REPORT BY ALQUIROZ, CULAWAY, DOMINGO, AND NAVARRO

Consciousness

Understanding consciousness is vital because it's intertwined with our identity and daily
experiences. It affects our health, including diabetes risk, memory, and even puberty. Drugs can
also influence consciousness, often detrimentally. Defining consciousness is intricate, with
diverse definitions in various scientific fields.

Definition of Consciousness
4.1 Define what it means to be conscious.

In "Consciousness Explained," philosopher Daniel Dennett argues against William James' view
of a single stream of consciousness. He suggests multiple parallel "channels" of consciousness,
shaped by social groups and culture. Regarding animal consciousness, researchers propose
that some animals may have a form of consciousness, though distinct from humans (Block,
Browne, Hurley, Koch). Chapter Seven explores animal language and related topics.

Do animals experience consciousness in the same way as people?

Consciousness, as defined for our purposes, is your awareness of everything happening around
you and within your mind, which you use to guide your actions, including thoughts, sensations,
and emotions. From a cognitive neuroscience perspective, it arises from specific neuron
interactions that produce perceptions, memories, or experiences in our awareness, such as
seeing a dog.

Consciousness is an individual's state of being aware of everything happening in their

immediate surroundings at a particular moment.

Waking consciousness is a condition characterized by clear, well-organized thoughts,

emotions, and sensations, with the individual feeling fully alert.

Altered States of Consciousness

4.2 Differentiate between the different levels of consciousness.

People spend most of their waking hours in a clear and alert state of consciousness. However,
at various points in daily life, people can enter altered states of consciousness, characterized by
differences from this organized waking state.

Altered consciousness involves changes in mental activity, leading to fuzzy thinking, reduced
alertness, or heightened alertness, as seen with stimulants. It can also include divided attention,
like driving while distracted, which is risky. Controlled tasks require full attention, while
automatic ones need less. Performing controlled activities while distracted, such as driving while
using a cell phone, is dangerous, similar to drunk driving. Texting while driving is even more
dangerous.
Altered states of consciousness come in various forms, like daydreaming, hypnosis, meditation,
and drug-induced states (e.g., caffeine or alcohol). There's a growing use of stimulants initially
prescribed for attention issues, even among college students and older adults seeking
performance enhancement. However, the most common altered state is sleep, consuming
about a third of our lives.

An altered state of consciousness refers to a condition where there is a change in the nature or
pattern of mental activity when compared to the state of wakefulness.

Sleep

Ever thought about why we need sleep? Without it, we'd have more time for work, play, and
creativity.

The Biology of Sleep

4.3 Describe the biological process of the sleep–wake cycle.

Sleep is often called "the gentle tyrant" because, despite efforts to stay awake, it's an essential
biological rhythm the body goes through. Human bodies have various biological rhythms, some
monthly (e.g., menstruation), others shorter (e.g., heart rate), but many operate daily, like the
sleep-wake cycle.

The sleep-wake cycle is a circadian rhythm, which takes "about a day" to complete. It involves
experiencing hours of sleep every 24 hours. This cycle is controlled by a brain area in the
hypothalamus, influencing the glandular system.

The hypothalamus, particularly the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), plays a crucial role in
regulating our sleep-wake cycles. It influences the secretion of melatonin, a hormone affecting
sleepiness, in response to light changes. Melatonin supplements are used for conditions like jet
lag and shift work sleep problems. Besides melatonin, neurotransmitters like serotonin also
impact sleep, but their effects are complex and context-dependent. Body temperature,
controlled by the SCN, affects alertness; lower temperatures make us sleepier. Our circadian
rhythms are typically synchronized with a 24-hour day, influenced by light input to the SCN.
Additionally, studies have linked body temperature drops to the onset of sleep, highlighting its
importance in sleep regulation.

Why We Sleep
4.4 Explain why we sleep.

The ideal amount of sleep varies by age and individual, with most young adults needing 7-9
hours for optimal function. Some people need as little as 4-5 hours (short sleepers), while others
require over 9 hours (long sleepers). As we age, our sleep tends to shorten to around 6 hours
per night. The quantity of sleep can influence our health, as discussed by sleep researcher Dr.
Jerry Siegel in "How Much Sleep Do We Need?" video.

