of person is different from the evolution of office
Above was the evolution of office
Office – via examination
 Complete spans of time (govt rahay na rahay)
 No formal training no parameters
 King had a team who he used them to convey messages
 Diplomacy is not a unanimously agreed tool
 Skills and art vary
 Place to place, person to person
 Apni apni personal qualities hoti hay
 Variation - types to Europe – west and east
 We have borrowed everything technology to education
 Global community of diplomats – different dress codes for negotiation
 Concept of Overdressing

Lecture 1 24/8/22 Wednesday

Origin of Diplomacy
The origin of organized diplomacy can be traced to the times of city states of ancient Greece,
although prior to this time, a rudimentary type of diplomacy existed. These rudimentary diplomatic
activities were considerably refined and institutionalized during the time of ancient Greece and
Rome. Envoys became negotiators, not just messengers. By the 5th century BC, special mission
between city states had become frequent and successful. The romans did little to develop the art
of diplomacy, although they made important contributions in the field of international law. In the
eastern Roman Empire, the diplomatic methods were employed with great zeal. The Islamic state
of Madinah also adopted the techniques of diplomacy and sent its emissaries (qasid in urdu) to the
rulers in the different directions of the world. The representatives of the eastern empire of Madinah
became skilled diplomats and trained observers. In this way, they extended the practice of
diplomacy which included Accurate observation, reporting and representation.
Modern diplomacy as an organized profession initiated in Italy in the late middle ages.Till the end
of 18th CE, diplomacy was branded as old or traditional diplomacy while 19th CE diplomacy is
better known as Modern Diplomacy demanded new methods and change in the nature of
diplomacy. Harold Nicolson has called attention to three developments of 19th and 20th CE which
greatly affected the theory and practice of diplomacy
1. Growing sense of community of nations
2. Increasing appreciation of the importance of public opinion
3. Rapid increase in communication

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 Finally, at the Vienna Conference on Diplomatic Intercourse and Immunities of 1961, attended
by 81 states, a comprehensive agreement covering nearly all aspect of diplomatic activity was
signed.
Balance of Power Diplomacy (Pre WW1)
European diplomacy tried to maintain bop between 5 great powers i.e Britain, France, Austria,
Russia, Prussia in 18th CE. The French revolution disturbed the bop and Napoleon attempted to
conquer Europe, first unbalanced then overthrow the continents state system. After Napoleon’s
defeat, Congress of Vienna was convened in 1814 – 1815 to set new boundaries, recreate bop and
control future hegemony of French authorities. The final Act of Vienna conference of 1815 created
a new system of diplomacy. A distinction was made between ‘Great Powers’ and ‘Powers with
limited interests’. Only the great powers could exchange ambassadors and would decide all
disputes. In the beginning of 1816, an ambassadorial conference was established in Paris to address
issues arising from 1815 Treaty with France. Other conferences of ambassadors followed usually
in Landon, Vienna and Paris. Diplomats continued to adjust and amend the European system with
conferences to resolve other issues. The century during 1814 – 1914 was generally peaceful and
system of diplomacy was progressed.
Conference Diplomacy
After three decades, Europe reverted to conference diplomacy at the foreign ministerial level. The
conference of Paris of 1856 not only ended the Crimean War but also resulted in the codification
of International Law.
The European powers extended their sphere of influence throughout the world and pre occupy
their diplomacy. Conferences in Berlin (1878, 1884, 1885) prevented conflict over Christian
Interests in Ottoman Empire and carved up African colonies into European ruled colonies. The
Paris congress created an international commission which establish universal telegraph union and
general postal union in 1874. The Peace conferences at Hague 1899 and 1907 (ww1 k qareeb)
resulted in codification of laws of wars to encourage the disarmament.
Diplomacy since WW1
WW1 brought many changes in diplomacy
The Russian Revolution of 1917 produced a great regime that reflected the western concepts of
diplomacy, propaganda and subversion in new ways. The new government of USSR abolished
diplomatic ranks and published the secret treaties of Czarist regime. By doing so, it changed the
tradition of European Diplomacy. Russian Foreign Affair Department (new Russia) organized a
press bureau for international revolutionary propaganda. It also established the communist
international center to interfere in the politics of capitalist countries which embassy could not do.
At the end of WW1, LON was constituted at Paris conference to initiate Peace process and open
covenants of peace as a major goal for diplomacy in the post ww1 period.
The foreign minister of Latin American block and few independent states attended the conference
in Geneva and discussed the topics of ‘Parliamentary Diplomacy’ in Europe where electorates

