1.

Cranial Nerves & its function (especially Eye Muscle Movements)

2. Emotion & Motivation

Emotion
Emotion has two major components:
1) Physical sensation such as a rapid heartbeat, and
2) Physiological: a conscious, subjective experience or feeling, such as feeling
scared.

3. FRONTAL LOBE & Precentral Gyrus

4. Theories of EMOTION
THEORIES OF EMOTION
1. Appraisal theory of emotion (R. Lazarus)
According to appraisal theory, our interpretation of a situation causes an
emotional response that is based on that interpretation.
 The appraisal theory of emotion proposes that emotions are extracted from
our “appraisals” (i.e., our evaluations, interpretations, and explanations) of
events. These appraisals lead to different specific reactions in different people.
 In 1991, psychologist Richard Lazarus built on appraisal theory to develop
cognitive -mediational theory. This theory still asserts that our emotions are
determined by our appraisal of the stimulus, but it suggests that immediate,
unconscious appraisals mediate between the stimulus and the emotional
response.
 Lazarus also distinguished between primary appraisal, which seeks to
establish the significance or meaning of an event, and,
 secondary appraisal, which assesses the ability of the individual to cope with
the consequences of the event.
 The central question that the appraisal theory seeks to answer
is why different people have different perceptions of and emotional
reactions to the same situations.
For example, if a person goes on a romantic date and perceives this date
as positive, they might feel happiness, joy, giddiness, excitement, or
anticipation because they have appraised this event as one that could have
positive effects.
On the other hand, if the date is perceived negatively, the person’s
resulting emotions might include dejection, sadness, emptiness, or fear
(Scherer et al., 2001).

2. According to the James–Lange theory of emotion, emotions arise from

physiological arousal.
 The James–Lange theory of emotion asserts that emotions arise as a result of
physiological arousal —i.e., that the self-perception of changes in the body
produces an emotional experience.
 According to the James–Lange theory, we experience emotions (such as fear,
sadness, and happiness) only after physiological arousal (such as the fightor-flight
response) has occurred.
One limitation of this theory is that it is not known exactly what causes the
changes in the body, so it is unclear whether those changes should be considered
part of the emotion itself.

3. The Cannon–Bard theory of emotion argues that physiological arousal and

emotional experience occur simultaneously but independently.
 The Cannon–Bard theory of emotion was developed in response to the
James-Lange theory, which proposes that emotions arise from physical
arousal.
 In contrast, the Cannon–Bard theory argues that physiological arousal and
emotional experience occur simultaneously, yet independently.
 According to the Cannon–Bard theory, when you see a venomous snake, you
feel fear at exactly the same time that your autonomic nervous system
responds.
This theory explains that when you see a venomous snake in your backyard,
you feel fear at exactly the same time that your body initiates its physiological
fightor-flight response. Even though they occur at the same time, your emotional
reaction and your physiological reaction would be separate and independent.

5. PTSD and its Signs & symptoms

PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVE:
• Repressed Trauma + Unresolved Childhood Conflict
( Pre-existing neurotic structure already established)
Thus not all people who experienced Trauma during adulthood will develop PTSD!

CLEAR S/S:
1. Nightmares
2. Depersonalization: Detached from ones mental state or body (“ It is not me! , I
am just an observer!”)
3. Derealization: External world as strange or unreal ( No way , it is just a
Dream!”)
4. Anhedonia : Inability to experience pleasure from normally pleasurable activities
before

6. PTSD and its involved Limbic System

Amygdala. The amygdala is a limbic structure involved in emotional processing
and is critical for the acquisition of fear responses. The functional role of the
amygdala in mediating both stress responses and emotional learning implicate its
role in the pathophysiology of PTSD.

