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353008 Cambridge AS and A Level Psychology BP.indd 2 20/08/2021 15:52

 Contents
Acknowledgements v
How to use this book vi
Understanding Papers 1 and 2 vii
Issues and debates viii

AS LEVEL
Chapter 1: The Biological approach 1
1.0 Introducing the Biological approach 2
1.1 Sleep and dreams: Dement and Kleitman (1957) 5
1.2 Monkey toy preferences: Hassett et al. (2008) 15
1.3 Mindfulness and brain scans: Hölzel et al. (2011) 28
Chapter 2: The Cognitive approach 43
2.0 Introducing the Cognitive approach 44
2.1 Doodling: Andrade (2010) 48
2.2 Eyes test: Baron-Cohen et al. (2001) 59
2.3 Line-ups: Pozzulo et al. (2011) 70
Chapter 3: The Learning approach 85
3.0 Introducing the Learning approach 86
3.1 Aggression: Bandura et al. (1961) 89
3.2 Elephant learning: Fagen et al. (2014) 101
3.3 Button phobia: Saavedra and Silverman (2002) 113
Chapter 4: The Social approach 127
4.0 Introducing the Social approach 128
4.1 Obedience: Milgram (1963) 132
4.2 Personal space: Perry et al. (2015) 143
4.3 Subway Samaritans: Piliavin et al. (1969) 153
Chapter 5: Research methodology 165
5.0 Introducing research methodology 166
5.1 Research methods 168
5.2 Methodological concepts 195

A LEVEL
Chapter 6: Clinical Psychology 000
6.1 Schizophrenia 000
6.2 Mood (affective) disorders 000
6.3 Impulse control disorders 000
6.4 Anxiety and fear-related disorders 000
Chapter 7: Consumer Psychology 000
7.1 The physical environment 000
7.2 The psychological environment 000
7.3 Consumer decision-making 000
7.4 The product 000
7.5 Advertising 000

iii

9781398353008.indb 3 21/12/21 6:17 PM

 Chapter 8: Health Psychology 000
Contents

8.1 The patient–practitioner relationship 000

8.2 Adherence to medical advice 000
8.3 Pain 000
8.4 Stress 000
8.5 Health promotion 000
Chapter 9: Organisational Psychology 000
9.1 Motivation to work 000
9.2 Leadership and management 000
9.3 Group behaviour in organisations 000
9.4 Organisational work conditions 000
9.5 Satisfaction at work 000
Glossary 000
Index 000

iv

9781398353008.indb 4 21/12/21 6:17 PM

 How to use this book
How to use this book
This textbook has been designed to make your study of
psychology as successful and rewarding as possible.
Organisation
The book comprises 9 chapters, which correspond with the
topics in the Cambridge syllabus. Each chapter is broken
down into sections, which reflect the subtopics in the
syllabus.
Features
Each chapter contains a number of features designed to help
you effectively navigate the syllabus content.
Learning outcomes
At the start of each chapter, there is a blue box that
provides a summary of the learning outcomes to be
covered in that topic.
KEY TERMS
A list of significant words from each study, with clear and
concise definitions provided in the glossary, adapted for
learners with English as a second language.
Chapter overview
A short introduction to the chapter and its focus.
STUDY TIP
Advice that students will find useful when learning a new
topic or revising.
Psychological concepts (Vocabulary)
Designed to highlight psychology terminology and/or concepts
which can be confused.
RESEARCH METHOD
Highlighting research methods links and encouraging
the development of research-based skills.
LEARNING LINK
Numerous topics in psychology are connected. This
feature states where relevant material is covered
elsewhere in the book.
353008 Cambridge AS and A Level Psychology BP.indd 4
Think!
Questions that draw attention to specific key unique
details of the study. These are designed to encourage
students’ original thought and avoid general evaluations.
There are three differentiated skill levels according to
Bloom’s taxonomy: mastery task in red, apply to own life
in orange and higher order thinking in green.
ISSUES AND DEBATES
News and discussion points around key topics linking
psychology to everyday life.
CHAPTER SUMMARY
At the end of each chapter, there is a list of the main
points from the chapter that you should have a good
understanding of.
TEST YOURSELF
Short questions at the end of each chapter to help
recap and confirm knowledge and understanding of the
concepts covered.
FIND OUT MORE
Material that goes beyond the syllabus, to encourage a
wider curiosity in the subject.
Glossary
Definitions of all the words in bold in the book are available
at the end in a comprehensive glossary.
Answers
Answers to questions in the student textbook are available
at: www.hoddereducation.com/cambridgeextras
20/08/2021 15:52
 1 The Biological approach

1 The Biological approach

▲ Figure 1.1 [caption tbc]

Where there are people, there is psychology!