Sleep is essential, and although people can go without it for a while, they can't go without it
entirely. In an experiment, rats on treadmills couldn't sleep normally but experienced brief
microsleeps lasting only seconds. People can also have microsleeps, which can be dangerous,
particularly when driving, leading to accidents due to sleep deprivation.

Theories of Sleep

Adaptive Theory of Sleep

- Proposes that animals and humans evolved sleep patterns to avoid predators by sleeping when
predators are most active

Microsleeps - Brief sidesteps of sleep lasting only a few seconds

Restorative Theory of Sleep

- Proposes that sleep is necessary to the physical health of the body and serves to replenish
chemicals and repair cellular damage

Which of these theories is correct? The answer is that both are probably needed
to understand why sleep occurs the way it does. Adaptive theory explains why people
sleep when they do, and restorative theory (including the important function of memory
formation) explains why people need to sleep.

SLEEP DEPRIVATION
For most people, a missed night of sleep will result in concentration problems
and the inability to do simple tasks that normally would take no thought at all, such as loading a DVD into
a player. Even so, sleep deprivation, or loss of sleep, is a serious problem, which many
people have without realizing it.

Students, for example, may stay up all night to study

for an important test the next day. In doing so, they will lose more information than
they gain, as a good night’s sleep is important for memory and the ability to think well

(Gillen-O’Neel et al., 2012).

REM (Rapid Eye Movement)
Stage of sleep in which the eyes move rapidly under the eyelids and the person is typically experiencing a
dream.

NREM (Non-Rapid Eye Movement)

Any of the stages of sleep that do not include REM

EEG - Electroencephalogram

EEG WAVES

Beta
Smaller and faster brain waves, typically indicating mental activity.
Alpha
Brain waves that indicate a state of relaxation or light sleep.
Theta
Brain waves indicating the early stages of sleep.
Delta
Long, slow brain waves that indicate the deepest stage of sleep.

STAGES OF SLEEP
N1: Light Sleep
Sleep begins, people may experience hypnogogic images or hallucinations
“sleep.”)
Many researchers now believe that people’s experiences of ghostly visits, alien abductions, and near-
death experiences may be most easily explained by these hallucinations

N2: Sleep Spindles

The body temperature continues to drop. Heart rate slows, breathing becomes more shallow and
irregular, and the EEG will show the first signs of sleep spindles, brief bursts of activity lasting only a
second or two.

N3: Delta Waves

Delta Waves come in. These waves increase during this stage from about 20 percent to more than 50
percent of total brain activity.
It is during this stage that growth hormones (often abbreviated as GH) are released from the pituitary
gland and reach their peak. The body is at its lowest level of functioning.

R: Rapid Eye Movement

After spending some time in N3, the sleeping person will go back up through N2 and then into a stage in
which body temperature increases to near-waking levels, the eyes move rapidly under the eyelids, the
heart beats much faster, and brain waves resemble beta waves—the kind of brain activity that usually
signals wakefulness.
SLEEP DISORDERS

Nightmares and RBD (REM Behavior Disorder)

A rare disorder in which the brain mechanisms that normally inhibit the voluntary muscles fail, allowing the
person to thrash around and even get up and act out nightmares
Predominantly found in men aged older than 60, researchers have found that RBD may be a warning sign
for future degeneration of neurons, leading to brain diseases such as Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s
disorders

Night Terrors
A night terror is essentiially a state of panic experienced while sound asleep. People may sit up, scream,
run around the room, or flail at some unseen attacker.

Sleepwalking
A person who is sleepwalking may do nothing more than sit up in bed. But other episodes may involve
walking around the house, looking in the refrigerator or even eating, and getting into the car.
There have been incidents in which people who claimed to be in a state of sleep- walking (or more likely
RBD) have committed acts of violence, even murder

Insomnia
Insomnia is the inability to get to sleep, stay asleep, or get a good quality of sleep
There are many causes of insomnia, both psychological and physiological. Some of the psychological
causes are worrying, trying too hard to sleep, or having anxiety. Some of the physiological causes are too
much caffeine, indigestion, or aches and pain.

