An Introduction To English Grammar & Language: Subject-Verb Agreement

AN INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH GRAMMAR & LANGUAGE

A tremendous importance is attached to English Language in competitive exams of today.
The cut-throat competition prevailing around the aspirants tell a significant tale. Hence, it
becomes indispensable to prepare yourself in the best possible way, otherwise the goal
remains a distant dream. A language is nothing but a meticulous arrangement of words. As
an expert sculptor carves the stones in a skilled manner to give a magnificent appearance
to his/her creation, in the similar way, an expert linguist arranges words suitably. This art
of arrangement comes from true knowledge of grammar and collection of words. The exper-
tise is had by continuous persperiration. If one perspires in a true way, the inspiration
comes in a natural way. Then there is no deviation From the destination. If you sweat on a
wrong path, it comes to no fruition. Keeping in view the orientation and dedication of our
readers and weightage assigned to English Language, we provide the A to Z of English
Grammar. A well arranged collection of subject matter suffice your need and satiate your
guest for a true guide. Hopefully. You get benefitted to a great extent in your pursuit of
realising the long cherished goal.
She plays.
SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT  
Subject-Verb agreement is based on two basic rules. Plural Sub. Finite Verb
Here in (i), play is a Finite Verb, where ‘They’ is a plural
subject in the plural form.
R ULE 1
But in (ii), plays is a Finite Verb, where it is with the
SUBJECT is SINGULAR — VERB is SINGULAR singular subject ‘She’ and in singular form.
Subjects and Verbs must agree with one another in
Example: number (singular or plural). Thus, if a subject is singular,
He writes poem. its Verb must also be singular, if a subject is plural, its
Verb must also be plural.
 
Sing. Sub. Sing. Verb Important Rules
Vinay goes to office. 1. If the subject of a sentence is singular noun, then it
 takes a singular verb.
Sing. Sub. Sing. Verb Examples:
Exception: Kate is always punctual.
(i) With I, excluding am and was, there is always a  
Plural subject. Sing. Noun Sing. Verb
(ii) You always takes a Plural subject. A visitor has come to see us.

R ULE 2 Sing. Noun Sing. Verb
SUBJECT is PLURAL — VERB is PLURAL 2. If two singular nouns are joined with and, then the
verb is plural.
Example: Examples :
They are riding a bicycle. Rahul and Anita have gone home.
   
Plural Sub. Plural Verb Sing. Noun Sing. Noun Plural Verb
We are planning to visit Canada. A computer and a printer have been installed.
    
Plural Sub. Plural Verb Sing. Noun Sing. Noun Plural Noun
3. If two singular nouns are joined with and, but be
In general, the number and person of any Finite Verb
fore them there is each / every, etc., then it takes a singu
are corresponding to the number and person of the subject.
lar verb.
Example:
Examples:
They play.
Each officer and each manager is invited.
 
 
Plural Sub. Finite Verb
each Sing. Noun each Sing. Noun Sing. Verb
SEE–11
The duty of every boy and every girl She not her friends is responsible.
 
every Sing. Noun every Sing. Noun Subject Verb
is to respect their parents. 8. If the subject of a sentence is – Each / Either /
 Neither, then it takes a singular verb.
Sing. Verb Examples:
4. If two singular nouns are joined with and to express I invited two guests but neither has come.
something about a person, thing or expression, then singu 
lar verb is used. Subject Singular Verb
Examples: He proposed both the girls but either
Bread and Butter is my favourite

  
Subject
Sing. Noun Sing. Noun Sing. Verb
has responded.
breakfast.

t A few other such pair of nouns are – Bread and
butter / Rice and curry / Horse and carriage / Hammer Singular Verb
and Sickle / Crown and glory, etc. 9. After – Each of / Either of / Neither of / Everyone
But, the exception is: If two such nouns are used to of/ One of, etc., the noun or pronoun is always plural but,
denote two different things, then it takes a plural verb. the verb remains singular.
Example: Examples:
Crown and glory exist together. Each of the snakes is poisonous.
    
Noun Noun Plural verb Plural noun singular verb
5. If two nouns or pronouns are joined with – as well One of them has topped in exam.
as / in addition to / besides / like/ unlike / with / along  
with / together with / accompanied by / led by / headed
Plural Noun Singular Verb
by / guided by / controlled by / governed by, etc., then the
verb is according to the noun or pronoun given in the first Look at this example:
case in the sentence. The professor asked the student / if everyone of them/
Examples: (A) (B)
You as well as your brother were absent yesterday. were ready to go / for a picnic on the coming Sunday./
   (C) (D)
Noun Noun Plural verb No error
She together with her friends is visiting her uncle. (E)
  In this sentence (in Part C), ‘was’ will be used instead
Noun Noun Plural Verb of ‘were’; because, after ‘everyone of’, the Noun or Pronoun
6. If two subjects are joined by – is always plural but the verb is singular.
Not only…..but also 10. If the subject of a sentence is Everybody / Some
Neither…...nor body / Nobody / Anybody / Someone/ No one / Everyone
/ Anyone / Everything / Something / Nothing / Anything,
Either…..or
etc., then the verb always singular.
then, the verb always follows its nearest subject.
Examples:
Examples:
Everybody knows that the sun is a star.
Neither you nor I am going to see him.
    
Subject Subject Verb Subject Sing. Verb
Neither you nor she is listening to music. Someone among his friends likes partying.
  
Subject Subject Verb Subject Sing. Verb
7. If subjects are joined with not…..but or not, then the 11. If the subject of a sentence is Many / Both / Few/
verb follows that subject, which is not with the subject not. A few, etc., then the verb is always plural.
Examples: Example:
Not she but her friends are responsible. Both are beautiful and charming.
  
Subject Verb Subject Plural Verb
SEE–12
Many were invited but a few have Example:
  Half of the workers are on strike today.
Subject Plural Verb 

attended the ceremony. Plural Noun Plural Verb
12. After – Both of / A few of / Few of / Many of, etc., t But, the exception is – If the noun is uncountable, it
the noun or pronoun is plural, which is followed by a plural is always singular and the verb is also singular.
verb. Example:
Examples: Three fourths of the majority has been elected.
Many of the visitors are European.  
 Singular Noun Singular verb
Noun Plural Verb 17. After – More than one, there is always a singular
noun followed by singular verb.
13. After – Many / A great many / A good many, etc.,
the noun is always plural, which is followed by a plural Example:
verb. More than one hall is booked.
Example:  
A great many girls are swimming in the pool. Sing. Noun Sing. Verb
 But, there is an exception .
t Look at the construction: After – More + Plural Noun
Noun Plural verb
+ than one, the verb is always plural.
But there is an exception .
Example:
t After ‘Many a’, both the noun and verb in a sentence
are always singular. More workers than one are late.
Example:  
Many a song is soothing. Plural Noun Plural Verb
18. If There / It is used as introductory subjects in a
 
sentence, then the verb with There is decided considering
Sing. Noun Sing. Verb the usage of number and person of the noun that comes
14. After – A number of / A large number, etc. the noun after There.
is plural, which is followed by a plural verb. Example:
Examples: There was a tiger in the village.
A number of students have taken the test.  
  Singular verb Singular noun
Plural Noun Plural Verb There were two tigers in the village.
But, there is an exception .  
After – The number of, however, the noun is plural, the
Plural Verb Plural Noun
verb is always singular.
19. If with the construction: Numeral + Plural Noun,
Examples:
there is any definite unit / distance / weight / height, etc.,
The number of lowfloor buses is increasing in Delhi. then the verb is always singular.
 Example:
Plural Singular Ten thousand rupees is a good amount.
Noun Verb  
15. After – Some / Some of / All / All of / Enough / Numerical Plural noun Singular verb
Most / Most of / A great deal of / Lots of / A lot of / Plenty
Five tons of rice is enough for my family.
of, etc., if there is a countable noun, it is always a plural
one and also the verb is plural.  
Examples: Numerical Plural noun Singular verb
All men are mortal. But there is an exception .
t If it refers to different units in the construction of
 
Numerical Adjective + Plural Noun, then it takes a plural
Plural Noun Plural Verb
verb.
Lots of actors were present in the show.
Example:
  Fifty thousand rupees have been spent for the
Plural Noun Plural Verb
 
