Cohesion
can be thought of as all the it, they, and we are useful pronouns for
grammatical and lexical links that link
one part of a discourse to another. This
includes use of synonyms, lexical sets,
pronouns, verb tenses, time references,
grammatical reference, etc. For
example, 'it', 'neither' and 'this' all refer
to an idea previously mentioned. 'First of
all', 'then' and 'after that' help to
sequence a discourse. 'However', 'in
addition' and 'for instance' link ideas and
arguments in a discourse.
Coherence
can be thought of as how
meanings and sequences of ideas relate
to each other. Typical examples would
be general> particular, statement>
example; problem> solution; question>
answer; claim> counterclaim.
Synonyms
Are words that have essentially
the same meaning and they provide
some variety in your word choices,
helping the listener/ reader to stay
focused on the idea being discussed.
Examples: myths narrate sacred
histories and explain sacred origin.
These traditional narratives are, in short,
a set of beliefs that are a very real force
in the lives of the people who tell them.
Transitional Words
There are many words in English
that cue our listeners/readers to
relationships between sentences, joining
sentences together. Words such as
however, therefore, in addition, also, but
moreover, etc.
Pronouns
This, that, these, those, he, she,
referring back to something previously
mentioned. Be sure, however, that what
you are referring to is clear.
Rules
A pronoun must agree with its
antecedent in both number and
gender.
The taylors landscaped their yard
in an unusual way.
Kim regained her confidence
after the rest.
The cheetah licked its chops.
The doctor makes his or her
rounds every day.
Doctors make their round every
day.
Collective Nouns
When the antecedent of a pronoun is
a collective noun, the number of the
pronoun depends upon whether the
collective noun is used as singular or
plural.
The class had its first meeting
yesterday. ( Class is used as a singular
unit; therefore, the singular pronoun is
used.)
Agreement in person
Henry lives in Tampa where he
can sunbathe all year long.
They like camping because they
can be close to nature.
Agreement with indefinite pronoun
antecedents
When a pronoun’s antecedent is an
indefinite pronoun, the pronoun must
agree in number with it.
 Neither of the girls spent their
entire allowance. 1. Singular antecedent with
Several members missed their singular pronoun:
chance to speak with the president. ● The teacher handed out her
Agreement with indefinite pronoun assignment.
antecedents 2. Plural Antecedent With Plural
When no gender is specified use Pronoun:
both a masculine and feminine ● The students submitted their
pronoun. projects on time.
Each of the students should 3. Singular antecedent with
prepare his or her own homework. indefinite pronoun:
Use singular pronouns to refer to ● Each of the guests brought his or
each, either, neither, one, everyone, her favorite dish to the potluck.
no one, nobody, anymore, someone, 4. Plural antecedent with
or somebody. indefinite pronoun:
Each of the teams had its mascot ● Both of the candidates gave their
at the game. speeches at the debate.
One of the boys left his pen 5. Collective noun as
behind. antecedents:
The following indefinite pronouns are ● The committee made its final
plural: both, few, many, and several decision.
Many of the actors already know 6. Ambiguous pronoun reference:
their lines. ● When Sarah tells Emily that she
Both of the candidates clearly was leaving, it was a surprise.
stated their positions on the issue. (unclear: who is “she” referring to,
The indefinite pronouns all, any, Sarah or Emily?)
more, most, none, and some may be 7. Using “one” as an indefinite
singular or plural depending on how pronoun:
they are used in the sentence. ● One should always do their best
Most of these coins are rare, but I in any situation.
don’t know what they are worth. 8. Agreement in gender:
Use singular pronoun to refer to two ● James and Sarah completed their
or more singular antecedents joined tasks efficiently.
by or or nor. 9. Agreement with possessive
Neither Heidi nor Beth took her pronouns:
umbrella with her. ● The book is yours, and its cover
Use plural pronoun to refer to two or is beautiful.
more antecedents joined by and. 10. Relative pronoun agreement:
The guide and the ranger ● The person who wins the race
wrapped their rain ponchos in their will receive a prize.
saddle rolls.
 11. Agreement in complex Simple Sentence With Compound Subject
sentences: ● Tom and Mary play tennis.
● When he arrived, they were Simple Sentence With Compound Subject
already at the restaurant. (clear And Compound Predicate
antecedent in a complex ● Tom and Mary play tennis and swim.
sentence.)