Sleep Apnea
A person stops breathing for 10 seconds or more. When breathing stops, there will be a sudden silence,
followed shortly by a gasping sound as the person struggles to get air into the lungs. Many people do not
wake up while this is happening, but they do not get a good, restful night’s sleep because of the apnea

Narcolepsy
In narcolepsy, the person may slip suddenly into REM sleep during the day (especially when the person
experiences strong emotions). Another symptom is excessive daytime sleepiness that results in the
person falling asleep throughout the day at inappropriate times and in inappropriate places

DREAMS
Dreams are a common human phenomenon characterized by sensory, cognitive, and emotional
experiences that occur during sleep. The dreamer typically has limited control over the content, visual
imagery, and memory activation within dreams. Dreaming is a cognitive state that has been extensively
researched but remains frequently misunderstood.

The real inquiry into the process of dreaming began with the publication of Freud’s The
Interpretation of Dreams (1900)
Freud’s Interpretation: Dreams as wish Fulfillment:

Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) posited that his patients' issues originated from unresolved conflicts
and events stored in their unconscious minds since childhood. These early traumas were viewed
as the root causes of adult behavioral problems, manifesting as symptoms like unexplained physical
paralysis or repetitive, ritualistic behaviors like excessive hand washing. Freud used dream analysis as
a means to access these early memories, as he believed that past conflicts, events, and desires would
be symbolically represented in dreams. He saw dreams as a way for his patients to fulfill unmet wishes.
He believed that the true meaning of a dream was hidden, or latent, and only expressed in symbols.
In Freud’s interpretation, the manifest content of a dream is the actual content of the dream itself.

Nowadays, a lot of experts have lost their enthusiasm for Freud's dream analysis, but there are still
individuals who assert that dreams hold symbolic significance. For instance, the occurrence of dreams
involving public nudity is widespread, and many dream analysts interpret it as a representation of feeling
vulnerable and exposed, possibly linked to one's childhood innocence or even a sexual desire. The
precise interpretation of such dreams relies on various factors within the dream itself and the individual's
real-life circumstances. A more concrete explanation of why people dream than Freud's was made
possible by the advent of technology for examining the structure and function of the brain.

The Activation-Synthesis Hypothesis

By employing brain imaging methods like PET scans, scientists have discovered proof suggesting
that dreams originate from activity in the pons. This lower brain region suppresses the
neurotransmitters responsible for voluntary muscle movement while transmitting haphazard signals to the
cortex regions responsible for processing vision, hearing, and similar sensory experiences (Hobson,
1988; Hobson & McCarley, 1977; Hobson et al., 2000; Weber et al., 2015).
During wakefulness, signals from the pons go to the cortex, which interprets them as our senses like sight
and hearing. These signals make us experience reality because they come from the actual world.
However, when we're asleep, specifically during the REM stage, the brain stem sends random
signals without a connection to an actual external stimuli. Still, the brain tries to make sense of these
signals by using memories and stored information to create an explanation for the cortex's activity.
According to the activation-synthesis hypothesis, a dream is essentially a form of thinking that happens
when people are asleep. It's less grounded in reality because it doesn't originate from external
reality but rather from people's memories and past experiences. During dreaming, the frontal lobes,
which are typically active during daytime thinking, are more or less inactive. This might explain why
dreams often seem unrealistic and strange (Macquet & Franck, 1996).

The Activation-Information-Mode (AIM) Model

Hobson and his team have revised the activation-synthesis hypothesis, addressing issues related
to the significance of dreams, and named it the activation-information-mode model, or AIM (Hobson et
al., 2000). In this updated version, information acquired while awake can impact how dreams are
formed. Essentially, when the brain is "constructing" a dream to make sense of its own activity, it
incorporates meaningful fragments from the individual's recent experiences, not just random elements
from memory.

Contents of Dreams (bulleted siguro ung common activities here sa ppt)

Calvin Hall's cognitive theory of dreaming suggests that dreams are a form of cognitive activity that takes
place during sleep. He collected over 10,000 dreams and concluded that most dreams reflect everyday
life events. Some variations in dream content exist, such as the presence of color or black-and-white
dreams and gender differences. Dr. William Domhoff's research indicates that men across cultures tend
to dream more about other males and have more physical aggression in their dreams, while women
dream about both males and females equally and are more often the victims of aggression in their own
dreams. Differences in dream content across cultures align with the cultural "personality." For
example, American dreams tend to be more aggressive than those in the Netherlands. In dreams, people
engage in various activities like running, jumping, talking, and behaving as they do in daily life. While
nearly half of Hall's recorded dreams had sexual content, later research found lower percentages.
Common dreams include flying, falling, and attempting and failing at something, which are widespread
even in other cultures. The dream of being naked in public is also a frequently reported dream theme.