16. After – Half of / One third of / Two thirds of /
Numerical Plural noun Plural verb
Three fourths of, etc. if the noun is countable, it is always a
plural and also the verb is plural. construction.
SEE–13
20. If who / which / that is used in the form of a (i) A or An is called the Indefinite Article because it
relative pronoun, then the verb to follow depends on the leaves indefinite the person or thing spoken of.
number and person of its antecedent. For example,
Examples: A boy means any boy.
I, who am a doctor, practice here. A teacher means any teacher.
USE OF ‘A’
  1. If consonant is the first letter of a countable singular
Relative Pronoun Sing. Verb common noun, we use ‘A’ before it.
The men who are present here did not vote. For example,
  Sakshi has book —wrong
Relative pronoun Plural verb Sakshi has a book —correct
I met girl there —wrong
Look at the example below.
I met a girl there —correct
One of the problems / which was discussed / in the 2. ‘A’ is used before some indefinite numbers.
(A) (B) For example,
conference / was raised by him. / No error a lot of a number of
(C) (D) (E) a great deal of a half of
In this sentence (in Part B), ‘was’ should be replaced a large number of
by ‘were’; because, ‘which’ is a relative pronoun and its a quarter of
antecedent ‘the problems’ is plural. So accordingly, the verb 3. ‘A’ can be used before some indefinite collective
will also be a plural one. numbers.
For example,
21. If certain expressions like unfulfilled wish / condi
a team of a gang of
tion / desire in the present state is to be brought into ex
a flock of a herd of
pression – with the use of if / as if / as though / I wish /
a swarm of a panel of
it is time / it is high time, etc. along with which ‘to be’ is
a bunch of
used, then only its ‘were’ form is used provided whatever
4. If an adjective is followed by a singular noun, we
be the number and person of the subject. use ‘A’ before that adjective.
Example: For example,
I wish I were an angel. Madhuri is beautiful girl —wrong
  Madhuri is a beautiful girl —correct
Unfulfilled wish Plural verb 
Adjective Noun
Look at the example below.
But,
If I was you / I would have requested / the workers / Reema has a good health —wrong
(A) (B) (C) Reema has good health —correct
to complete / the work today itself. / No error. 
(D) (E) Adjective Adjective
In this sentence (in Part A), ‘were’ should be used in For example,
place of ‘was’; because, in the present state to denote un whenever a noun is not used after Adjective we
fulfilled wish / condition / desire, etc. – with if / as if / as do not use article before it.
though / I wish / it is time / it is high time, etc. ‘to be’ is For example,
used, then its ‘were’ form is only used. A proper respect
22. If two pronouns are joined with and, then it takes 
a plural verb. Adjective Adjective
Examples: A proper respect
I and he are liable. 
   Adjective Adjective
Pnonoun Pronoun Plural verb In a fit
You and she have climbed the tree. 
   Adjective
Pronoun Pronoun Plural verb In a temper

ARTICLES Adjective
The above examples are all correct.
‘‘An article is a word or a letter which is used before
5. ‘A’ is used at the place of ‘per’.
noun and tells about the certainty of that noun’’.
Petrol is sold at Rs. twentyfive a litre.
There are two kinds of articles :
(i) Indefinite articles..................................A/An 
(ii) Definite article....................................The per
SEE–14
Apples are sold at sixty rupees a kg. USE OF ‘AN’