COMPOUND SENTENCE
12. Agreement in comparisons:
-a compound sentence has more than one
● Tom is taller than his brother. He
part that can stand alone (independent
is also more athletic. clauses)
-independent clauses are connected by
coordinating conjunctions, conjunctive
TYPES OF SENTENCES adverbs, or a semicolon.
• Simple ● We went to San Juan and most of us
danced all night.
• Compound Use of coordinating conjunctions
S+P AND S+P
• Complex ● Tom swims, and Mary plays tennis.
*comma before”and” in compound
• Compound-Complex sentences.
Coordinating conjunctions
SIMPLE SENTENCE -for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so
Conjunctive adverbs
-A simple sentence consists of one -moreover, however, otherwise, therefore
independent clause. ● Bob is handsome;moreover, he is
-a simple sentence has one subject and one rich.
predicate. *semicolon before conjunctive adverb and
comma after conjunctive adverb.
Conjunctive Adverb (float)
● Bob is handsome; moreover, he is
rich
● Bob is handsome;he
is,moreover,rich.
● Bob is handsome; he is rich,
moreover.
Semicolons
-if the relation between the ideas expressed
in the main clauses is very close and
obvious without a conjunction, you can
separate the clauses with semicolons.
● Tom has benefited from his exercise
program;he is slim and energetic.
COMPLEX SENTENCE
-consists of an independent clause plus a
dependent clause
-has at least two parts:one that can stand
alone and another that cannot.
-the part that cannot stand alone is linked
to the rest of the sentence by a
subordinating conjunction.
● Since my boyfriend and I wanted to
have fun, we went to San Juan
yesterday.
S+P EVEN THOUGH S+P
● Bob is popular even though he is
ugly.
● Even though Bob is ugly, he is
popular.
Subordinating Conjunctions
-the most common subordinating
conjunctions are after, although, as,
because, how, if, once, since, than, that,
though, ‘till, until, when, where, whether,
and while.
COMPOUND- COMPLEX SENTENCES
-consists of at least two independent
clauses and one or more dependent
clauses.
-has more than one part that can stand
alone, and at least one that cannot.
-conjunctions link the different parts of this
sentence.
● Since we wanted to have fun, my
boyfriend and I went to San Juan
yesterday, and we danced all night.
● Mike is popular because he is good
looking but he is not very happy.
INTERJECTION
-is a word that expresses a strong feeling or
command.
-it has no grammatical relation to the rest of
the sentence.
-for us to show a very strong feeling
-happiness, fear, anger, or pain.
-an interjection is something that interrupts
in a sentence.
-some example of interjections are ouch,
wow, uh, oh, no, gosh, shhh
How to punctuate Interjections
If an interjection is spoken calmly, simply
put a comma after it and continue the
sentence.
● Shhh, the baby is sleeping.
● Oh my, I dropped my pencil.
If an interjection is spoken with more
emotion, it is followed by an exclamation
point. The next word is then capitalized.
● Ouch! I just cut my finger.
● He scored the winning touchdown.
Wow!
Formal setting (use 1 exclamation point
only)
Informal setting ( use of more than one
exclamation point is allowed)
Interrobang (‽)
-mixture of question mark and exclamation
point.
CONJUNCTION
- joins words, phrases, and sentences,
which are called clauses.
Joins two or more words
● I went to the store to buy eggs, milk,
and bread.
● I want pizza and pasta for dinner.
Joins two prepositional phrases
● I found my keys in the kitchen and
on the bookshelf.
● The cat slept on the couch and
under the table
Connects two clauses or sentences
-when two sentences are joined, a comma
must be placed before the conjunction.
● I wanted to go to the park, but it
started raining.
● I studied for the exam, and I felt
confident when I walked into the
classroom.
3 Types of Conjunctions
1. Coordinating Conjunctions
-is a word used to connect words, phrases,
or clauses that are equally important in a
sentence.
-this means that they would connect a noun
with another noun or a prepositional phrase
with another prepositional phrase.
For: Used to explain a reason or cause
● She studied diligently, for she
wanted to excel in the exam.
And: Used to connect similar ideas or add
information
● I went to the store, and I bought
some groceries.