Psychology is everywhere, and this woman is in Germany, the homeland of
neuropsychologist Britta Hölzel. You will examine Hölzel et al.’s (2011) research on
mindfulness on pages 000 of this chapter. But before finding out how this ancient practice
affects the workings of the brain, you will learn about Dement and Kleitman’s (1957)
study of sleep and dreams and Hassett et al.’s (2008) study of monkey toy preferences.
First, let’s explore the main assumptions of the Biological approach.

Learning outcomes
In this chapter, we will discuss:
l the main assumptions, methodology, history, issues and debates of the Biological
approach
l psychological concepts, theories and research relating to the three core studies:
• Dement and Kleitman (sleep and dreaming)
• Hassett et al. (monkey toy preferences)
• Hölzel et al. (mindfulness and brain scans)
l strengths and weaknesses of the three key studies with reference to ethical issues,
reliability, validity, objectivity and subjectivity, generalisations, issues and debates,
including applications to everyday life
l how to plan and evaluate your own investigations using longitudinal studies,
correlations and questionnaires.

9781398353008.indb 1 21/12/21 6:17 PM

 KEY TERMS 1.0 Introducing the Biological approach
1 brain
hormones RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
genetics
evolutionary differences experiment correlation
biological factors longitudinal design observation
self-report (questionnaire and interview)
1 The Biological approach

Think!
Why is the pituitary gland known as the master gland?

Think!
Imagine you are working in a laboratory conducting research using female rats. Your
supervisor suggests a study where you will inject the rats with testosterone. She asks
you to come up with a way of testing the effects of this hormone on their behaviour.
What would you suggest?

Think!
Many animals have evolved to sleep at night when it is dark. Using your understanding
of evolution, explain why natural selection has favoured animals that sleep at night and
are awake during the day.

Figure 1.2 shows the position of the hippocampus, a brain structure associated with
memory, which underwent neuroplastic changes following Mindfulness-Based Stress
Reduction in the study by Britta Hölzel and colleagues. Dr
Thalamus Hölzel conducted an experiment, but how would you convince
her to let you conduct a case study on the role of the
Basal ganglia
hippocampus?
Cerebrum
Pineal gland
Hypothalamus
Pituitary gland
Hippocampus Main assumptions
Amygdala
Cerebellum 1 Behaviour, cognitions and emotions can be explained
in terms of the working of the brain and the effect of
hormones and genetic and evolutionary differences,
such as those between humans and animals.
2 Similarities and differences between people can be
understood in terms of biological factors and their
▲ Figure 1.2 The limbic system interaction with other factors.
(Cambridge International, 2021)

The workings of the brain

Together with the spinal cord, the brain is part of the central nervous system, which controls
all of our bodily functions and thoughts, both conscious and unconscious. The human
brain is a highly complex organ made up of billions of neurons (nerve cells), which work
together in specialised neural networks. In this chapter, you will learn about localisation
of function, which refers to the idea that specific structures in the brain are responsible for
specific behaviours and processes. You will also learn that experience can cause changes
in our neural networks, including increasing and decreasing the number of connections
(synapses) between neurons. This process is called neuroplasticity and is a good example of
an interaction between nature and nurture.
Throughout this course, you will learn about various brain structures, some of which are
subcortical structures. This means they are buried deep within the brain, below the outside

9781398353008.indb 2 21/12/21 6:17 PM

 layer called the cortex (see Figure 1.2 for some of the structures you will learn about in your
course). The brain is also divided into five areas, or lobes, each of which has been linked
to different areas of human functioning – for example, visual (occipital lobe) and auditory
processing (temporal lobe).
1
The effect of hormones
The endocrine system is made of glands throughout the body which produce and release
various substances, including hormones. Hormones are sometimes called chemical
messengers as they travel through the blood to the various bodily organs. Hormones bind

1.0 Introducing the Biological approach

to specially shaped receptors, signalling the organs to bring about important changes
to help the organism to develop and respond to their environment. The most important
gland in the body is called the pituitary gland and it is situated in the brain. This gland
controls the release of hormones from all the other glands in the body. For example,
adrenocorticotropic hormone is released by the pituitary gland and signals the adrenal
glands (at the top of the kidneys) to release the stress hormone cortisol. The pituitary
gland also releases oxytocin, another hormone that you will learn about in the study by
Perry et al. (2015) in the Social approach (page 000).
In this chapter, you will learn about toy preferences in monkeys (page 000). Hassett et al.
(2008) claim that male and female monkeys prefer different types of toys due to differences
in sex hormones (e.g. testosterone and oestrogen).