7. Essentials of SLEEP / Theories of SLEEP / Factors affecting SLEEP

Theories on the Functions of Sleep

1. Repair and Restoration Theory of Sleep
According to it, sleep affords the body the much-needed opportunity it requires to
repair and rejuvenate itself, which involves restoring and revitalizing the
physiological processes which keep your body and mind healthy and functioning
properly. These include restorative functions such as, protein synthesis, tissue
repair, muscle growth, and growth hormone release.

2. Evolutionary Theory of Sleep

Also referred to as the Adaptive Theory or Inactivity Theory. It suggests that
periods of inactivity at night or during the daytime is an adaptation which served a
survival function by ensuring that animals remained out of danger during times of
vulnerability (Predation).
According to this theory, animals that were able to stay quiet and still during those
times when they were particularly vulnerable had a greater chance of survival than
those species which remained active. As a result, through natural selection, these
animals survived in greater proportions and eventually this behavior or survival
tactic presumably evolved to become what is now recognized as sleep.

3. Brain Plasticity Theory

Brain Plasticity Theory is probably one of the more recent, and rather compelling,
theories of sleep. It is based on research findings, which suggest that sleep is
correlated to changes in the organization and structure of the brain.
In earlier days, the brain was perceived as a static organ, but many studies have
since disproved this notion by showing that, the brain has the ability to adapt and
change over time. The term "brain plasticity" was coined to refer to this
extraordinary ability of the brain to change throughout an individual's life; and
proponents of this theory believe that sleep contributes importantly to the processes
of brain plasticity.
To start with, the brain plasticity theory argues that, people sleep so as to process
the information they have acquired during the day and consolidate new memories. It
suggests that, when one is asleep, the brain does not rest idly, but rather, it utilizes
this time to sort out and review the activities and information absorbed throughout
the day, and cements these things into long: term memory.

4. Energy Conservation Theory

The energy conservation theory tries to explain why we need to sleep by suggesting
that sleep has something to do with saving an individual's energy. In general, it
proposes that the primary function of sleep is to lower one’s demand for energy as
well as reducing the amount expended during part of the night or day; especially
during those periods when it's least efficient to look for food.

5. ACTIVATION-SYNTHESIS THEORY (Hobson & McCarley, 1977)

 Dreams are considered meaningless
 They are just synthesis of random images of memories of PAST Experiences &
Expectations stored in the Temporal Lobes of our Brain but the Sensory & Motor
Areas are still active.
 To others, Dreams become meaningful (Foulker, 1985) because it prepares one
for future events or situations (warning signs of imminent danger)

WHAT FACTORS AFFECT OUR SLEEP?

1. SCN (+) = Suprachiasmatic Nucleus. It sends daily impulses to Pineal gland to
produce
MELATONIN
2. ADENOSINE (+) = Sleep regulators chemical found in our spinal fluid. It
inhibits body
processes (slows down) when we need to take a rest. Adenosine signals us that our
body is already tired & we need to sleep.
3. CHEMICAL RELAXANTS (+) = like sleeping pills. It boosts our ADENOSINE
LEVELS,
allowing us to have quick deep sleep.
4. CAFFEINE (-) = This one block effects of ADENOSINE to let us stay awake &
active
5. LIGHT (-) = Serves as Time Giver (Exogenous Zeitgeber). It goes to our retina to
keep us awake

8. Stages of SLEEP / Types of Biological RHYTHM

There are four biological rhythms:

1. circadian rhythms: the 24-hour cycle that includes physiological and behavioral
rhythms like sleeping
2. diurnal rhythms: When the rhythm is synchronized with the day/night cycle it is
termed a diurnal rhythm.
Eq. Diurnal animals are animals that are active during the day and then sleep at
night. Examples of diurnal animals include humans, deer and dogs.
3. ultradian rhythms: biological rhythms with a shorter period and higher
frequency than circadian rhythms. It has a variable rhythm or regularity in process.
Eq. blood circulation, thermoregulation, blinking, micturation, appetite & arousal,
4. infradian rhythms: biological rhythms that last more than 24 hours or beyond
but less than a year.