Hypnosis
In contrast to depictions in movies and television, individuals under hypnosis are not in a trance (Lynn et
al., 2015). Hypnosis is essentially a state of heightened susceptibility to suggestion. Despite various
misconceptions surrounding hypnosis, it can be a valuable tool when appropriately controlled.

How Hypnosis Works:

There are four key steps in inducing hypnosis (Druckman & Bjork, 1994):
1. The hypnotist tells the person to focus on what is being said.
2. The person is told to relax and feel tired.
3. The hypnotist tells the person to “let go” and accept recommendations easily.
4. The person is told to use vivid imagination.

Hypnosis hinges on an elevated level of suggestibility, and people can enter a hypnotic state when
they are alert and open to it. Around 80 percent of individuals can be hypnotized, with only 40 percent
showing a strong responsiveness to hypnosis. Brain scans have shown that highly hypnotizable
individuals display increased brain activity and connections in regions associated with decision-making
and attention. Assessing hypnotic susceptibility often involves a series of structured suggestions,
and the more suggestions a person positively responds to, the more susceptible they are to
hypnosis.

Although the common perception is that a hypnotized person is acting without control, the reality
is that the hypnotist often serves as a facilitator into a more relaxed state, with the subject
essentially hypnotizing themselves (Kirsch & Lynn, 1995). Importantly, individuals cannot be
hypnotized if they are unwilling. The inclination to behave as if their actions are automatic and beyond
their control is referred to as the basic suggestion effect (Kihlstrom, 1985). This effect allows individuals to
rationalize doing things they might not otherwise do, as the responsibility for their actions is attributed to
the hypnotist.

Hypnosis is a valuable tool for relaxation and pain management, but these experiences are largely
influenced by a person's mindset, and achieving similar effects, like hallucinations, pain reduction, or
memory loss, can occur without hypnotic suggestions. However, it's more challenging to use hypnosis to
change actual physical behaviors, such as eating habits or smoking cessation, as these behaviors are
deeply ingrained. Hypnosis is occasionally employed in psychological therapy to assist individuals in
managing anxiety or addressing cravings for substances like food or drugs. In summary, hypnosis has its
limitations and strengths, and its effectiveness varies depending on the desired outcome.

Theories of Hypnosis
Hypnosis as Dissociation: Neodissociation Theory of Hypnosis

Hilgard's Neodissociation theory of hypnosis is a prominent "state" theory that suggests hypnotic
experiences occur due to a split within high-level control systems. This theory posits that during hypnosis,
the executive control system (ECS) becomes divided into separate streams. One part of the ECS
continues to function normally but remains inaccessible to conscious awareness due to an "amnesic
barrier." Hypnotic suggestions affect the dissociated part of the ECS, leading the subject to be aware of
the outcomes of the suggestions while remaining unaware of how those results were achieved.
In simpler terms, Ernest Hilgard (1991; Hilgard & Hilgard, 1994) held the view that hypnosis primarily
influenced a person's immediate conscious awareness, leaving another part of their mind, referred to as a
"hidden observer," aware of everything transpiring. Hilgard's perspective suggests that there exists a
concealed aspect of the mind that remains highly aware of the actions and sensations of the
hypnotized subject, even though the conscious, hypnotized part of the mind remains oblivious to
these same experiences.

Hypnosis as Social Role-Playing: The Social-Cognitive Theory of Hypnosis

Social-cognitive theories offer a perspective on hypnosis that differs from the "state" theories, which focus
on processes like "repression" or "dissociation." These theories emphasize that individuals actively
engage in hypnosis, viewing suggested effects as behaviors rather than passive occurrences. According
to the social-cognitive theory of hypnosis, the sense of effortlessness during hypnosis arises
because participants interpret hypnotic suggestions as not requiring active planning and effort,
essentially making an attributional error. Whether volition is attributed externally or internally depends
on the response-set in place, and in the context of hypnosis, effortlessness occurs when individuals
expect things to be easy and consciously or unconsciously choose to respond to suggestions accordingly.
It's important to note that these theories do not imply that subjects are always pretending or not genuinely
experiencing hypnotic responses; they acknowledge that hypnotized participants can have unique
experiences.