1. Vowel starting nouns or words takeAn before them.
per
For example,
6. To show the whole class of common noun we can
Siddharth is intelligent boy. —wrong
use ‘A’ before a common noun.
Siddharth is an intelligent boy. —correct
For example,
The President made appeal for the poor. —wrong
A bird has two wings.
The President made an appeal for the poor.
A monkey have a tail.
—correct
i.e. All birds have two wings.
2. An is used before some H starting words in which
All monkeys have a tail. H is not pronunciated.
But, common noun like Man and Woman do not For example,
follow the above rule. An honest man An hour
For example, An heir An honourable person
A man is moral. —wrong An homage to the dead
Man is moral. —correct 3. If H, L, M, N, F, R, S, X,are the first letters of
7. Sometimes at the place of ‘an’ we can use article‘A’ abbreviations, we use An before them.
For example, For example,
Sita was seen a bed. An M.A. An L.L.B. Student
 An F.R.C.S. girl An N.C.C. team
on An H.S. school An xray clinic
Kumar went a hunting.
THE OMISSION OF INDEFINITE ARTICLES
 1. Indefinite articles can not be practiced two times
on for the same noun in the same sentence.
8. If we put article ‘A’ before plural number the For example,
forthcoming noun becomes singular.
Vivekanand was a saint and a hero. —wrong
For example,
Vivekanand was a saint and hero. —correct
A five day match.
But,
A ten mile walk.
Vivekanand was both a saint and a hero.—correct
A fifteen man committee.
Sameer is neither a poet nor a writer. —correct
But,
Anand is either a poet or a singer. —correct
Five days match.
Rupali is not onlya philosopher but alsoa critic .
Ten miles walk.
Fifteen men committee. —correct
2. Indefinite article should not be used before the
9. ‘A‘ is used before these words because they have
the sound of consonant in their first letters. name of meals.
A university. A union. Robin was present at a dinner. —wrong
A unique film. A European. Robin was present at dinner. —correct
A onerupee note. A oneeyed person. But,
A oneact play. A onesided decision. It was tasteful dinner. —wrong
10. If noun is placed after such, quite, rather, how It was a tasteful dinner. —correct
etc., we use ‘A’ before that noun. That was very nice break fast. —wrong
For example, That was a very nice break fast. —correct
I have never seen such girl in my life. So, in the case of adjective indefinite article must be
—wrong used.
I have never seen such a girl in my life. 3. A or An should not be used before material noun.
—correct For example,
Roma is quite dull girl. —wrong It is a glass so it can be broken easily. —wrong
Roma is quite a dull girl. —correct 
11. If these words are used in singular, we use ‘A’ lead
before them. It is glass so it can be broken easily. —correct
Noise, Lie, Hole, Headache etc. It is a paper you should write on it. —wrong
For example, It is paper you should write on it. —correct
The pupil makes noise in the class. —wrong But,
The pupil makes a noise in the class. Bring glass of water. —wrong
—correct Bring a glass of water. —correct
Joydeb always tells lie. —wrong I read newspaper. —wrong
Joydeb always tells a lie. —correct I read a news paper. —correct
SEE–15
4. No use of article is there after what kind of and When Meeta saw a girl the mother came in her.
what sort of. 
For example, the love of mother
What kind of a boy he is. —wrong 6. The is used before the names of :
What kind of boy he is. —correct Rivers Seas
What sort of a novel it is. —wrong Gulfs Deserts
What sort of novel it is. —correct Canals
5. These are some uncountable nouns, so we should
For example,
not use indefinite article before them.
The Amazon The Indian Ocean
Furniture Stationery Poetry Scenery
The Arabian Gulf The Sahara Desert
Perfumery Damage Luggage Baggage
Postage Haltage Traffic Offspring The Panama Canal
Information Advice Abuse Telephone 7. We place definite article The before the names of :
Group of Islands Series of Mountain
USE OF ‘THE’ Religious books/Holy Scriptures / Community
2. The is called the Definite Article, because it points For example,
out some particular person or thing. The West Indies The Rocky
For example, The Mahabharata The Gita
He visited the minister. The Hindu
Means some particular minister. 8. Definite article is used before the names of :
She called the doctor. Planes Ships
Means some particular doctor Stars Newspapers
The following rules are applied to in using The before Musical instruments
definite noun. For example,
1. Definite article The is used before a noun if it is The Pawan Hans The Titanic
used before relative pronoun stressly. The Sun The Times of India
For example, The Guitar The Prince of Wales
She is a girl who sings ghazal. —wrong 9. We use The before Comparative Degree if it is used
She is the girl who sings ghazal. —correct for two, or, it is used in parallel.
This is a bird which can fly. —wrong For example,
This is the bird which can fly. —correct Which is the more beautiful the Himalayas or the Alps.
2. The is placed after one of, each of, neither of, either The more you labour the more you gain.
of, none of, everyone of etc. Ramu is the better of the two.
For example, The higher you go, the lower is the wind.
One of boys is absent. —wrong 10. If two proper nouns are compared, we use definite
One of the boys is absent. —correct article before the last proper noun.
Neither of girls is intelligent. —wrong For example,
Neither of the girls is intelligent. —correct Sachin is the Lara of India.
Either of men was present. —wrong Kalidas is the Shakespeare of India.
Either of the men was present. —correct 11. The is used before ordinals.
3. The is used before the name of commission. For example,
For example, The former The latter
Verma commission is still functioning The first The second
The last
—wrong
But,
The Verma commission is still functioning.
The Ist division —wrong
—correct
The IInd division —wrong
4. If Adjective is followed by proper Noun use The
The IIIrd division —wrong
before that adjective.
12. The issued before the names of some countries
For example,
and organisations.
We love immortal Gandhi. —wrong
For example,
We love the immortal Gandhi. —correct
The United States The United Kingdom
 The Yemen
Adjective Proper Noun The United Nations Organisation
5. Whenever common Noun is used as adjective it is 13. The is used before the name of grand buildings
preceded by definite article The. and movements.
When Ritesh found a boythe father came in him. The Taj Mahal The Qutub Minar
 The Charminar The Jama Masjid
the love of father The Lotus Temple
SEE–16
14. Definite article The is used before the name of 4. The should not be used before the objects of these
historical caste. words:
For example, Make Elect Select
The Brahmin The Sudras Become Appoint Crown
The Aryanas The Alpine For example,
15. The must be used before Superlative degree. She was elected as the chairman. —wrong
For example, She was elected as Chairman. —correct
Rohit is the tallest boy of his school. Mr. Simon became the Principal. —wrong
But, Mr. Simon became Principal. —correct
Rohit is the tallest and the best boy of his school. But,
—wrong Mr. Simon became the Principal of St. Xaxivers.
Rohit is the tallest and best boy of his school. —correct
—correct 5. The cannot be placeed before the name of meals.
Again, For example,
Our the best desire is to go there. —wrong The break fast was ready for me. —wrong
Our best desire is to go there. —correct Break fast was ready for me. —correct
16. The must be used before the name of titles and But,
posts. The Prime Minister was invited to the lunch.
For example, —correct
The Iron Man The Chief Minister 6. The should be avoided before the name of subjects.
The President The Principal For example,