Nor: Used to introduce a negative
alternative or continuation of a negative
idea.
● He neither called nor sent a text
message.
But: Used to introduce a contrasting idea or
exception.
● The weather was cold, but we went
for a walk anyway.
Or: Used to present alternatives or choices.
● You can choose either the blue shirt
or the red one.
Yet: Used to indicate a contrast or
unexpected result.
● She worked hard, yet her efforts
went unnoticed.
So: Used to indicate a consequence or
result.
● It started raining, so we decided to
stay indoors.
2. Correlative Conjunction
-is a pair of words that work together to
connect and emphasize related elements in
a sentence. They are used to show
relationships, choices, or contrast between
these elements.
Both…and: Connects two elements that
are both true or both happening.
● Both Tom and Jerry enjoyed the
movie.
Either…or: Presents a choice between two
alternatives.
● You can either go to the beach or
stay home.
Neither…nor: Indicates that none of the
given options is true or happening.
● Neither the book nor the movie was
interesting.
Not only… but also: Adds emphasis and
indicates that there are multiple elements
to consider.
● She is not only intelligent but also
hard working.
Whether…or: Expresses a choice between
two alternatives.
● I don’t know whether it will rain or
snow.
3. Subordinating Conjunction
-is a type of conjunction that connects two
clauses in a sentence, making one clause
dependent (subordinate) on the other. The
dependent clause cannot stand alone as a
complete sentence and relies on the
independent clause for its meaning.
-often indicates relationships between the
two clauses, such as cause and effect, time,
condition, or contrast.
Because: It indicates a cause and effect
relationship
● She couldn’t go to the party because
she was feeling sick.
Although: It shows a contrast or condition.
● Although it rained, we still had a
great picnic.
If: It introduces a condition.
● If you study hard, you will pass the
exam.
While: It shows simultaneous actions or
events.
● She read a book while waiting for
her friend.
Since: It indicates a reason or clause.
 ● Since it was getting late, they
decided to leave.
Although: It introduces a concession or
contrast.
● Although he was tired, he continued
working on the project.
Unless: It introduces a condition with a
negative consequence.
● You won’t get a promotion unless
you work harder.
Before: It indicates the time when
something occurs.
● Please finish your chores before you
go out and play.
While: It shows a contrast or contradiction.
● While I appreciate the invitation, I
won’t be able to attend the event.
PREPOSITION
-a word, which is used before a noun, a
noun phrase or a pronoun, connecting it to
another word.
KINDS OF PREPOSITIONS
Simple Preposition
-Prepositions which consist of only one
word.
● In, on, at, against etc…
Compound Prepositions
-prepositions which consist of two or more
words.
● Instead of, in the middle of, by the
side of etc.
THREE TYPES OF PREPOSITIONS
1. Preposition of Place
-some prepositions show where something
happens. They are called prepositions of
place.
● Sanny was sitting under the tree.
● There’s a wooden floor underneath
the carpet.
● Some geese flew over their house.
● John and Sarah were hiding inside
the wardrobe.
● There was a tree beside the river.
● I have a friend who lives in America.
In general, we use:
At- for a point
● At the corner, at the bus stop, at the
door, at home, at work, at school,
at university, at the top, at the
bottom, at the side, at reception.
In- for an enclosed space
● In the garden, in London, in my
wallet, in a car, in a taxi, in a
helicopter, in a boat, in a lift, in the
newspaper, in the sky, in Oxford
street.
On- For a surface
● On the wall, on the ceiling, on a
page, on a bus, on a train, on a
plane, on a ship, on the left, on the
way.
2. Prepositions of Time
-some prepositions show when something
happens. They are called prepositions of
time.
● School starts at nine o’clock.
● We’re going to the zoo on Saturday.
● No, you can’t watch a video. It’s past
your bedtime already.
● I visited my grandparents during the
summer.
● You must finish the work by friday.
● I’ll do my homework before dinner.
In general, we use:
At: for a precise time
● At 3 o’clock, at noon, at dinnertime,
at night, at the weekend, at
christmas, at the same time, at
present.
In: for months, years, centuries, and long
periods
● In May, in summer, in 1990, in the
morning, in the afternoon.
On: for days and dates.
 ● On Sunday, on 6 March, on
Christmas Day, on Tuesday morning,
on Sunday evening.