The social-cognitive theory of hypnosis suggests that individuals under hypnosis are not in an altered
state but are essentially acting out the expected role in that situation. They may genuinely believe
they are hypnotized, but in reality, they are performing exceptionally well, to the extent that even they
themselves are unaware they are engaging in role-playing. This theory highlights the influential role of
social roles in shaping behavior, akin to how wearing a uniform can make it easier for someone to
embody a specific role (Zimbardo, 1970; Zimbardo et al., 2000).

Influence of Psychoactive Drugs

While some individuals aim to achieve altered states of consciousness through natural means like sleep,
daydreaming, meditation, or even hypnosis, others opt for a more direct route by using psychoactive
drugs – substances that can modify thinking, perception, memory, or a combination of these
mental functions. Many of the drugs discussed in the following sections have practical medical
applications, such as inducing sleep for otherwise impossible surgeries or managing pain from injuries or
illnesses. Additionally, some drugs are employed to address conditions like sleep disorders or attention
deficits in children but more often that not, these drugs are abused.

While these drugs do have legitimate medical uses, it's essential not to underestimate the risks
connected to inappropriate or excessive use of these. When taken for recreational purposes, to
attain a euphoric state, or without proper medical guidance, these substances can pose severe
threats to one's health. They have the potential to lead to addiction, whether physical or psychological,
and can establish a dangerous pattern of increasing consumption, increasing the likelihood of a drug
overdose – a major peril associated with dependence. It's notable that drug overdoses aren't confined to
illicit substances; certain ingredients in so-called natural supplements can also have fatal effects. As an
example, a survey disclosed that more than 23,000 visits to emergency rooms each year could be
attributed to the utilization and misuse of dietary supplements (Geller et al., 2015).

When a person consumes drugs, their brain releases dopamine, a pleasure-inducing chemical,
leading to a euphoric physical and mental state known as feeling good or getting high. With
repeated drug use, the brain becomes dependent on these pleasurable experiences and essentially
rewires itself to prioritize drug consumption above all else, even essential activities like eating, sleeping,
family commitments, or academic pursuits. Even when the drugs no longer produce pleasure due to
tolerance development over time, the brain continues to drive these cravings, originating from the same
part of the brain responsible for our survival instinct. Consequently, acting on these cravings becomes
an overwhelming and urgent need, as the brain perceives it as necessary for functioning and
survival. Simultaneously, the brain's areas responsible for judgment, decision-making, learning, and self-
control are also affected by these physical changes, making it even more challenging for a person to quit,
as their ability to make rational decisions and control impulses diminishes.

Physical Dependence
Substances that can result in physical dependence trigger a drug-craving reaction within the
user's body (Abadinsky, 1989; Fleming & Barry, 1992; Pratt, 1991). A person is considered dependent or
addicted when their body can no longer function normally without the drug after prolonged use.
Signs of Physical Dependence

● development of a drug tolerance

● symptoms of withdrawal
> headaches
> nausea
> cramping
> shaking
> irritability to severe pain
> elevated blood pressure

Negative Reinforcement
is the inclination to persist in a behavior that results in the alleviation or avoidance of unpleasant
situations or sensations. This learned behavioral pattern has given rise to non-drug treatments that
utilize behavioral therapies like contingency-management therapy, an operant conditioning technique
where patients earn vouchers for negative drug tests. These vouchers can be exchanged for more
beneficial and desirable items such as food. These behavioral therapies encompass both residential and
outpatient approaches. Cognitive-behavioral interventions aim to transform individuals' perspectives on
life stressors and their responses to them, striving for more effective coping strategies without resorting to
drugs.
Psychological Dependence
Not all drugs lead to physical dependence, all drugs have the potential to be a source of
psychological dependence. This is where individuals believe they require the drug to maintain their
emotional or psychological well-being. This psychological aspect is a strong driver for continued drug
use. The development of dependency is primarily driven by the pleasurable effects of using the drug.
Even if the body doesn't require or desire the drug, and individuals don't go through physical withdrawal
or develop a tolerance, they persist in using the drug because they believe they require it. This illustrates
positive reinforcement, where a behavior strengthens due to the thought of enjoyable outcomes.
Interestingly, because there are no withdrawal symptoms to endure or recover from, psychological
dependencies can persist indefinitely.