The effect of genes

Genes are referred to as the basic units of heredity, meaning they are responsible for passing
down specific characteristics from one generation to the next – for example, from parents
to their children. Genes are stretches of DNA, large chains of molecules that code for the
creation of amino acids, which make up all the proteins needed to create a living organism.
You will learn about genetic explanations for various human behaviours, such as the
symptoms of mental disorders, in Year 2 of your course.
It is also important to understand that the way genes are expressed – that is, the way that
the instructions are carried out – is affected by environmental factors, such as stress and
diet. These interactions between nature and nurture are called epigenetic effects.

The effect of evolutionary differences

The term evolution refers to the biological process whereby the characteristics of a
species gradually change over several generations. This relies on the process of natural
selection: genes which code for characteristics associated with survival become more
common and genes that decrease the chance of survival become less common (Darwin and
Kebler, 1859).
Biological psychologists believe that behavioural differences between species depend on
the amount of shared DNA. For example, humans and chimpanzees share more DNA than
any other species (98.8 per cent), meaning that a small proportion of DNA (1.2 per cent) is
responsible for all of the differences between these species. However, even when non-human
animals and humans share the same genes, they are not always expressed in the same ways,
leading to great diversity between the species.

Methodology in the Biological approach

Biological psychologists generally collect quantitative data, often as part of an experiment
where two groups or conditions are compared. Blood, urine, saliva, cerebro-spinal fluid and
faecal matter can be tested to find out about an organism’s genetic make-up and/or levels
of certain hormones and other substances. Other objective measures may be taken, such as
heart rate or electrodermal activity, which monitors changes in sweat glands as a measure of
emotional arousal.

9781398353008.indb 3 21/12/21 6:17 PM

 MRI scans can be used to monitor structural changes in the brain and
techniques such as voxel-based morphometry (VBM) may be used to measure
1 the relative size of specific structures (see page 000). fMRI and/or PET
scans can be used to observe the activity in different brain structures while
participants complete a task. This is done by monitoring neural blood flow.
The more active a brain structure is, the quicker oxygen is consumed. This
means blood flow to that region is increased to cope with the increased
demand. On page 000, you will learn about a final imaging technique called
electroencephalography (EEG), which measures changes in electrical activity
(brain waves) as neurons communicate with each other.
1 The Biological approach

Biological psychologists also conduct experiments on non-human animals, for

▲ Figure 1.3 Aggression is a trait shared the reasons discussed on page 000, and they sometimes conduct ethological
by bonobos, chimpanzees and humans studies, which means studying animals in their natural habitats.
Bonobos and chimpanzees share almost 99 per cent of their DNA with humans and, as you
might expect, show many human-like behaviours, including aggression. Why do you think
aggression is a common trait in these three species?

ISSUES AND DEBATES

Applications to everyday life
A better understanding of the impact of biological factors
has led to the development of treatments to help people
with sleep disorders and hormonal imbalances (see
congenital adrenal hyperplasia, page 000) and to manage
stress through practices such as mindfulness, which can
trigger neuroplastic changes.
Individual and situational explanations
An understanding of the interaction between genes
and environment is helpful in understanding individual
differences, but an understanding of the way the brain
responds to stress through the release of hormones, for
example, can help explain the impact of situational factors.
Nature versus nurture
Although the Biological approach is clearly allied
with nature (i.e. the impact of genes on the brain
and behaviour), advances in our understanding of
neuroplasticity and epigenetics help to explain how
nurture (experience) changes our behaviour.
The use of animals in psychological
research
The Biological approach often favours the use of non-
human animal experiments – for example, with rodents or
primates – due to biological similarities with humans.