The Father of the Nation We should study the physics. —wrong
We should study physics. —correct
The Rai Bahadur
But,
But,
The Physics of Tina are good. —correct
The Queen Victoria —wrong
The queen Elizabeth —wrong 
The King Birendra —wrong particularised
The Sister Nirmala —wrong 7. Definite article The cannot be used before these
words:
The General Dyer —wrong
Life Love Money
THE OMISSION OF DEFINITE ARTICLE Death Pride God
1. Definite article cannot be used before the name of Society Parliament Providen
day, month and parts of day. Mankind
The Sunday is the last day. —wrong We live in the society. —wrong
Sunday is the last day. —correct We live in society. —correct
The January is the first month. —wrong But,
January is the first month. —correct The society of India is good. —correct
The sunrise —correct 8. Definite article must not be used before these places
The sunset —correct if we go there for the Primary purposes.
But, Church Temple
In the morning —correct Mosque Gurudwara
In the evening —correct Religious purpose School
In the night —correct College University
2. The cannot be used before the name of language Library Study purpose
and sports. Court Prison
For example, Jail As accused
The Hindi is our national language. —wrong Hospital Treatment Bed To sleep
Hindi is our national language. —correct For example,
The cricket has become a popular game—wrong We went to the temple to worship. —wrong
Cricket has become a popular game. —correct We went to temple to worship God. —correct
3. Definite article The cannot be used with these Again,
phrase: We went to the church to attend a marriage.
At hand Give battle  —correct
Under ground By day purpose changed
For example, Sivam went to the bed to sleep. —wrong
Our examination is at the hand. —wrong Sivam went to bed to sleep. —correct
Our examination is at hand. —correct But,
Troops were forced to give the battle. —wrong Sonali went to the bed to see her son. —correct
Troops were forced to give battle. —correct 
Purpose changed
SEE–17
An army = a collection of soldiers.
NOUN A crowd = a collection of people.
A Noun is a word used as the name of a person, place A herd = a collection of cattle.
or thing. A library = a collection of books.
For example : Ram, Mohan, Sita,Gita, Delhi, America, Thus, when a name denotes a group of similar indi
Shakespeare, pen, paper, cigarette, soldier etc. viduals, considered as one undivided whole, it is called a
Classification of Noun Collective Noun.
Noun is classified into four groups. They are : 4. An Abstract Noun is usually the name of a quality,
1. Common Noun action or state considered apart from the object to which
2. Proper Noun it belongs. For example,
3. Collective Noun Quality Action State
4. Abstract Noun Goodness Laughter Childhood
Look at the sentences : Kindness Theft Boyhood
Vikramaditya was a great king. Whiteness Movement Youth
The Noun Vikramaditya refers to a particular king, Darkness Judgement Slavery
but the Noun king might be used with any other king. We Hardness Hatred Sleep
call Vikramaditya a Proper Noun and king a Common Brightness Heroism Sickness
Noun.
Honesty Death
Similarly,
Wisdom Poverty
Gauri is a girl.
Bravery
Here, Gauri is a Proper Noun, while girl is a Common
Noun. The names of the Arts and Science (e.g., grammar,
Ramesh is a boy. music, chemistry, physics etc.) are also Abstract Nouns.
Here, Ramesh is a Proper Noun, while boy is a Com [We can speak of a brave soldier, a strong man, a
mon Noun. beautiful flower. But we can also think of these qualities
Delhi is a city. apart from any particular person or thing, and speak of
Here, Delhi is a Proper Noun, while city is a Common bravery, strength, beauty by themselves. So, we can also
Noun. speak of what persons do or feel apart from the persons
themselves, and give it a name. The word abstract means
Canada is a country.
drawn off.]
Here, Canada is a Proper Noun, while country is a
Common Noun. Formation Of Abstract Nouns
The words – girl, boy, city, country – in the above Abstract Nouns are generally formed from Common
examples are all Common Nouns, because they are the Nouns, Verbs and Adjectives by adding such suffixes as :
names common to all girls, boys, cities and countries; while ___hood, ____cy, ____ism, ____ship, ____ment, _____ ice,
Gauri, Ramesh, Delhi and Canada are all Proper Nouns _____ness, ____ter, ____ty, ____ th, etc.
because, they are the names of particular girl, boy, city (a) From Common Nouns :
and country. boy boyhood girl girlhood
Thus, infant infancy agent agency
1. A Common Noun is a name given in common to thief theft hero heroism
every person or thing of the same class or kind. slave slavery bond bondage
2. A Proper Noun is the name of some particular per friend friendship leader leadership
son or place. judge judgement coward cowardice
[Proper means one's own. Hence, a Proper Noun is a (b) From Verbs :
person's own name.] live life govern government
Note 1 : Proper Nouns are always written with a capi know knowledge serve service
tal letter at the beginning. see sight obey obedience
Note 2 : Proper Nouns are sometimes used as Com advise advice practise practice
mon Nouns; laugh laughter think thought
For example, please pleasure prepare preparation
Sachin is the Bradman of India. grow growth
Kalidas is often called the Shakespeare (the greatest (c) From Adjectives :
dramatist) of India. brave bravery good goodness
3. A Collective Noun is the name of a number (or great greatness honest honesty
collection) of persons or things taken together and spoken poor poverty just justice
of as one whole. For example, young youth true truth
Crowd, mob, team, flock, herd, army, fleet, family, wise wisdom broad breadth
nation, jury, committee, parliament, troop, navy, library. long length wide width
A fleet = a collection of ships or vessels. deep depth sole solitude
grand grandeur kind kindness
SEE–18
Rule 3 : If there are double vowels to the end of a
NUMBER noun, put only —s to the end of that noun for plural.
Singular Plural Singular Plural
There are two kinds of Number :
Radio Radios Ratio Ratios
(a) Singular, (b) Plural
Studio Studios Portfolio Portfolios
A noun that denotes one person or thing is said to be
in the Singular Number. Cuckoo Cuckoos Bamboo Bamboos
For example, Rule 4 : If –y is the last letter of a noun and that –y is
Boy, girl, man, bird, tree, book, pen, baby, sweater preceded by a consonant, then change –y into –ies for the
etc. plural forms.
A noun that denotesmore than one person or thing is Singular Plural Singular Plural
said to be in the Plural Number. Spy Spies Baby Babies
For example, History Histories Lady Ladies
Boys, girls, men, birds, trees, books, pens, babies, Fly Flies Sky Skies
sweaters etc.
Story Stories City Cities
How Plural is formed
Army Armies Pony Ponies
Generally, the Plurals of nouns are formed by adding
‘s ‘to the singular form. Rule 5 : If there are double vowels to the end of a
For example, noun, put only —s to the end of that noun for plural.
Boy—boys Girl—girls Singular Plural Singular Plural
Bird—birds Cow—cows Lay Lays Bay Bays
Ship—ships Desk—desks Ray Rays Prey Preys
Pencil—pencils Book—books Key Keys Storey Storeys
Cassette—cassettes Film—films Tray Trays Day Days
But, there are some rules of changing singular nouns Clay Clays Play Plays
into plural ones. Rule 5 : If —f or —fe are the last letters of a noun,
Rule 1 : If —s, —ss, —sh, —ch, —x and —z are the last then change —f or —fe into —ves.
letters of noun, put —es to the end to make them plural.
Knife Knives Life Lives
Class Classes Mass Masses
Wife Wives Thief Thieves
Kiss Kisses Toss Tosses
Miss Misses Bus Buses Leaf Leaves Loaf Loaves
Brush Brushes Dish Dishes Calf Calves Handkerchief Handkerchieves
Bush Bushes Watch Watches Wolf Wolves Shelf Shelves