EFFECTS AND DANGERS OF STIMULANTS

How do stimulants and depressants affect consciousness and what are the dangers associated
with taking them, particularly alcohol?

- Stimulants are a class of drugs that cause either the sympathetic division or the central
nervous system (or both) to increase levels of functioning, at least temporarily. In simple
terms, stimulants “speed up” the nervous system—the heart may beat faster or the brain
may work faster, for example. Many of these drugs are called “uppers” for this reason.
- (Stimulants drugs that increase the functioning of the nervous system.)

Amphetamines
- Amphetamines are stimulants that are synthesized (made) in laboratories rather than
being found in nature. Among the amphetamines are drugs like Benzedrine, Methedrine,
and Dexedrine. A related compound, methamphetamine, is sometimes used to treat
attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder or narcolepsy.
- Like other stimulants, amphetamines cause the sympathetic nervous system to go into
overdrive.
- Some truck drivers use amphetamines to stay awake while driving long hours.
Stimulants won’t give people any extra energy, but they will cause people to burn up
whatever energy reserves they do have. They also depress the appetite, which is
another function of the sympathetic division.
- Many doctors used to prescribe these drugs as diet pills. Diet pills sold over the counter
usually contain another relatively mild stimulant, caffeine.
- Nausea, vomiting, high blood pressure, and strokes are possible, as is a state called
“amphetamine psychosis.” This condition causes addicts to become delusional (losing
contact with what is real) and paranoid.
Cocaine
- Unlike amphetamines, cocaine is a natural drug found in coca plant leaves. It produces
feelings of euphoria (a feeling of great happiness), energy, power, and pleasure. It also
deadens pain and suppresses the appetite.
- It was used rather liberally by both doctors and dentists (who used it in numbing the
mouth prior to extracting a tooth, for example) near the end of the nineteenth century
and the beginning of the twentieth century, until the deadly effects of its addictive
qualities became known.
- Cocaine is a highly dangerous drug, not just for its addictive properties. Some people
have convulsions and may even die when using cocaine for the first time (Lacayo,
1995).
- Although cocaine users do not go through the same kind of physical withdrawal
symptoms that users of heroin, alcohol, and other physically addictive drugs go through,
users will experience a severe mood swing into depression (the “crash”), followed by
extreme tiredness, nervousness, an inability to feel pleasure, and paranoia.

Nicotine

- Nicotine is a relatively mild but nevertheless toxic stimulant, producing a slight “rush” or
sense of arousal as it raises blood pressure and accelerates the heart, as well as
providing a rush of sugar into the bloodstream by stimulating the release of adrenalin in
addition to raising dopamine levels in the brain’s reward pathway (Kovacs et al., 2010;
Rezvani & Levin, 2001).
- . As is the case with many stimulants, it also has a relaxing effect on most people and
seems to reduce stress (Pormerleau & Pormerleau, 1994).
- In the 1920s and 1930s it was used as an insecticide and is considered to be highly toxic
and fast acting (Gosselin et al., 1984). Although the amount of nicotine in a cigarette is
low, first-time smokers often experience nausea as a result of the toxic effects after just
a few puffs.

Caffeine
- Caffeine is another natural substance, like cocaine and nicotine, and is found in coffee
beans, tea leaves, cocoa nuts, and at least 60 other types of plants (Braun, 1996). It is a
mild stimulant, helps maintain alertness, and can increase the effectiveness of some
pain relievers such as aspirin.
- Caffeine is often added to pain relievers for that reason and is the key ingredient in
medications meant to keep people awake.
- Contrary to popular belief, coffee does not help induce sobriety. All one would get is a
wide-awake drunk.
- Coffee is fairly acidic, too, and acids are not what the stomach of a person with a
hangover needs. (And since the subject has come up, drinking more alcohol or “hair of
the dog that bit you” just increases the problem later on.)
EFFECTS AND DANGERS OF DEPRESSANTS