3. Prepositions of Direction
-some prepositions show where something
is going. They are called prepositions of
direction.
● The boys chased after each other.
● The football rolled down the hill.
● A man was walking his dog along the
riverbank.
● The free way goes right through the
city.
● We were traveling towards Miami.
Usage of OF
● Our modules are full of real life
examples.
● I ate a plate of rice and a quarter of
milk.
● Would you like a glass of lemon
juice?
● I need three pieces of paper.
● Most of the children in my class like
Education.
● There are several ways of cooking
Upma.
Usage of FOR
● I made this bookmark for mom.
● Is there a room for me in this seat?
● I’d like a new computer for
christmas.
● We’re going downtown for a
meeting. I made this gift for my
mother.
● I’d like a new laptop for next year.
Usage of WITH
● He pounds nails with a hammer.
● Mix the flour with water.
● She painted the picture with her
new paints.
● Would you like to come with us to
the cinema?
● I can do difficult problems with help
from mom.
● Who is the man with the beard?
Usage of EXCEPT and INSTEAD OF
● I like all kinds of food except Upma.
● Everyone likes chocolate except
Tom.
● We go to school everyday except
Saturday and Sunday.
● You should eat fruit instead of
candy.
● Dad is coming to the theater with us
instead of Mom.
● We could watch TV instead of
reading our books.
Usage of LIKE, AS, and THAN
● Kathleen looks like her dad.
● Andrew smiles like his mother.
● Peter sings like a professional singer.
● Are these shoes the same as those?
● Sue is nearly as tall as the teacher.
● My backpack is bigger than John’s.
● Dad is taller than all of us.
● This painting is more beautiful than
that one.
● The neighborhood streets are less
busy than downtown streets.
Prepositions with Adjectives, Verbs, and
nouns
-prepositions are used with some adjectives
● Dad is very angry with us.
● We were afraid of the big dog.
● She’s not very interested in sports.
● John is very good at drawing.
● Mr. Lee is pleased with our work.
● The teachers are always kind to us.
● What’s wrong with the computer?
-prepositions are used with some verbs
● I’m looking for my pencil. Have you
seen it?
● Can you think of another word for
‘pleased'?
● Does this book belong to you?
● We’re listening to CDs.
● Tell me about the show you saw.
● Cut the cake into five pieces.
● They borrowed money from the
bank.
THE FIVE TYPES OF CONTEXT CLUES
-prepositions are used with some nouns
● What’s the answer to this question?
● Is there a reason for this delay?
● What’s the matter with you?
● Here’s an example of good behavior.
● Congratulations on winning the
competition.
● Traffic can cause damage to the
environment.
CONTEXT CLUES

1. Definition/Explanation Clues
-Sometimes a word or phrase's meaning is
explained immediately after its use.
● Haberdashery, which is a store that
sells men’s clothing, is becoming
more common today.”

2. Restatement/Synonym Clues
-Sometimes a hard word or phrase is said in
a simple way.
● "Lou was sent to the haberdashery
to find a new suit. He needed to
wear one for his uncle’s wedding."
*Because the sentence says that Lou would
find a suit at the haberdashery, then it must
be a place where clothes for men are sold.
3. Contrast/Antonym Clues
-Sometimes a word or phrase is clarified by
the presentation of the opposite meaning
somewhere close to its use. Look for signal
words when applying context clues.
● "Lou wanted to go to the
haberdashery, but Ann wanted to
shop at the boutique.”
*The signal word “but” tells the reader that
an opposite thought is going to be stated.
4. Inference/General Context Clues
-Sometimes a word or phrase is not
immediately clarified within the same
sentence.
*Relationships, which are not directly
apparent, are inferred or implied. The
reader must look for clues within, before,
and after the sentence in which the word is
used.
● “The haberdashery was Lou’s
favorite place. He loved shopping for
nice suits.
● The people who worked there were
so kind and helpful.”
*Readers can also use clues of punctuation
and type style to infer meaning, such as
quotation marks (showing the word has a
special meaning), dashes , parentheses or
brackets (enclosing a definition), and italics
(showing the word will be defined).
5. Punctuation
● Tom's father was a haberdasher, or
men’s shop keeper, in the story.
● Tom's father was a haberdasher
(men’s shop keeper) in the story.