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were constantly preoccupies with foreign policy. The statesmen were engaged in ‘Personal
Diplomacy’ and their publicity
Despite these changes, the new diplomacy was not so new. It was based on conferences and
agencies and the negotiating process remained the same. Diplomacy was equally affected by
totalitarian regimes and strong ideologies. These regimes honored the diplomatic rules only when
it suited them. For eg Joseph Stalin of USSR and Hitler of Nazi Germany viewed the diplomacy
as ‘war not as a process of mutual compromise’.
1930

Kinds or Types of Diplomacy

1. Traditional Diplomacy
The diplomacy in the real sense had emerged with the formation of nation state system after peace
of Westphalia in 1648 till the end of 19th CE, the traditional diplomacy continued with new
developments in technology, social, economic and political fields. New trends replaced the older
ones and from the Congress of Vienna, new trends initiated in the field of diplomacy. There were
three methods on which the traditional diplomatic practices were based
1. Italian
2. French
3. And German
Although it is the French method of Diplomacy which is usually known as Traditional Diplomacy
but theory and practice of diplomacy that was adopted by all European states, during the period
from 17th to 19th CE is popularly known as Traditional Diplomacy.
Features of Traditional Diplomacy
Traditional Diplomacy was confined to Europe as other continents like Asia, Africa and Latin
America were regarded the areas of Polarization. Even USA remained isolated up to 1897. The
five big powers of Europe i.e. England, France, Prussia, Austria and Spain were the main actors
on the world political scene and diplomacy operated among these European powers only. Hence,
this diplomacy was virtually European Diplomacy.
1. The Traditional Diplomacy operated on the assumption that great powers had special
responsibility for the maintenance of world peace
2. The small powers did not play any significant role. They just behaved as a satellites of
great powers.
3. Traditional Diplomacy was secret.
It was conducted by the diplomats posted in other states. The diplomats were sole of
communication between home government and the state to which they were posted. They
carried out negotiation in a most secret manner. The general public was not informed about
the decision taken. There were moments of harshness, threats and counter threats. Still
there were some advantages of secret diplomacy. If all details were made public, they
would have arouse the emotions of people and hampered the diplomatic work.

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 2. New Diplomacy
The Traditional Diplomacy was replaced by new or modern diplomacy which different from the
former in three aspects.
i. Greater Openness
ii. Extensive use of Multilaterelism
iii. And Summit Diplomacy
It is a clear fact that diplomacy is deeply influenced by political system under which it operates.
In past, diplomacy operated under monarchy and aristocracy while in present, it operates under
constitutional monarchy or democracy that is why it is taking shape even now. Track II diplomacy/
informal diplomacy
Informal or Track II diplomacy has been used for centuries to communicate between major powers.
Most diplomats work to recruit figures in other nations who might be able to give informal access
to a country’s leadership. In some situations, such as between USA and China, a large amount of
track II diplomacy is done through semi-formal channels like academic members of think tanks.
Informal or Track II diplomacy is specific kind of diplomacy in which non officials such as
academic scholars, retired civil military officials, public figures and social activists engage in
dialogue with the aim of conflict resolution or confidence building. Sometimes, the exchanges may
have no connection at all with governments or may even act in defiance of governments.
In Track II diplomacy on some occasions, a former holder of an official position continues to carry
out informal diplomatic activity after retirement. In other cases however, such informal diplomats
seek to promote a political agenda different from that of the government currently in power. Such
informal diplomacy has been practised by the former US president’s Bill Clinton and Jimmy Carter
3. Public Diplomacy
Public Diplomacy in IR is the communication with foreign public to establish a dialogue designed
to inform or influence. There is no one definition of Public Diplomacy and its definitions vary and
continue to change over the time. It is practiced through a variety of instruments an methods
ranging from personal contact and media interviews to the internet and educational exchanges.
Objectives of Public Diplomacy
 To promote one state’s competitive investment environment, open the economy,
predictable regulatory framework and commitment to the trade liberation, tourism and
investment opportunities
 To build understanding of one state’s role in the commitment to the region, deeper
integration, sustainable development and gender equality
 To strengthen one state’s influence in shaping the international political and security
architecture, national interests and prosperity of the region
 To promote one state as a contemporary, creative, successful, diverse and tolerant nation
and an attractive place to study, work, visit, live and invest in the world.
 To promote one state’s development credentials