The history of the Biological approach

2019
1890 Researchers at the University
Polish physiologist 1912 2008 of Washington create BrainNet,
Adolf Beck records Ukrainian physiologist 1953 Hassett et al. the world’s first multi-person,
rhythmic electrical waves Vladimir Vladimirovich Eugene Aserinsky (monkey toy preferences) non-invasive direct
by placing electrodes Pravdich-Neminskyrecords and Nathaniel Kleitman publish their article about brain-to-brain interface for
onto the brains of the first ever document REM sleep for sex differences in monkey collaborative problem-solving
rabbits and dogs. animal EEG. the first time using EEG. toy preferences. (Jiang et al., 2019).

1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030

1924 1957 2011

Hans Berger Dement and Kleitman Hölzel et al.
records the first (sleep and dreams) (mindfulness and brain scans)
ever human EEG. use EEG to reveal whether participants discover that Mindfulness-Based
are in REM or NREM sleep Stress Reduction
and find that dreaming is more (MBSR) can trigger changes
common in REM sleep. in grey matter concentration
(GMC) in brain structures,
including the hippocampus.
▲ Figure 1.4 Timeline of the Biological approach

9781398353008.indb 4 21/12/21 6:17 PM

 STUDY TIP
As you learn about each of the studies in the Biological approach, think about how the
results support the main assumptions of the approach. What has the study told us about
1
the causes of behaviour and how they link to the workings of the brain, hormones, genetics
and/or evolution? Does the study tell us anything about the interaction of these biological
factors and environmental factors?

Do you remember Rohan and Polina from page 000? They were discussing an internet news
story about a riot in another country. Rohan was shocked by the level of aggression that

1.1 Sleep and dreams: Dement and Kleitman (1957)

people had shown to each other, but Polina was less surprised, saying it was part of human
nature.
» How might a biological psychologist explain the high levels of aggression observed
during the riot?
» Use what you have learned in this section as a starting point, but you may also wish to
conduct some research of your own.
» After you have learned about all three studies in the approach, you may like to revisit
your answer and add some more ideas.

1.1 Sleep and dreams: Dement and

Kleitman (1957)
1.1.1 Background: Dement and Kleitman
(sleep and dreams)
Introducing William Dement and Nathaniel
Kleitman
Nathaniel Kleitman, Professor Emeritus in Physiology at the University of
Chicago, is known as the founder of modern sleep research. He was also an
academic supervisor of William Dement. Kleitman used many of his relatives
in his sleep research and had his daughters sleep on special beds designed to
track their sleep for many years. He was also interested in the effects of sleep
deprivation and once spent over a month in an underground cave to record his
sleep and body temperature. In 1953, another of Kleitman’s graduate students,
Eugene Aserinsky, discovered that periods of eye movements during sleep
correspond to sudden increases in brain activity after monitoring his eight-year-
old son’s sleep with an EEG machine (Aserinsky and Kleitman, 1953). This was an
important finding as, before this discovery, it was believed that the brain was
in a restful state only during sleep.

▲ Figure 1.5 Professor

Nathaniel Kleitman

9781398353008.indb 5 21/12/21 6:17 PM

 KEY TERMS Think!
1 sleep
electroencephalogram
What are the main differences between REM and non-REM sleep?

(EEG) Think!
rapid eye movement
How have your sleep patterns changed throughout your lifetime so far? Have you noticed any
(REM)
changes in the amount of time you sleep, or the time you wake up, as you have got older?
non-rapid eye movement
(non-REM)
Think!
ultradian rhythms
1 The Biological approach

dreaming While the use of scientific equipment such as EEGs to record physiological processes can
make measurements more objective, what are some disadvantages of their use?

Awake
Fall
asleep

Stage 1
(light sleep) REM REM REM REM
Sleep stages

Stage 2 NREM NREM

Stage 3
NREM

Stage 4
(deep sleep)
NREM NREM
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Hours

▲ Figure 1.6 Sleep cycles

How do the stages of sleep change throughout the night? When you have slept for a longer
period of time than normal, are you more likely to remember your dreams?