● In the story, Tom's father was a
haberdasher-or men’s shop keeper.
● Tom's father was a “haberdasher”.
He had a clothing store for men.
FORMAL AND INFORMAL LANGUAGE
Tone
-is defined as the writer’s attitude toward
the subject matter and his or her readers.
Audience
-is your reader or listener– the recipient of
your verbal or written communication.
Diction
-is word choice
-Word choice is important in establishing
tone
● Three levels of diction:
1. high or formal diction
2. neutral diction
3. informal or low diction
Informal Language
-Simple grammatical structure
-Personal evaluation
- Using first person
- Using forms of “you”
-Colloquial or slang vocabulary
-Contractions are considered slang
Formal Language
-even when spoken, it is often associated
with the conventions expected of written
standard English.
-Although you generally don’t worry as
much about formality in speaking, it is
extremely important in writing because of
the knowledge you are recording through
the written word.
-does not use contractions
-Avoids personal pronouns such as: you, I,
us, me, and we
-Includes more polysyllabic words—BIGGER
words
-Complex, complete sentences
-Avoidance of colloquial or slang vocabulary
What to avoid in Formal Writing?
-Exclamation marks
-Needless words like “well” and “you know”
-First and second person point of view
-Beginning sentences with coordinating
conjunctions
-Too many short, choppy sentences that
could be combined to make more complex
sentence structures
-Avoid most shortenings in formal writing. -
In formal English, you talk on the
“telephone,” not the “phone”
-Know what acronyms may be used in your
writing. In formal English, you should limit
your use of acronyms, abbreviations making
use of letters that stand for certain words
-Similarly, limit your use of absolute terms,
such as "everybody," "always," "never"
-Avoid cliché’s and colloquialisms
 ADJECTIVES
-It tells what kind of person, place, or thing
a noun or a pronoun is.
-It may also point out which one or how
many.
● The ship was an English vessel.
(what kind)
● This factory is mine. (which one)
● Many people enjoy the annual
dinner. (how many, which one)
Proper Adjectives:
● French fries, Spanish bread
Collective Adjectives:
● The rich of Connecticut are
responsible
Possessive Adjectives:
● my , your, his, her
● The bakery sold his favorite bread.
● Children are neglected by their
parents.
Demonstrative Adjectives
-this - these; that - those
● Pron. : This is my house.
● Adj. : This house is mine.
Interrogative Adjectives
● Pron.: What is your name?
● Adj.: What book are you reading?
Indefinite Adjectives
● Pron. Many attended the meeting.
● Adj: Many people believe that
corporations are under-taxed.
ORDERS OF ADJECTIVES
● Determiners ( a, an, the)
● Observations (beautiful, interesting)
● Size and Shape (large, round)
● Age (young, old, new, ancient)
● Color (red, violet)
● Origin (Persian, Canadian, French)
● Material (woolen, metallic, wooden)
● Qualifier (rocking chair, hunting
cabin)
 ADVERB ● I have to run quickly (manner)
-Modifies an active verb or a verb phrase by down the street (place) each
expressing manner, place, time, degree, or morning (frequency) after
number. breakfast (time) in order to catch
TYPES OF ADVERB my bus to school (purpose)
1. Simple
● She moved quietly. (Manner and tell
how)
● I waited there for an hour. (Place
and tell Where)
● You may leave soon. (Time, tells
when)
● I called you once. (Number, tells
how many)
● He sat very still. (Degree, tells how
much)
2. Interrogative
-introduces a sentence that asks a question
-where, when, why, and how
● When will you return?
● How is the trunk being sent?
3. Negative
-denies or contradicts a statement
-no, not, never, only, scarcely, and hardly
-two negative adverbs should not be used
together.
● I can scarcely believe my eyes.
(correct)
● I haven't no more sea shells.
(incorrect)
Familiar Adverbs to Know
-almost, finally, seldom, unusually, certainly,
hardly, quite, so, usually, just rather, very
rather, fairly, nearly, too, scarcely, well
ORDERS OF ADJECTIVES
1. Adverb of manner
2. Adverb of place
3. Adverb of frequency
4. Adverb of time
5. Adverb of Purpose
● I have to run each morning quickly
after breakfast in order to catch my
bus to school down the street.