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Methods of Public/Personal Diplomacy
i. Personal Contact
A personal network is a set of human contacts known to an individual with whom that individual
would expect to interact
ii. Broadcast Thing
It means to send out a program on electronic media. The basis of broadcasting was created by
scientific technological breakthrough in wireless communication. Sometimes one nation breaks
news for the people of other nation. For example, West Germany broke news for East Germany to
cross the border at any time which resulted into turning up east German masses at check points up
and down the berlin wall in 1989
iii. Exchange programs
The purpose of exchange programs is to meet the cultural and professional needs of international
visitors, governments and others. One nation knows that its community is better than the other and
connects it people to other to accomplish some objective. For example, American govt prepares
exchange programs to support the achievements of its foreign policy goals and advance its national
interests. The American Public diplomacy includes communication with international audience,
cultural programs, academic grants and educational exchanges with many nations of the world.
iv. International Leadership Program
International Leadership Programme is premier to professional exchange of a short term to each
other state. The visits of foreign leaders in a variety of fields.
Professional meetings reflect the participants’ professional interest and they support foreign policy
goals of each others country. In USA about 5000 international visitors come each year on
international leadership program. More than 200,000 international visitors have engaged with
Americans through this programme.
v. Use of Internet

Means, Methods, Functions & Role of Diplomacy

Means and Methods of Diplomacy
The term diplomacy is used in a variety of ways. Sometimes it is described as ‘the art of telling
lies on behalf of the nation’ or ‘an instrument from employing the deceit and duplicity in
International relation
Joseph Stalin once observed ‘a diplomat’s words must have no relation to action otherwise what
kind of diplomacy is it? Good words are a mask for the conceivement of bad deeds since diplomacy
is no more possible, then dry water or wooden iron
For securing its objectives, diplomacy depends on three measures.
i. Persuasion
ii. Compromise

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 iii. Threat of use of force
Diplomacy has to depend on several techniques. The chances of success of diplomacy are directly
related to the abilities of using appropriate tactics. In the main diplomacy almost 6 techniques are
applied
i. Persuasion
One diplomat can pursue the other to the logical reasoning. Diplomacy seeks to convince others
of the justification of goals which it is trying to uphold or promote.
ii. Rewards
Rewards can be offered to successful diplomat who can secure the acceptance of desired view of
a particular international dispute or issue or problem by the other side
iii. Promise of Concession
Diplomacy can promise matching concession for securing a particular change or maintain a
particular view in the policy of other nations.
iv. Threat of Use of Force
Diplomacy cannot use force or violence in promoting the national interest However, it can use
threat of use of force like ultimatums, threats of war for securing its objectives.
v. Non-Violent Punishment
By depriving a promise of reward or concession, diplomacy can inflict non-violent punishment on
other nations.
vi. Use of Pressure
By using pressure tactics, diplomacy can force other nations to accept the desired view or policy
or decision or goal that is represents. Beside these, diplomacy also use propaganda, cultural links,
exploitation of situations, creation of particular scenes and situations, rigidity or flexibility in
negotiations.
Functions and Role of Diplomacy
1. Ceremonial Functions
The diplomats of a nation are symbolic representatives of the state and they perform several
ceremonial functions
i. Official occasion
ii. Non official occasion
iii. Cultural occasion
iv. On the functions of posting and transfer
2. Representation
Kis kis moqay pey karna hota hay represent apni state ko