Barbiturates
- Commonly known as the major tranquilizers (drugs that have a strong depressant effect)
or sleeping pills, barbiturates are drugs that have a sedative (sleep-inducing) effect.
Overdoses can lead to death as breathing and heart action are stopped.
- The minor tranquilizers (drugs having a relatively mild depressant effect) include the
benzodiazepines. These drugs are used to lower anxiety and reduce stress. Some of
the most common are Valium, Xanax, Halcion, Ativan, and Librium.
- Both major and minor tranquilizers can be addictive, and large doses can be dangerous,
as can an interaction with alcohol or other drugs (Breslow et al., 2015; Olin, 1993).
- Rohypnol is a benzodiazepine tranquilizer that has become famous as the “date rape”
drug. Unsuspecting victims drink something that has been doctored with this drug, which
causes them to be unaware of their actions, although still able to respond to directions or
commands. Rape or some other form of sexual assault can then be carried out without
fear that the victim will remember it or be able to report it (Armstrong, 1997; Gable,
2004).
Alcohol
- The most commonly used and abused depressant is alcohol, the chemical resulting from
fermentation or distillation of various kinds of vegetable matter. 2016). Aside from the
obvious health risks to the liver, brain, and heart, alcohol is associated with loss of work
time, loss of a job, and loss of economic stability.
- Many people are alcoholics but deny the fact. They believe that getting drunk, especially
in college, is a ritual of adulthood. Many college students and even older adults engage
in binge drinking (drinking four or five drinks within a limited amount of time, such as at
“happy hour”).
- Some other danger signs are feeling guilty about drinking, drinking in the morning,
drinking to recover from drinking, drinking alone, being sensitive about how much one
drinks when others mention it, drinking so much that one does and says things one later
regrets. Increased risk of loss of bone density (known as osteoporosis) and heart
disease has also been linked to alcoholism (Abbott et al., 1994).
- Alcohol is often confused with stimulants. Many people think this is because alcohol
makes a person feel “up” and euphoric (happy). Actually, alcohol is a depressant that
gives the illusion of stimulation.
- because the very first thing alcohol depresses is a person’s natural inhibitions, or the
“don’ts” of behavior. down. The areas of the brain that are first affected by alcohol are
unfortunately the areas that control social inhibitions, so alcohol (due to its simulation of
GABA) has the effect of depressing the inhibitions.
 - People who are not usually drinkers will feel the effects of alcohol much more quickly
than those who have built up a tolerance. Women also feel the effects sooner, as their
bodies process alcohol differently than men’s bodies do. (Women are typically smaller,
too, so alcohol has a quicker impact on women.)

Opiates
- Opiates are a type of depressant that suppress the sensation of pain by binding to and
stimulating the nervous system’s natural receptor sites for endorphins (called opioid
receptors), the neurotransmitters that naturally deaden pain sensations (Levesque,
2014; Olin, 1993).
- Because they also slow down the action of the nervous system, drug interactions with
alcohol and other depressants are possible—and deadly.

Opium
- Opium, made from the opium poppy, has pain-relieving and euphoria-inducing properties
that have been known for at least 2,000 years. Highly addictive, it mimics the effects of
endorphins, the nervous system’s natural painkillers.
- When the drug wears off, there is no protection against any kind of pain, causing the
severe symptoms of withdrawal associated with these drugs. It was not until 1803 that
opium was developed for use as a medication by a German physician.
Morphine
- Morphine was created by dissolving opium in an acid and then neutralizing the acid with
ammonia.
- Morphine was thought to be a wonder drug, although its addictive qualities soon became
a major concern to physicians and their patients. Morphine is still used today to control
severe pain, but in carefully controlled doses and for very short periods of time.

Heroin
- Ironically, heroin was first hailed as the new wonder drug—a derivative of morphine that
did not have many of the disagreeable side effects of morphine. The theory was that
heroin was a purer form of the drug and that the impurities in morphine were the
substances creating the harmful side effects.
- People are not only using heroin but are combining it with other drugs, particularly
cocaine and prescription painkillers containing opiates, which has of course led to an
increase in overdose deaths.

EFFECTS AND DANGERS OF HALLUCINOGENS

hallucinogens
- drugs that cause false sensory messages, altering the perception of reality.
Hallucinogens actually cause the brain to alter its interpretation of sensations. There are
two basic types of hallucinogens—those that are created in a laboratory and those that
are from natural sources.

Manufactured Highs
- There are several drugs that were developed in the laboratory instead of being found in
nature. Perhaps because these drugs are manufactured, they are often more potent
than drugs found in the natural world.