Bench Benches Match Matches Self Selves
Branch Branches Tax Taxes Yet, there are some exceptions to this rule, such as :
Box Boxes Topaz Topazes Singular Plural Singular Plural
But, in case of Stomach (Pronounced as Stomak), Mon Proof Proofs Roof Roofs
arch (Pronounced as Monark) only —s is needed at their Chief Chiefs Reef Reefs
end to make them plural.
Gulf Gulfs Belief Beliefs
Stomach Stomachs
Monarch Monarchs Grief Griefs Brief Briefs
Rule 2 : If there is —O in the end of a noun, put —es Serf Serfs Dwarf Dwarfs
to the end for plural. Hoof Hoofs Strife Strifes
Singular Plural Singular Plural Rule 6 : It is found that a few nouns form their plural
Hero Heroes Zero Zeroes by changing the inside vowel of the singular form.
Volcano Volcanoes Mango Mangoes Singular Plural Singular Plural
Mosquito Mosquitoes Echo Echoes Man Men Woman Women
Potato Potatoes Buffalo Buffaloes Tooth Teeth Goose Geese
Negro Negroes Cargo Cargoes Mouse Mice Louse Lice
Bingo Bingoes Foot Feet
There are some exceptions where only —s is needed Rule 7 : There are a few nouns that form their plural
for a plural one in —o ending nouns.
by adding —en to the singular.
Photo Photos Piano Pianos
Ox Oxen Child Children
Dynamo Dynamos Canto Cantos
Rule 8 : There are some nouns which have their sin
Quarto Quartos Momento Momentos
gular and plural forms alike.
Solo Solos Stereo Stereos
SEE–19
Singular Plural Singular Plural The politics of our state are dirty.
Swine Swine Sheep Sheep 
Deer Deer Trout Trout particularised
Salmon Salmon Pair Pair 
Dozen Dozen Score Score plural number
Gross Gross Stone (unit) Stone The summons was issued by the magistrate.
Hundredweight 
Hundredweight singular number
Hundred Hundred Rule 11 : The following nouns are always used in
Thousand Thousand singular number.
For example : For example,
Twenty hundredweight 1, make one ton. Scenery, machinery, poetry, stationery, sultry,
The boy gave me five hundred 2 rupees. (When used jewellery, crockery, luggage, baggage, breakage, haltage,
after numerals) percentage, knowledge, postage, wastage, furniture, in
The car cost me eighty thoudand3 rupees. (When used formation, traffic, coffee, dust etc.
after numerals) Rule 12 : Certain Collective Nouns, though singular in
Rule 9 : There are some nouns which are only used in form, are always used as plurals.
the plural. For example,
(a) Names of instruments which have two parts forming Poultry, cattle, vermin, people, gentry etc.
a kind of pair. Rule 13 : In Compound Nouns, we make their plural
For example, forms only by adding —s to the main word.
Ballows, spectacles, scissors, tongs, pincers etc. Singular Plural
(b) Names of certain articles of dress. Fatherinlaw Fathersinlaw
For example, Daughterinlaw Daughtersinlaw
Trousers, breeches, drawers etc. Motherinlaw Mothersinlaw
(c) Names of diseases Commanderinchief Commandersinchief
Stepdaughter stepdaughters
For example,
Maidservant Maidservants
Measles, mumps etc.
Lookeron Lookerson
(d) Names of games.
Passerby Passersby
For example,
Manofwar Menofwar
Draughts, billiards etc.
Coatofmill Coatsofmill
(e) Certain other nouns. Now, look at these examples :
For example, Singular Plural
Annals, thanks, proceeds (of a sale), tidings, Man killer Man killers
environs, nuptials, obsequies, assets, chattels, odds, Chief Minister Chief Ministers
amends, seals, shambles, vegetables, troops, Woman hater Woman haters
particulars, aborigins, alms, ashes, arrears, dregs, Cupful Cupfuls
eaves, earnings, sweepings, etc.
Handful Handfuls
Rule 10 : There are some plural forms of nouns which Drawback Draw backs
are actually singular.
Rule 14 : Nouns borrowed from other languages in
For example, English have their special rules to change them into plu
Innings, mathematics, news, civics, politics, physics, ral.
ethics, economics, mechanics, summons etc. Singular Plural Singular Plural
For example, Datum Data Ditum Dita
Mathematics is an easy subject. Erratum Errata Bacterium Bacteria
(Mathematics is singular number) Referendum Referenda Momorandum Memoranda
If plural looking subjects are particularised or pos Agendum Agenda Medium Media
sessed, they become as plural nouns. Sanatorium Sanatoria Criterion Criteria
My Mathematics are strong. Phenomenon Phenomena Oasis Oases
 Thesis Theses Hypothesis Hypotheses
Possessed Analysis Analyses Crisis Crises
 Index Indice/Indices
Plural number Apparatus Apparatus Series Series
Innings Innings Species Species
SEE–20
Rule 15 : Some —um ending Latin nouns take only — Index Indexes : tables of contents to books
s in plural form. Indices : signs used in algebra
Singular Plural Singular Plural Penny Pennies : number of coins.
Harmonium Harmoniums Quorum Quorums Pence : amount in value
Forum Forums Premium Premiums Rule 20 : Some nouns have one meaning in the singu
Pendulum Pendulums lar and more than one in the plural.
Stadium Stadiums Singular Plural
Rule 16 : Noun + Proposition + the same noun remain Colour : hue Colours : 1. hues
always singular in use. 2. the flag of a regi
For example, ment.
Village after village —correct Custom : habit Customs : 1. habits
Match after match —correct 2. duties levied on
Row upon row —correct imports.
Word for word. —correct Effect : result Effects : 1. results
But, 2. property
Villages after villages —wrong Manner : method Manners : 1. methods
Matches after matches —wrong 2. correct behaviour
Rows upon rows —wrong Moral : a moral Morals : 1. moral lessons
Word for words —wrong
lesson 2. conduct
Rule 17 : The digits, verbs, pronouns and abbrevia
Number : a quantity Numbers: 1. quantities
tions take their plural form in the following ways :
2. verses
Singular Plural
Pain : suffering Pains : 1. sufferings
70 70's
2. care, exertion
21 21's
shall shall's Premise : proposition Premises :1. propositions
will will's 2. buildings.
if if's Quarter : fourth part Quarters :1. fourth part.
what what's 2. lodgings
who who's Spectacle : a sight Spectacles:1. sights.
M.A. M.A.s [not M.A.'s] 2. eyeglasses
B.A. B.A.s [not B.A.'s] Letter : 1. letter of the Letters : 1. letters of the
M.L.A. M.L.A.s [not M.L.A.'s] alphabet alphabet
Rule 18 : Some nouns have two meanings in the sin 2. epistle 2. epistles
gular but only one in plural. 3. literature
Singular Plural Ground : 1. earth Grounds :1. enclosed land
Light 1. radiance Lights : Lamps 2. reason attached to house
2. a lamp 2. reasons
Practice 1. habit Practices : habits 3. dregs
2. exercise of a profession Rule 21 : Some nouns change their meaning when we
Powder 1. dust Powders : doses make them plural.
2. a dose of medicine of medicine Singular Plural
in fine grains like dust Air : atmosphere Airs : affected manners
People 1. nation Peoples : nations Alphabet : letter Alphabets : longuages
2. men and women Advice : counsel Advices : information
Rule 19 : Some nouns have two forms for the plural, Abuse : bad language Abuses : languages
each with a somewhat different meaning. Compass : extent, range Compasses : an instrument for
Singular Plural drawing circles
Brother Brothers : sons of the same parent Force : strength Forces : military forces
Brethren : members of a society of a Good : benefit, wellbeing Goods : merchandise
community. Physic : medicine Physics : natural science
Cloth Cloths : kinds or pieces of cloth. Practice : habit Practices : traditions
Clothes : garments. Iron : a kind of metal Irons : fetters
Die Dies : stamps for coining. Light : radiant Lights : lamps
Dice : small cubes used in games. Respect : regard Respects : compliments
Fish Fishes : taken separately. Work : duty Words : creations
Fish : collectively Rule 22 : (a) Abstract Nouns have no plural.
Genius Geniuses : persons of great talent For example,
Genii : spirits Hope, charity, love, kindness, happiness, hatred
etc.
SEE–21
When such words do appear in the plural, they are But, before reading Noun and Case, we should study
used as common nouns. the case of Pronoun.
For example, Nominative Accusative Possessive
Kindnesses = acts of kindness. We us our/ours
Provocations = instances or cases of provocation. I me my/mine
(b) There are also some names of substances or mate He him his
rials which are never used in plurals. They are called Ma- She her her/hers
terial Nouns. You you your/yours
For example, They them their/theirs
Copper, iron, tin, wood etc. Who whom whose
But, when these words are used in the plural, they 1. After let pronouns are used in Accusative Case.
become Common nouns and also, their meanings are For example,
changed. Let we read thoroughly. —wrong
For example, Let us read thoroughly. —correct
Coppers — copper coins. Let them, her and we go there. —wrong
Irons — fetters. Let them, her and us go there. —correct
Tins — cans made of tin. 2. After preposition pronoun is used in Accusative Case.
Woods — forests. For example,
There is a nice relation between she and I. —wrong
CASE There is a nice relation between her and me.
—correct
There are four kinds of CASE : 3. After than pronoun should be used in Nominative
1. Nominative 2. Accusative case.
3. Possessive 4. Dative For example,
If Noun or Pronoun is used as the subject, it is called Ram is better than her. —wrong
Nominative case. Ram is better than she. —correct
For example, But, Ram runs faster than she/her —correct
She is reading.
[As helping verb is not used in comparative degree]