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 3. Negotiation – key function of a diplomat
As the representative of his own state, diplomat conducts negotiation with other states
representatives. Diplomats are negotiators and they are channels of communication and handle
transmission of messages between the foreign ministers of the parent state (apni state) and the host
state. The style and manner of messages greatly influence the course of negotiation. The diplomats
seek to secure agreements and compromises over various conflicting situation and problems
among states. The role of diplomats in conducting negotiation has however declined in the present
time due to the emergence of multilateral diplomacy. The diplomats today do not play a great role
in international negotiations and they played in past. However, they continue to be the legal and
formal channel of negotiation in international relations
4. Reporting – often mixed with negotiations
Reporting means the observation of political, economic, military and social condition of the host
state and the accurate transmission of his or her (diplomat) findings to the home state
The political reporting involves a report about the assessment of the role of various political parties
in the politics of his country. It seeks to assess the friendliness and hostility of various political
groups towards the home state and the power potential of each political party
Economic reporting involves sending of reports to home ministry containing general information
about trade, economic potential and economic cooperation opportunities of the host country.
Military reporting involves and assessment of military might, capabilities, and strategic conditions
of the host country
Social and cultural reporting involves social harmony, cohesion of host country with whom the
country wants to develop people to people contact.
Reporting in a way is most valuable function of diplomacy.
5. Protection of Interests
Do it by yourself

Features of New Diplomacy

1. Global
New diplomacy is truly global in nature and scope. The rise of Asia, Africa, Latin America and
other sovereign states has changed the character of International relations. From mostly European
relations these came to be truly International relations involving all sovereign states. Consequently,
diplomacy had to abundant its European Character and to become truly global in nature.

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 2. New diplomacy is multilateral
3. New diplomacy is less formal
4. New diplomacy is open
5. New diplomacy is democratic
Whether a country is small or big, they consult their diplomats and their diplomats have the
same immunities
The immunity and security will remain the same
6. New diplomacy depends on propaganda
7. New diplomacy has lessened the role of diplomats
Chapter 3 – Techniques of Diplomacy
Diplomatic Functions
There are many functions performed by a diplomat. The functions of diplomatic missions are spelt
out in Vienna Convention of 1961. Article 3 of the convention, states as follows:

1. Representing the sending state in the receiving state.

2. Protecting in the receiving state the interest of the sending state and its nationals within the
limits as permitted in the International Law.
3. Negotiating with the government of the receiving state.
4. Ascertaining by all lawful means, conditions and developments in the receiving state and
reporting them to the sending state.
5. Promoting friendly relations between the receiving and sending states and developing
cultural, social and technological relations.

Techniques of Foreign Policy

1. Representation
A diplomat is a formal representative of his own country in a foreign state. He is the normal agent
of communication between his own foreign office and that of the state to which he is accredited.
In the eyes of many citizens of the country in which he is stationed, he is the country he represents,
and that country is judged according to the personal impression he makes. A diplomat must
cultivate a wide variety of social contacts, with the ranking officials of the foreign office and of
the foreign government in general with his fellow diplomats, with influential persons in all walks
of life and with articulated groups in the country. Social contacts can be enjoyable, stimulating and
profitable. They can also be hard and on the mind and pocket of the diplomat. They can also try

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his patience and intelligence, although these contacts have become less formal but at the same time
they are broadened in scope.

In the course of representing his country, a diplomat equally provides necessary information and
advice to foreign policy decision makers which will help to shape the direction of foreign policy
adopted. This is because such information is based on spot assessment, experience and
observation.

2. Negotiation
Virtually a synonym for diplomacy, negotiation is par excellence the pursuit of agreement by
comprise and direct personal contact.

Diplomats are by definition, negotiators. Their duties include the drafting of a wide variety of
bilateral and multilateral agreements.

3. Reporting
Reports from the diplomats in the field are raw the raw materials of the foreign policy. These
reports cover nearly every conceivable subject from technical studies to appraisals of the
psychology of nations. Diplomats must, above all the good reporters, if they have the ability to
estimate trends accurately, if they keep an eye out for all useful information, and if they present
the essential fact in concise and intelligible form, they maybe more than worthwhile. Diplomats
are expected to observe, analyze and report on political, social and economic conditions and trends
of significance in the country in which they are assigned. Some major subject of these reports are
legislative, public opinion, market conditions, trade statistics, finance, production, agriculture,
forestry, fishing and mining, natural resources, shipping, legislation on tariffs and other laws.
Diplomats prepare thousands of reports of this type everywhere.
4. Potential of Interest Protection of interest
Although a diplomat is expected to get along with the authorities of the state to which he accredited
that is he must not be persona grata to the government of a state, he is also expected at all times to
seek to further the west interest of his own country . However, selfish this approach may seem to
be, it is the bedrock of the practice of diplomacy. While it is assumed that the interest of each state
will be so interpreted that they will be harmonized with those of the international community, it is
not he function a diplomat to make the interpretation. His duty is to look after the interest of his
country as interpreted by policy makers back home and in accordance with treaties, other
international agreements and principle of international law. He also has the more specific duty of
attempting to assist and protect businessmen, seamen and all other nationals of his own country
who are living or travelling in the country in which he is stationed. He seeks to prevent and correct
practices which might discriminate against his country or his citizens.