9. SLEEP Disorders
1. Parasomnia sleep disorders cause abnormal activities during sleep, such as
sleep terrors, nightmares, sleep walking (somnambulism), sleep talking.
2. Dyssomnia sleep disorders cause trouble falling asleep or staying asleep. Perhaps
the most well-known dyssomnia is obstructive sleep apnea.
3. Narcolepsy is the most dramatic of the dyssomnias. It is consisted of "sleep
attacks", in which aspects of REM sleep intrude into wakefulness.
4. Cataplexy is a condition in which the muscle paralysis that is normally
associated with REM sleep occurs when the person is completely awake.

10. Neurological Assessment (Focus on Sensory and Motor Functions)

11. Levels of CONSCIOUSNESS
12. Wakefulness and Arousal caused by RETICULAR ACTIVATING
SYSTEM
13. MEMORIES & Types of Memories

Memory refers to the storage and retrieval of information but there is no absolute
boundary between the processes of learning and those of memory. Learning and
memory are best viewed as occurring along a continuum of time.

1.Sensory memory. This is the first stage of memory which can hold a large
amount of data for a very brief period of time for a few seconds.
2. Short term memory, or "working" memory. Short term memory contains all
the data that we are currently thinking about. It has between five and nine unrelated
items which is a very limited capacity.
3. The final destination for information in the Atkinson-Shiffrin model is long-term
memory. Long-term memory seems to have few limitations on capacity or duration.
Elderly people still recall childhood memories of events that occurred many years
and retain the ability to learn and remember facts despite of the large quantity of
information already stored from a lifetime of experience

Long-term memories are divided into three categories: semantic, episodic, and
procedural memories:

Semantic memory contains basic knowledge of facts and language. Using your
semantic memory, you can answer questions such as "Who was the first president of
the USA?
Episodic memory relates to your own personal experience. Episodic memory is use
to remember the episodes of your life like what you eat for dinner or the first time
you were attracted to the opposite gender.
Procedural memory stores information about motor skills and procedures such as
biking, using your computer, cooking and sewing.
14. DILATATION & CONSTRICTION of Pupil
15. Traditional Cognitive Learning

Cognitive learning is an active style of learning that focuses on helping you learn
how to maximize your brain’s potential. It makes it easier for you to connect new
information with existing ideas hence deepening your memory and retention
capacity. The ability of the brain’s mental processes to absorb and retain
information through experience, senses, and thought is known as cognition.

Traditional learning mainly focuses on memorization instead of trying to achieve

mastery in a particular subject.

16. Attributes of person based on the Left and Right Brains

If you’re mostly analytical and methodical in your thinking, you’re said to be left-
brained. If you tend to be more creative or artistic, you’re thought to be right-
brained.

17. Blooms Taxonomy -High levels of COGNTIVE Learning

18. Psychodynamics of Psychological Disorders

19. PHOBIA and Its Management

PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVE:
* ID impulses are repressed then FEAR is displaced to an object or situation
* The Conscious mind is unable to confront the real nature of FEAR because it will
forced the person to acknowledge un acceptable motives, conflicts or memories !
* The EGO protects the conscious mind from feared object, thus it acts as
moderator again to adhere to the NORMS or Standards of Society !
Another dimension under Psychodynamic Perspective:
* The Phobia is also a product of unresolved conflict like : Fear of Genitalia results
to Fear of Spider Fear of Father’s castration due to sexual thoughts or even sexual
trauma results to Fear of Horse ! THUS: The object of Phobia is not the Original
cause of fear !
1. Supportive Expressive Therapy thru Psychoanalysis: Help client set realistic
Goals, rooting out and solve the original problems/ conflicts. Allowing clients to
transfer feelings onto the therapist.
2. Core Conflictual Relationship Theme (CCRT): enhance client’s insights to
confront anxiety producing situations.
3. Systematic Desensitization: Gradual exposure to the object of fear until the
client achieved strength and stability.