4. After if, pronoun is used in Nominative Case.
Nominative
For example,
Mohan is walking
If I were him I would have gone. —wrong

If I were he I would have gone. —correct.
Nominative
If noun or pronoun is used as the object, it is called Use of the Possessive Case
Accusative case. 1. To the end of a singular Noun we put —'s
For example, (apostrophe) for Possessive Case :
I like her. For example,
 Rajiv's book, Meena's mother, President's
Accusative bodyguard.
That is Anjali . 2. —s ending plural nouns take only (’)
 For example,
Accusative Boys' hostel., Girls' school.
If the possession or the relation of noun is expressed, But,
it is called Possessive Case.
Women's college, Men's competition, Children's
For example,
park
Rahul's book.
3. In compound nouns, we use possessive with the
 last term.
possession
For example,
Sharukh's brother .
Commanderinchief's order
 Motherinlaw's house
relation
Fatherinlaw's problem
If Noun or pronoun is called or addressed, it is called
Dative case. Engineerinchiefs' office
For example, Brotherinlaw's wife.
John , read mindly. 4. If possessive is used before than, it should be used
 after than.
Dative For example,
Come here, Seema. Ravi's sister is more beautiful than Karan.—wrong
 Ravi's sister is more beautiful than Karan's.
Dative —correct.
SEE–22
Kareena's husband is more handsome than
Karishma. — wrong GENDER
Kareena's husband is more handsome than
What is gender ?
Karishma's. — correct
In grammar, there is a classification of a Noun or Pro
Rohan's brother is more intelligent than Mohan.
noun as Masculine or Feminine. Therefore, gender is the
—wrong sexual classification in grammar. Gender comes from Latin
Rohan's brother is more intelligent than Mohan's. genus, meaning kind or sort .
—correct We know that living beings are either the male or the
5. If possessive is used before as it should also be female sex.
used after as. A B A B
For example, Boy Girl Tiger Tigress
Dolly's sister is as beautiful as Sony. Actor Actress Man Woman
—wrong Hero Heroine Cock Hen
Dolly's sister is as beautiful as Sony's. Lion Lioness Brother Sister
—correct The words in the first column under A are the names
6. If two Nouns are closely related, we are to use of all male animals.
possessive with the last Noun. And, the words in the second column under B are the
For example, names of all female animals.
Kapoor and son's shop. A noun that denotes a male animal is said to be of the
Choudhury and grand son's shop. Masculine Gender.
But, A noun that denotes a female animal is said to be of
Keats' and Shelley's poems. the Feminine Gender.
Smith's and Adam's definations. Besides, Masculine Gender and Feminine Gender, there
is a gender which is said to be the Common Gender. In
[These two nouns are not closely related.]
this gender, a noun that denotes either a male or a female
7. If there is too much sound of hiss, ses, sus etc., of
is included.
the last syllable of a noun, we use only (’).
For example,
For example,
parent, child, pupil, servant, friend, thief, relation,
Moses' death, Jesus' love,Consciences' sake, enemy, cousin, orphan, student, person, baby,
For justices' sake, For goodness' sake. guardian, monarch, infant, neighbour, tutor etc.
8. Possessive is also used with some personified A noun that denotes a thing that is neither male nor
phrases. female is said to be of Neuter Gender.
For example, [Neuter means neither, i.e. neither male nor female.]
At death's door, Fortune's favour,The s o ul 's For example,
prayer, God's mercy, India's heroes, Nature's laws, Book, pen, table, chair, room, wall, tree, paper, ball,
At duty's call. sword, radio, telephone, bag, cloth, cigarette, music,
9. The Possessive can also be used to show — time, key, bus, auto, motor, song etc.
distance, weight, edge etc. Masculine Gender is often applied to objects remark
For example, able for strength, violence, sublimity and superiority.
A week's leave. A mule's distance. For example,
A kilo's weight. A bat's edge. Death, time, winter, summer, the sun, fear, love etc.
A day's match. A stone's throw. Feminine Gender is often applied to objects
In a year's time. remarkable for beauty, gentleness gracefulness,
A foot's length. A month's holiday. fertility, softness, sweetness and weakness etc.
10. Possessive can too be used to indicate — school, For example,
shop, clinic, church, house, college, hospital, theatre The moon, the earth, spring, liberty, autumn, nature,
etc. charity, church, hope, justice, mercy, peace, religion,
For example, spring, truth, viture, names of countries, locomotive
Sonia reads in St.Columbu’s. engines, cars, ships and of arts and sciences.
[in St.Columbus school] FORMATION OF FEMININE NOUNS FROM
Kamia went to barber's. [the shop of barber]
THE MASCULINE
Kavita went to doctor's. [the clinic of doctor] There are three ways of forming the feminine from the
masculine.
Tonight I dine at my uncle's. [house of uncle]
(1) By using a different word.
Anand was educated at Xavier's. [Xavier school)
For example,
11. The following phrases are also commonly used.
Masculine Feminine Masculine Feminine
For example, Father Mother Brother Sister
A boat's crew. At his wit's end. Husband Wife Boy Girl
At his finger's end. For mercy's sake. Uncle Aunt Pappa Mamma
To his heart's content. Nephew Niece Man Woman
SEE–23
King Queen Gentleman Lady Schoolmaster Schoolmistress
Sir Madam Son Daughter Washerman Washerwoman
Clock Hen Boar Sow Stepson Stepdaughter
Stag Hind Swan Nymph Buckrabbit Doerabbit
Widower Widow Fox Vixen
Mankind Womankind
Beau Bettle
Bullcalf Cowcalf
Bachelor Maid, Spinster
Horse (or Stallion) Mare Hebear Shebear
Hart Roe Ram Ewe Greatuncle Greataunt
Wizard Witch Gander Goose Note : 1. Some Masculine Nouns are used in the Com
Earl Countess Drone Bee mon Gender.
Drake Duck Bullock Heifer For example,
Colt Filly Buck Doe Actor, Advocate, Author, Chairman, Doctor, Hound,
Dog (or Hound) Bitch Bull (or Ox) Cow Lawyer, Man, Painter, Poet, Teacher, Tutor, Hunter
Monk (or Frian) Nun Bride groom Bride 2. Some Feminine Nouns are used in the Common Gen
Lad Lass der.
(2) By adding a syllable (—ess, —ine, —trix, —a, etc.) For example,
For example,
Cow, Duck, Bee
Masuline Feminine Masuline Feminine
3. Some Feminine Nouns have no corresponding Mas
Lion Lioness Heir Heiress
culine forms.
Host Hostess Poet Poetess
Priest Priestess Mayor Mayoress For example,
Patron Patroness Peer Peeress Housewife (mistress of the house)
Benefactor Benefactress Conductor Conductress Virgin (an unmarried woman)
Negro Negress Enchanter Enchantress Flirt (woman pretending to make love)
Instructor Instructress Founder Foundress Virago (a turbulent woman)
Waiter Waitress Traitor Traitress Dowager (widow with late husband's property)
Seamster Seamstress Templer Temptress Siren (an enticing woman)
Songster Songstress Preceptor Preceptress
Brunette (a darkcomplexioned woman)
Murderer Murderess Sorcerer Sorceress
Prude (a woman of a affected modestry)
(3) By substituting a feminine word for a masculine in com
pound words. 4. Some Masculines have no corresponding Feminines.
Masculine Feminine Masculine Feminine Captain, Judge, Knight, Squire, Parson
Peacock Peahen Grandfather Grandmother
Billygoat Nannygoat Cocksparrow Hensparrow PRONOUN
Foster father Foster mother
Jackass Jennyass Czar Czarina Pronoun is the word that is used for a Noun.Pronoun
Viceroy Vicereine Testator Testatrix makes our language stylistic and saves us from repeating
Executor Executrix Prophet Prophetess the same Noun. [Pronoun actually means ForaNoun].
Shepherd ShepherdessSteward Stewardess For example,
Viscount Viscountess Manager Manageress Ashi is absent, because Ashi is ill.
Jew Jewess Baron Baroness But, we can say :
Author Authoress Signor Signora Ashi is absent because she is ill.
Count Countess Giant Giantess
Don Donna Hero Heroine 
Signor Signora Sultan Sultana Pronoun
Administrator Administratrix
KINDS OF PRONOUN
Again, —ess is added after dropping the vowel of
the masculine ending. Pronouns are of nine kinds :
For example, 1. Personal Pronoun.
Masculine Feminine Masculine Feminine 2. Reflexive Pronoun.
Abbot Abbess Duke Cuchess 3. Demonstrative Pronoun.
Emperor Empress Actor Actress 4. Relative Pronoun.
Hunter Huntress Master Mistress 5. Interrogative Pronoun.
Marquis Marchioness Prince Princess 6. Possessive Pronoun.
Tiger Tigress Votary Votaress 7. Reciprocal Pronoun.
Heass Sheass Landlord Landlady 8. Universal Pronoun.
Manservant Maidservant Milkman Milkmaid 9. Pronouns denoting number or amount.
SEE–24
1. PERSONAL PRONOUN (8) It is used to give emphasis to the Noun or pronoun
Personal Pronoun includes — We, I, She, He, It, They, following.
You, Thou, Thee etc. They all stand for three Persons, For example,
i.e., It is a silly fish that is caught twice with the
(i) the person speaking same bait.
(ii) the person spoken to It was you who began the quarrel.
(iii) the person spoken of It is an ill wind that blows for nobody good.
We and I are used for First Person. He, she and it are It was at Versailles that the treaty was made.
used for Third Person while you, thou and thee are used It was I who first protested.
for Second Person. Thou and thee are out of use now.
They can be used for mankind, animal, bird, nonliving in FORMS OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS
Plural. The three difference forms of Personal Pronouns are:
They are boys. mankind First Person
They are tables. nonlivings Singular Plural
They are dogs. animals Nominative I We
Use of Pronoun It Possessive my, mine our, ours
(1) It is used for time and weather. Accusative me us
For example, Second Person
It is fine. It is winter. Singular Plural
It is ten o'clock. It is morning. Nominative thou you
It is July. It was Monday. Possessive thy, thine your, yours
It is ten p.m. Accusative thee you
(2) It is used for things without life. Third Person
For example, Singular Plural
Here is your book take it away. Masculine Fermine Neuter All Genders
(3) It is used for a young child, unless we clearly wish Nominative he she it they
to refer to the sex. Possessive his her, hers its their, theirs
For example, Accusative him her it them
It is a baby.
It is an infant. 2. REFLEXIVE PRONOUN
When I saw the child it was crying. Reflexive Pronouns are formed by adding self to
The baby has torn its clothes. Personal Pronouns of the Singular Number and selves to
Personal Pronouns of the Plural Number.
Again,
For example,
Who is it at the gate?
Myself — I hurt myself.
[When referred to mankind if its sex is unknown]
Yourself — You will hurt yourself.
(4) It is used for animal, bird and nonliving.
Himself — He hurt himself.
For example,
Herself — She hurt herself.
It is an ox.
Itself — The horse hurt itself.
It is a crow.
Ourselves — We hurt ourselves.
It is a chair.
Yourselves — You will hurt yourselves.
(5) It is used to refer to some statement going before.
Themselves — They hurt themselves.
For example,
He is telling what is not true; as he knows it. Use of Reflexive Pronouns
He deserved his punishment; as he knew it. (1) Reflexive Pronoun is used when the doer accents on
(6) It is used for natural incidents. his action or skill.
It is raining. I shall myself do this work.
It is thundering. We will ourselves solve this problem.
It was an earthquake. (2) We use reflexive pronoun if the doer has to face both
It snows. action and result.
(7) It is used as a provisional and temporary subject For example,
before the verb to be when the real subject follows. She cut her finger herself.
For example, I cook myself at present.
It is easy to find fault. (3) After these words, we generally use reflexive
It is doubtful whether he will come. pronoun :
It is certain that you are wrong. Avoid, avail, pride, enjoy, absent etc.
SEE–25
For example, The books that you sent me are not good ones
Ram avoids of the chance — Wrong. (=books).
Ram avoids himself of the chance. (6) Such is a Demonstrative Pronoun when it is used as
— Correct. a substitute for a Noun.
Yukta prides on her beauty. — Wrong For example,
Yukta prides herself on beauty — Correct I am a party to this case and as such (=a
party) I cannot help you.
3. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN 4. RELATIVE PRONOUN
A Pronoun that points out (demonstrates) some Nouns A Relative Pronoun is one which relates to (refers to)
some other Noun or Pronoun, called its antecedent, and
instead of which it is used, is called a Demonstrative
which has the force of Conjunction.
Pronoun.
[The Noun or Pronoun for which the Relative Pronoun
(1) This and that are used for Singular Nouns while these
stands, is called its antecedent]
and those are used for Plural Nouns.
For example,
For example,
I met a man. He gave me a letter.
The people of India are poorer than that of
England. — Wrong. I met the man who gave me a letter.
The people of India are poorer than those John read the book. It was lent to him.
John read the book which was lent to him.