LSD ( Lysergic acid diethylamide)

- synthesized from a grain fungus called ergot. Ergot fungus commonly grows on rye grain
but can be found on other grains as well.
- It takes only a very tiny drop of LSD to achieve a “high.” People who take LSD usually do
so to get that high feeling.
- Some people feel that LSD helps them expand their consciousness or awareness of the
world around them.
- One of the greater dangers in using LSD is the effect it has on a person’s ability to
perceive reality. Real dangers and hazards in the world may go unnoticed by a person
“lost” in an LSD fantasy, and people under the influence of this drug may make poor
decisions, such as trying to drive while high.
- A person who has taken LSD can have flashbacks—spontaneous hallucinations—even
years after taking the drug, and chronic uses of the drug can develop hallucinogen
persisting perception disorder (HPPD), an irreversible condition in which hallucinations
 and altered perceptions of reality can occur repeatedly, accompanied by depression and
physical discomfort.

PCP (phenyl cyclohexyl piperidine)

- Another synthesized drug was found to be so dangerous that it remains useful only in
veterinary medicine as a tranquilizer. The drug is PCP, often contracted as
phencyclidine, and can have many different effects.
- Depending on the dosage, users of PCP can experience hallucinations, distorted
sensations, and very unpleasant effects.
- PCP can also lead to acts of violence against others or suicide. Users may even
physically injure themselves unintentionally because PCP causes them to feel no
warning signal of pain.

MDMA (Ecstasy or X)
- designer drug that can have both stimulant and hallucinatory effects. MDMA causes the
release of large amounts of serotonin and also blocks the reuptake of this
neurotransmitter. stimulatory hallucinogenics are drugs that produce a mixture of
psychomotor stimulant and hallucinogenic effects.
- MDMA may damage the serotonin receptors, which could lead to depression. Other
negative effects include severe dehydration and raised body temperature, which can
lead to excessive intake of liquids—with possible fatal results.

Non Manufactured High: Marijuana

- One of the best known and most commonly abused of the hallucinogenic drugs,
marijuana (also called “pot” or “weed”) comes from the leaves and flowers of the hemp
plant called Cannabis sativa.
- The most psychoactive cannabinoid, and the active ingredient in marijuana, is
tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). Marijuana is best known for its ability to produce a feeling
of well-being, mild intoxication, and mild sensory distortions or hallucinations.
- The effects of marijuana are relatively mild compared to those of the other
hallucinogens. Most people do report a feeling of mild euphoria and relaxation, along
with an altered time sense and mild visual distortions. Higher doses can lead to
hallucinations, delusions, and the all-too-common paranoia.
- Even at mild doses, it is not safe to operate heavy machinery or drive a car while under
the influence of marijuana because it negatively affects reaction time and perception of
surroundings;
HOW CONSCIOUSNESS EXPLAINS SUPERNATURAL VISITATIONS

The supernatural is defined as anything that exists outside of the natural world but, generally
speaking, must interact with the natural world in some way for us to perceive it.

Down through the ages, people have been visited by ghosts, spirits, and other sorts of
mystical or mysterious visitors—or so they have believed. In more modern times, ghostly
visitations have often given way to aliens, who may perform some sort of medical exam-
ination or who may abduct the person, only to return them to their beds.

a type of hallucination can occur just as a person is entering stage N1 sleep, called a
hypnogogic hallucination, people in N1, when awakened, will deny having been asleep, a simple
explanation for so-called supernatural visitations does
present itself.

Hypnogogic hallucinations are not dreamlike in nature. Instead, they feel very
real to the person experiencing them (who does not think he or she is asleep, remember).

Most common are the auditory hallucinations, in which a person might hear a voice calling out
the person’s name, not all that unusual and probably not remembered most of the time.
Sometimes people have a similar experience in the middle of the night. They awaken to find that
they are paralyzed and that something—ghost, demon, alien—is standing over them and
perhaps doing strange things to their helpless bodies. Combine this experience with the natural
tendency many people have to want to believe that there is life after death or that there are
other sentient life forms visiting our planet, and voilà!—a ghost/spirit/alien has appeared.

When a hallucination happens just as a person is in the between-state of being in REM sleep (in
which the voluntary muscles are paralyzed) and not yet fully awake, it is called a hypnopompic
hallucination and is once again a much simpler explanation of visits by aliens or spirits during
the night than any supernatural explanation.