The psychology being investigated

The sleep stages: non-REM and REM
Brain wave activity during sleep can be measured via an electroencephalogram (EEG),
which detects activity through electrodes connected to the scalp (see page 000 for more
on EEGs). Sleep researchers have identified five distinct sleep stages. Stages 1 and 2 are
the lighter stages of sleep, where a person can still be woken fairly easily, and Stages
3 and 4 are the deeper stages of sleep. In the deeper stages, brain waves slow down
and show a pattern of high amplitude and low frequency. The final stage is rapid eye
movement (REM) sleep. Here the brain waves are high frequency and low amplitude and
are similar to those seen when we are awake. Researchers often refer to Stages 1–4 as
non-rapid eye movement (non-REM) sleep.
When we first fall asleep, we gradually enter Stage 1 (non-REM) sleep, before moving
through Stages 2–4 and then back into the lighter stages of sleep. Instead of re-
entering Stage 1, the person enters the first episode of REM sleep. During REM sleep, a
person’s eyes flicker and move beneath their eyelids, but other muscles in the body are
paralysed. Figure 1.6 shows how we move from non-REM to REM sleep in a cyclical pattern
throughout the night. As you can see, we spend a significant proportion of time in non-
REM sleep in the first half of the night, and increasingly more time in REM sleep in the
second half of the night.

9781398353008.indb 6 21/12/21 6:17 PM

 Ultradian rhythms
Biological rhythms which repeat more frequently than once a day are called ultradian
rhythms and the sleep stages are a good example of these as, in healthy adults, a full
1
cycle takes roughly 90 minutes.

Dreams
Dreams are subjective memories of what we experience while we are asleep and this study
was interested in whether people are more likely to report dreams if woken in certain
sleep stages compared with others.

1.1 Sleep and dreams: Dement and Kleitman (1957)

Background
Dement and Kleitman were interested in finding a reliable way to physiologically determine
when a person is dreaming. They believed that dreaming must have a biological basis and,
therefore, there must be a way to objectively measure when it is physically taking place.
Previously, Kleitman had noticed that when people who were asleep were showing rapid
eye movements and then woken up, they were often able to recall their dreams. However,
when woken up during other parts of the night, they found dreams difficult to remember.
Furthermore, when people were showing rapid eye movements during their sleep, this
corresponded to a specific pattern of brain activity as measured by an EEG and occurred
cyclically throughout the night.

Dement and Kleitman in brief

Dement and Kleitman wanted to see whether there was a relationship between eye
movements and dreaming. They used the following three approaches to investigate this:
1 They wanted participants to recall their dreams without a researcher present, to avoid
any investigator effects.
2 They wanted to compare a participant’s estimate of their dream length to the amount of
time their eyes had been moving prior to waking.
3 They wanted to see whether the pattern of eye movements was related to dream content.
Participants were invited to sleep in a sleep laboratory, where an EEG machine was used to
monitor their brain waves during sleep. They were then woken up multiple times during the night
and asked to report any dream content they remembered, as well as how long they estimated
themselves to have been dreaming. Participants were woken up during both REM and non-REM
sleep, which the researchers were able to determine by the brain wave patterns on the EEG.

Plan your own… longitudinal study

Dement and Kleitman used experimental and correlational methods to test their ideas
about sleep and dreaming but there are lots of other research methods that might be used to
investigate sleep and dreaming. Why not try designing a longitudinal study?

Imagine…
Merry is planning a longitudinal study to investigate whether people’s total REM sleep
changes over their lifespan. She wants to know if the total time spent in REM sleep changes
from childhood to old age.
» What advice would you give Merry about how to conduct a longitudinal study to
investigate whether people’s total REM sleep changes over their lifespan?

Planning a longitudinal study

A longitudinal study is an investigation that takes place over a significant period of time
and can be part of an experimental design. When planning a longitudinal study, it is
important to consider the tests or tasks that participants will undertake, how these will
be scored, how often participants will be contacted to take part in the research, how
procedures will be standardised and what controls will be in place. See page 000 for more
information on longitudinal studies.
7

9781398353008.indb 7 21/12/21 6:18 PM

 ▼ Table 1.1 Features of a longitudinal study

1 Main features of a longitudinal study Consider…

Tests or tasks Longitudinal studies often require participants to take part in similar tests or tasks
repeatedly over a period of time. What tests might Merry use to determine the total
time a person spends in REM sleep each night?
Scoring Longitudinal studies need to compare people’s data sets over time. What data will
Merry collect in order to track any changes in the total time spent in REM sleep each
night?
1 The Biological approach

Frequency or interval
Re-contacting of participants
(for repeated testing)
Controls and standardisation
Longitudinal studies investigate any changes that may occur over a period of time. In
order to collect valid data about lifespan changes in REM sleep, how long will Merry’s
study last and how frequently will her participants need to be tested?
Participants in longitudinal studies need to be re-contacted for repeated testing.
How might Merry re-contact her participants if she only needs to test them every few
years?
In order to compare data over a period of time, procedures need to be standardised
and controls put in place. How can Merry ensure that her procedure is the same each
time participants attend testing? What controls can she put in place?