The pen is lost. You gave me the pen.
Plural Noun those.
The pen that you gave me is lost.
of England. — Correct
Each of these three little words, who, which and that
The flower of India is sweeter than those of is really two parts of speech in one. Each stands for a
Italy. — wrong. Noun and at the same time, joins two sentences together
The flower of India is sweeter than that of like a conjunction. In other words, it does at once the
 work of a Pronoun and that of a Conjunction.
Singular Noun that Uses of Relative Pronoun
Italy. — Correct. (1) Who and whom are used for mankind in Nominative
(2) These and those should not be used before kind of and in Accusative Cases positively.
and sort of. For example,
For example, These are the boys who help me.
These kind of people are poor. — Wrong. She is the girl who teaches me.
This kind of people are poor. — Correct Meena is the girl whom I love.
Those sort of people are rich. — Wrong They are the students whom I teach.
That sort of people are rich. — Correct (2) Whose is used for all in Possessive Case.
But, For example,
These kinds of pens are costly.— Crorect He is the boy whose name is Raju.
Those sorts of books are useful.— Correct This is the table whose colour is blue.
(3) When two nouns have been mentioned in a clause or This is the animal whose tail is long.
sentence going before, this is a substitute for the (3) Which is used for all except mankind.
latter and that for the former. For example,
For example, This is the bird which can fly.
Both health and wealth are necessary i.e., this This is the animal which gives us milk.
(wealth) gives us opportunities; and that (health) This is the music system which is costly.
gives us energy for work. (4) That is used after all, none, some etc.
(4) This or that is also used as a substitute for a clause For example,
or a sentence going before. All that glitters is not gold.
For example, None that has come is honest.
You neglect your studies and this is bad of Some that are fancy items are sold.
you. (5) Everything and anything are followed by that.
Johny never cared for his health and that For example,
rained him. I replied everything that was asked.
(5) One and its plural form ones are Demonstrative He can do anything that is required.
Pronouns when they are used as substitutes for (6) We use only that if Noun is not used after Superlative
nouns. Adjective.
I lost my pen, but I have got one (=a pen) This is the best what I can do. — Wrong.
from my father.
This is the best that I can do. — Correct
SEE–26
But, Who spoke?
She is the best girl who has attracted me. Who is knocking at the door?
— Correct. Who made the highest score?
He is the best boy that has passed. Who says so?
 Whose is this umbrella?
Superlative Noun Whom do you see?
— Correct Which is used for both persons and things, but refers
to one or more out of a known number.
(7) If Noun is used after such or for example, they are
followed by as not that. For example,
For example, Which of the boys met you? (person)
Which is your friend? (person)
Such boys will be rewarded as are laborious.
Which are your books? (things)
 Which of the boys saw him? (person)
Such Noun as Which will you choose? (thing)
As many girls have been selected as Which of you has done this? (person)
 Which of these pens is yours? (things)
Such Noun as Which of the pictures do you like best? (thing)
are intelligent. Which will you take? (thing)
But, What applies to thing and persons of which the speaker
Such was the condition that / as was the treat is ignorant.
ment. — Correct. For example,
What do you want? (thing)
The Special Rules of Relative Pronoun What have you found? (thing)
(1) No use of and and but before Relative Pronoun. What did you say? (thing)
For example, What was it all about? (thing)
Ram is the boy and who has helped me. — Wrong What are the marks on your cheek? (thing)
Ram is the boy who has helped me. — Correct What is sweeter than honey? (thing)
She is the girl but who has deceived me. — Wrong What is he? (person)
She is the girl who has deceived me. — Correct What are you? (person)
(2) No use of Possessive Case with the antecedent of But,
Relative Pronoun. Who is he? [What is his name and family?]
For example, Thus,
It is Reena's pen who is my friend. — Wrong Who inquires about the name or parentage of the
It is the pen of Reena who is my friend. — Correct person spoken about.
But, Which inquires about a particular person from among
a group of persons.
It is Leela's book which is new. — Correct
What inquires about the profession or social position
 of the person spoken about.
Noun Noun P.Pronoun Uses of Interrogative Pronoun
(3) No use of Personal Pronoun after Relative Pronoun (1) Do, did and does should not be used after who in
if it is defined before relative pronoun. general sense.
Sanjay who is here he is my friend. — Wrong Who does help you at present? — Wrong
Sanjay who is here is my friend. — Correct Who helps you at present? — Correct
Salman who is intelligent he is laborious. — Wrong Who did take your pen? — Wrong
Salman who is intelligent is laborious. — Correct Who took your pen? — Correct
(2) Where, why and when are also used as
5. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN interrogative pronouns.
Who is there? (person) For example,
Which of them did it, Mary or Maratha? (person) Where do you live at? — [place]
Which of the books do you like most? (thing) Why are you angry? — [reason]
What has happened to you? (thing) When did he arrive here? — [time]
The pronoun who, which and what are used in asking (3) Whenever, whatever, whosoever are called semi
questions and are therefore called Interrogative Pronouns. interrogative pronouns.
Who is used for the persons of whom the speaker is For example,
ignorant. Whenever I go out she meets me. — [time]
For example, Whatever is the matter I shall help him.
Who went there? — [reason]
[We expect the answer to be the name of a person] Whosoever is guilty will be punished.
Who goes there? — [person]
SEE–27
6. POSSESSIVE PRONOUN 9. NOUNS DENOTING NUMBER OR AMOUNT
Our, your, her, their etc. are called possessive adjectives. (a) Indefinite Pronoun
And, The Indefinite Pronoun are those that have no actual
Mine, thine, hers, ours, yours and theirs etc. are called relationship with a Noun in their own or a neighbouring
possessive pronouns. sentence, but which stand generally for a Noun.
Note : Noun is not used after possessive pronoun. Ex. : one, none, some, all, any, many, both etc.
Your watch is new but mine watch is old. One should be careful of one's
— wrong health (= any man and every man)
Your watch is new but mine is old. — correct One cannot be too careful of one's purse.
Her pen is unique but mine pen is ordinary. (not his)
— wrong
None was allowed to get in.
Her pen is unique but mine is ordinary. — correct
None of his answers are correct.
Use of Possessive Pronouns
(1) When a verb comes in between a Noun and a Any and all are used in both numbers.
pronoun. For example,
For example, Do (or does) any of your know him?
Yours is the gain, mine the loss. Any of these is (or are) long enough.
(2) When the Noun is understood. All that glitters is not gold.
For example, All of us are ready.
I have got my pen, where is yours? Both, some, many and few are plural.
[Yours = your pen]
For example,
(3) When the pronoun is preceded by of.
Both of them were absent.
For example,
Some of my friends are here.
This book of mine was stolen.
7. RECIPROCAL PRONOUN Few were chosen and many were dismissed.
Reciprocal Pronoun includes : (b) Distributive Pronoun
Each other Each, everyone, either and neither are Distributive
and one another Pronouns, as they separate are person or thing from a
Each other is used for two, while group of persons or things : they always take singular
One another is used for more than two. verbs while other pronouns referring to them must also
For example, be singular.
The two boys love each other . For example,
 Each of them was a scholar.
two each other Everyone of them was busy.
The five girls hate one another . Either of the two boys was required but neither of
 them was ready.
five one another For example,
But, nowadays, both each other and one another are Let each of us go there in our turn. — wrong
used for two or more than two. Let each of us go there in his turn. — correct
For example, Everyone of them have separate room to sleep.
The six boys love each other. — correct — wrong
The two girls hate one another. — correct
Everyone of them has a separate room to sleep
8. UNIVERSAL PRONOUN in. — correct
(1) Universal Pronoun includes anybody, somebody,
nobody, everybody, someone, everyone etc. which
indicate singular nouns.
ADJECTIVE
For example, An Adjective is a describing word that adds something
Anybody has helped him. to the meaning of a Noun.
Somebody opposes him. For example,
Everybody loves song.
Harish is a clever boy.
Nobody knows God.