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 Chapter 4 Diplomatic Nomenclatures
The word diplomat has been used in a loose and rather general sense to include all members of
foreign services of all nations. In professional sense, diplomats include two main groups
i. Diplomatic officers
ii. And Counsellor Officers
All the diplomatic functions are performed to a greater or lesser degree by both groups but
generally speaking, diplomatic officials specialize in representation and negotiation whereas
counselor officials are particularly concerned with the protection of interests of the nationals of
their country. Reporting is however an important function of both groups
Classification of Diplomats
The success or otherwise of diplomacy of any nation state depend greatly upon the choice of its
diplomatic officers, their abilities and competency to discharge their duties accordingly.
The designation of diplomatic officers to assist in implanting the foreign policy of a particular
country started in March 17, 1815 during the Congress of Vienna and it was later publicized in the
supplementary rule of congress of Aix-la-chapelle on November 21st, 1818. According to the
supplementary document of the congress, four distinctive categories of diplomatic officers were
established.
a) Ambassadors
b) Envoys, Minister or other persons accredited to sovereigns
c) Ministers’ resident accredited to sovereign
d) Charge de’ affairs accredited to the ministers for foreign affairs
This classification has helped the government of one country in accrediting an envoy to another
country, to actually indicate in brackets the class and category in accordance with the 1815 – 1818
classification. It should be noted that the privileges of diplomatic agents may be the same
materially but they differ in rank and honor and are therefore treated separately.
Ambassadors are personal representative of the governments of their nation states. The title of
Excellency is attached to ambassadors because they can always ask for an audience from the
president or the head of government of the state to which they are accredited.
The ministers and envoys are not seen as personal representatives of their state because they
cannot at all times ask for an audience to the president. Hence, they do not enjoy all the special
honour accorded to ambassadors. Unlike ambassadors who receive the title of Excellency by right,
ministers are accorded such title only courtesy.
Next to the above class of Diplomatic Officers are Ministers’ Residents who enjoy less honor and
cannot be addressed as Excellency even by courtesy (because they are people associated with
foreign office for day to day work.

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The next category is Charge de’ affairs which unlike the other accredited from one head of
government to another head of government usually accredited form one foreign office to another.
Their level of honor is also lower.
According to the Article 2 of Havana convention of 1928, diplomatic officers can be further
classified as ordinary and extra ordinary.
Those who represent the government of one country in another on permanent basis are classified
as ordinary and those who are fully entrusted with a special mission or accredited to represent the
government of one country in international conferences and congresses or international
organizations are classified as extra ordinary.

Diplomatic Duties
The ambassadors and diplomats of every country are the head of every diplomatic mission. A
diplomat organizes reception parties for new envoys and other dignitaries to the country of his
accreditation. He p….
He participates in negotiations or agreements and signs important documents on the behalf of his
government
He accepts the diplomatic ambassadors of other sides. In big mission, the next ranking officer is
the minister. He is the deputy head of mission. In addition to having specific schedule of duties,
he assists the head of mission in supervising and coordinating the functions of other officers.
In addition to specific functions assigned to them, diplomatic officers receive delegations from
home and participate in their meetings with host authorities. e.g. Letter of admission sent to
students must be shown to embassy
If there is something where discussion will be fluid relating to politics, economics, our foreign
office will sit there.
One key position worthy of mention is the ‘head of chancery’. In a small mission, he is usually the
next ranking officer to the ambassador but in large missions, he will not necessarily be as there
will be more senior officers in the mission among other things, the head of chancery is in charge
of entire administration and the finance of the embassy. He authorizes expenditures with signing
cheque with the finance attaché. He supervises the hiring, deployment and firing of local staff. He
sees the regular submission of annual reports to the headquarter. In small missions, it is the
executive officer who is responsible for signing of cheques and other matters.

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