Evaluating your plan

Merry shares your ideas with her colleagues. Some of them think it is a great idea; others are
not so sure. Think about the practical strengths and weaknesses of your suggestions.

▼ Table 1.2 Evaluating your plan

Describe
Strengths What unique insight might be gained from Merry
undertaking a longitudinal study? How would this
strengthen the validity of the data?
Weaknesses What issue might arise with the research taking
place over a very long period of time? Why might
this compromise the validity of the data?
Improvements Consider the weakness you gave above. How might
you improve Merry’s procedure to overcome this
issue?
Explain
Would it be possible for Merry to gain this data
using another research method? If so, why might a
longitudinal study give a more valid insight into time
spent in REM sleep over the lifespan?
If the validity of the data is compromised by the study’s
length, what impact will this have on any findings
about time spent in REM sleep over the lifespan?
How would this improvement affect the validity and/
or reliability of the data Merry collects about lifespan
changes in time spent in REM sleep?

 Knowing that people are paralysed during REM sleep, how

might these sleep trackers determine what stage of sleep a
person is in?

▲ Figure 1.7 There are sleep tracking apps for
both phones and watches
LEARNING LINK
Similar to Dement and Kleitman, Hölzel et al. (mindfulness and brain
scans) also used scientific equipment to take measurements of the
brain. In Hölzel et al.’s (2011) study, participants were awake, not
asleep and an MRI scanner was used as opposed to an EEG machine.
MRI scans are static (still) images of the brain, whereas Dement and
Kleitman recorded brain wave activity using an EEG machine. An MRI
scanner is very restrictive as it requires a person to lie still within
a very small space and can be quite claustrophobic. Therefore, it is
only appropriate to be used for a short amount of time. An EEG, on
the other hand, is used by placing electrodes on a person’s head.
While this is still quite restrictive, as a person is still attached
to a machine via cables, it allowed Dement and Kleitman to take
recordings throughout the whole night while participants slept.

9781398353008.indb 8 21/12/21 6:18 PM

 STUDY TIP
A longitudinal study is a non-experimental method that involves collecting and comparing
data from the same group of people (or person in a longitudinal case study), on at least
1
three occasions over an extended period. As it is a non-experimental method, there
is no independent variable. However, it is also possible to have an experiment with a
longitudinal design. Like any experiment, data is collected from different groups or in
different conditions in order to find a cause-and-effect relationship between at least one
independent and one dependent variable. The only difference is that the data collection
periods may be weeks, months or years apart. Understanding that ‘longitudinal’ can be
used to describe the method and/or an experimental design is important when you are

1.1 Sleep and dreams: Dement and Kleitman (1957)

planning but also when you are evaluating your own research or that of other people.

TEST YOURSELF
1 This study investigated rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. Outline the main
features of REM sleep. [2]
2 Identify one reason for using an EEG (electroencephalogram) to record brain
activity. [1]
3 Explain why the study by Dement and Kleitman is an example of the Biological
approach. [2]
4 Dement and Kleitman found a positive correlation between REM duration and the
number of words used to describe the dream. Explain what is meant by a ‘positive
correlation’, using this study as an example. [2]
5 Dement and Kleitman had to rely on self-reports to investigate the content of
participants’ dreams. Explain one disadvantage of this. [2]
6 The study by Dement and Kleitman was conducted in a sleep laboratory. Suggest
one disadvantage of conducting a study in this location. [2]

1.1.2 Describing Dement and Kleitman

(sleep and dreams)
Think!
During which type of sleep did dream recall mostly occur in Dement and Kleitman’s study?

Think!
How easy do you find it to recall your dreams when you wake up in the morning? Do you
find it easier to remember your dreams when you sleep for longer? If so, why might this
▼ Figure 1.8 A modern be the case?
EEG being used in a
medical setting
Think!
Why was it important that participants did not consume alcohol or
caffeine on the day of the experiment?

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
experiment
correlation
interview

What does an EEG record? How might using this machine affect the participants’ sleep?
9

9781398353008.indb 9 21/12/21 6:18 PM

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