(2) Universal Pronoun also includes all, both, some,
many etc. which indicate plural nouns. Adjective
For example, Here, clever shows what kind of boy Harish is; or,
All are lazy here. we may say, clever describes the boy—Harish.
Both have done their job. I do not like that girl.
Some have required. 
Many were there. Adjective
SEE–28
Here, that points out which girl is meant. (i) Some is used in affirmative sentence while any is
He gave me ten oranges. used in negative sentence.
 For example,
Adjective He has not some problems. —wrong
Here, ten shows how many oranges he gave me. He has not any problems. —correct
KINDS OF ADJECTIVES She has any money with her. —wrong
She has some money with her. —correct
Adjectives are of the following kinds:
(ii) Many is used before countable noun while much is
(1) Adjective of quality
used before uncountable noun.
(2) Adjective of quantity
For example,
(3) Adjective of number.
The accident caused many damages. —wrong
(4) Demonstrative Adjective
The accident caused much damages. —correct
(5) Distributive Adjective She met much people there. —wrong
(6) Emphasizing Adjective She met many people there. —correct
(7) Interrogative Adjective (iii) Many a much should not be used objectively. Use a
(8) Possessive Adjective large number of, a large amount of, a great deal of,
(9) Proper Adjective plenty of etc. instead of much or many.
(10) Relative Adjective For example,
(11) Exclamatory Adjective She asked me many questions. —wrong
She asked me a large number of questions.
(1) ADJECTIVE OF QUALITY
—correct
These Adjectives show the kind or quality of a per
Mohan drank much water —wrong
son or a thing.
Mohan drank plenty of water —correct
For example,
(iv) Few and little cannot be used for the sense of a few
The Ganges is a holy river.
and a little.
Calcutta is a large city. For example,
He is an honest man. Few persons were there to help me —wrong
(i) In using Adjectives of Quality, we first use ordinal A few persons were there to help me —correct
then cardinal.
After a long journey she got little tired —wrong
For example,
After a long journey she got a little tired —correct
She has read the three first Chapters.—wrong Note : The meaning of few and little is nothing. Al
She has read the first three Chapters.—correct ways, use hardly / any in such cases.
I have read the four last stanzas. —wrong For example,
I have read the last four stanzas. —correct. Bill has hardly any money to give me.
(ii) One or two Adjectives can be used before or after He has hardly any books to give me.
Nouns.
(v) A few or a little cannot be used at the place of the
A black and white film few and the little.
   For example,
Adj Adj Noun I gave him books a few I had —wrong
A film black and white I gave him books the few I had —correct
 She gave me money a little she had —wrong
Noun Adj Adj She gave me money the little she had —correct
But,
(iii) The following Adjectives are used only predicatively. (3) ADJECTIVE OF NUMBER
sleep, awake, afraid, ashamed, alike, alone etc. Adjectives of number (or Numeral Adjectives) are those
For example, that show how many are meant or in what order :
Ram is an alone boy. —wrong For example,
Ram is alone. —correct five, fifth, one, first, all, few, many, some etc.
Ravi is an ashamed boy. —wrong There are two kinds of Adjectives of number those
Ravi is ashamed. —correct which show exactly how many persons or things there
are, or in what order in a series any of them stands, are
(2) ADJECTIVE OF QUANTITY called Definite Numerals : four, fourth, nine, ninth etc.
Adjectives of quantity show how much of a thing is (i) Those Adjectives of Number which do not show what
meant. the exact number is, are called Indefinite Numerals: all,
For example, few, many more, sever all, some etc.
All, any, enough, half, little, much, no, whole, some etc. For example,
For example, All men must die.
He drank much milk. Few cats like cold water.
I want some paper. Many boys were present.
I drank a little milk. Some rose are white.
SEE–29
(ii) The Definite Numerals are again divided into two For example,
classes: You can choose either party (one party or the other)
(a) Adjectives of Number which show how many are Either side scored a goal (each of the two sides)
called Cardinals and, Neither is the negative form of either and means
(b) Those which show in what order a person or thing neither the one nor the other.
stands, are called Ordinals. For example,
One, two, three, four, five etc. —(Cardinals) Neither party won the game.
First, second, third, fourth, fifth etc. — (Ordinals) Neither of the two girls is lazy.
For example, But,
I have two hands. Neither of the three boys is intelligent.—wrong
Wednesday is the fourth day of the week. None of the three boys is intelligent. —correct
(iii) The same adjective may be an Adjective of Number or (For example, Neither is used with two).
an Adjective of Quantity according to sense.
(6) EMPHASIZING ADJECTIVE
For example,
Adjectives used with Nouns for the sake of emphasis,
Number Quantity
are called Emphasizing Adjectives.
I lost some books. I drank some milk.
For example,
More boys are wanted I want more milk.
I saw this very book.
for the job
(iv) Many followed immediately by a/an takes a singular 
noun and a singular verb, but if preceded by a with Emphasizing
great or good following, it takes a plural verb, Adj.
For example,
(7) INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVE
Many a man was present there.
The Interrogative Pronouns what, which and whose,
A great many boys were present there. if used with Nouns in asking questions are called
(4) DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVE Interrogative Adjectives.
Demonstrative Adjectives point out which person or For example,
thing is meant. What kind of manner is this?
For example, What manner of man is he ?
This book is mine that book is yours.
(8) POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVE
These trees are tall, those trees are short.
Adjectives formed from Pronouns in the Genitive
This boy is stronger than Jay.
(Possessive) case are called Possessive Adjectives.
That boy is laborious.
For example, My, your, his, her, its and their.
These mangoes are sweet.
For example,
Note :A demonstrative adjective and the noun qualified by
it, must be of the same number. My mother is coming.
For example, Your time is up.
This kind of book is rare (Not these kind) (9) PROPER ADJECTIVE
(5) DISTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVE Proper adjectives are formed from Proper Nouns
The Indefinite Numeral Adjectives each, every, either For example,
and neither when used with Nouns to show that persons Proper noun Proper adjective
or things are taken separately, either one at a time or India Indian
several at a time in separate lots, are called Distributive China Chinese
adjectives. Japan Japanese
(i) Each and Every
(10) RELATIVE ADJECTIVE
Each may be used both as pronoun and adjective but,
every is used only as an adjective. The Relative Pronouns which and what when used as
Adjectives, are called Relative Adjectives.
Each is used with two or more than two things but,
every is used with more than two things. For example,
For example, I gathered what information I could.
Each pen costs a shilling. I was ill, which fact caused my absence.
or, Each of the pens costs a shilling. (11) EXCLAMATORY ADJECTIVE
Every pen cost a penny. What nonsense !
Everyone of the ten boys is industrious. What a pity !
(ii) Either and Neither What an idea !
Either means: What in the sentences above is used as an exclamatory
(a) one of two adjective.
or, (b) each of two (i.e. both)
(What and what a/what aware used in exclamations.)
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FORMATION OF ADJECTIVES Mohan is worse than any other boy in our class.
(i) Many adjectives are formed from Nouns. Comparative
Noun Adjective Noun Adjective Mohan is the worst boy in our class.
Gold Golden Silk Silken —Superlative
Gift Gifted King Kingly Note : After the + superlative, no other and than any
Boy Boyish Dirt Dirty other, we use Singular Noun.
Fool Foolish Storm Stormy For example,
Care Careful Pardon Pardonable The best boys —wrong
Play Playful Laugh Laughable The best boy — correct
Hope Hopeful Venture Venturesome No other boys —wrong
Trouble Troublesome Outrage Outrageous No other boy —correct
Courage Courageous Glory Glorious Than any other boys —wrong
Shame Shameless/shameful Than any other boy —correct
Envy Envious Man Manly 2. Positive : very few...... as + P.F. + as + N
(ii) Some adjectives are formed from Verbs. Comparative : N + Aux. Verb + C. F + than most
Verb Adjective Verb Adjective other.....
Cease Ceaseless Talk Talkative Superlative : N + Aux. Verb + one of +the +S.F.......
Tire Tireless Move Moveable For example,
(iii) Some adjectives are formed from other Adjectives. Kolkata is one of the busiest cities of India.
Adjective Adjective Adjective Adjective —Superlative
White Whitish Black Blackish Very few cities of India are as busy as Kolkata.
Sick Sickly Tragic Tragical —Positive
Whole Wholesome Three Threefold Kolkata is busier than most other cities of India.
—Comparative
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES (DEGREE) Note : There is no use of singular Noun after — one
of, very few and than most other.
Let us take a few sentences:
For example,
1. Sunil’s orange is sweet.
One of the best girl —wrong
2. Kavita’s orange is sweeter than Sunil's.
Very few girl —wrong
3. Sanjay’s orange is the sweetest of all.
Than most other girl —wrong
In the first sentence, the Adjective sweet merely tells
us that Sunil's orange has the quality of sweetness, without One of the best girls —correct
saying how much of this quality it has. Very few girls —correct
In the second sentence, the Adjective sweeter tells us Than most other girls —correct
that Kavita’s orange, compared with Sunil’s, has more of THE RULES OF DEGREES
the quality of sweetness.
1. After the following Latin adjectives we use ‘to’,
And, in the third sentence, the Adjective sweetest tells instead of than in comparative degree:
us that of all these oranges, Sanjay’s mango has the greatest superior, junior, senior, prior, interior, interior, minor
amount or highest degree of the quality of sweetness. etc.
Thus, we see that Adjectives change form (sweet, For example,
sweeter, sweetest) to show comparison. They are called
Ram is junior to me. —correct
the three Degrees of Comparison.
Nayna is senior to Meena. —correct
In order to know Adjectives at length, it is essential to
know the degrees of comparison. 2. There is no use of more or most before the follow-
There are three kinds of degree. ing Adjectives:
1. Positive Degree. Unique, universal, absolute, supreme, right, round,
2. Comparative Degree. square, perfect, changeable etc.
3. Superlative Degree. For example,
In the above sentences, sweet is in thePositive degree He is the unique person of my village. —correct
sweeter in Comparative degree and Sweetest is in the 3. There is no use of superlative degree for two.
Superlative degree. For example,
Structures Used for Making Positive, Comparative Soma is the more beautiful of the two.
and Superlative Degrees He is better of the two.
1. Positive : No other .... as + P.F + as + N. 4. ‘Much’ cannot be used before positive adjective.
Comparative : N + Aux. Verb + C.F. + than any other... For example,
Superlative : N + Aux. Verb + the + S.F....... Munna is a very intelligent boy.
For example, 5. No use of ‘very’ before Comparative Adjective.
No other boy in our class is as bad as Mohan. For example,
—Positive Rani is much better than Reena.
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6. Both very and much can be used before Superlative 13. Nearest / Next
Adjective. Nearest denotes distance ; and next denotes position.
Anil is the very best boy of his class. —correct Mumbai is the seaport nearest to Europe.
Sekhar is much the best boy of our school. Time’s shop is next to Police Station.
7. The same form of degree will be used before and
My uncle lives in the next quarter.
after and
For example,
FORMATION OF
Ram is the best and tallest. —Superlative
Shyam is better and taller. —Comparative COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE DEGREE
Indu is good and tall. —Positive * Most Adjectives of one syllable, and some of more
8. Fewer/Less than one, form their Comparative degree by adding er and
Fewer is used before countable noun while less is the Superlative Degree by adding e st to the Positive.
used before uncountable noun. Positive Comparative Superlative
For example, Small Smaller Smallest
No fewer than five persons died. Sweet Sweeter Sweetest
No less than half of the work has been done.
Tall Taller Tallest
9. Former/Latter/Later
Former is used for the first out of two Latter is used Bold Bolder Boldest
for the second out of two. And later is used for time. Clever Cleverer Cleverest
For example, Kind Kinder Kindest
Of Ajay and Nikhil, the former is the more intelligent. Young Younger Youngest
Of iron and gold, the latter is the more precious. Great Greater Greatest
The death of Rajib was later than the death of Indira
Old Older Oldest
10. Latest/Last
Latest refer to time and, last refer to position. * When the last letter in the Positive Degree ends in
For example, e, only r and st are added to their Comparative and
Superlative degrees respectively.
I have not heard the latest news.
Can you say me the latest proceedings of the Positive Comparative Superlative
meeting? Wise Wiser Wisest
The last chapter is carelessly written. Noble Nobler Noblest
Ours is the last house in the street. Able Abler Ablest
11. Elder/Older; Eldest/ Oldest
Large Larger Largest
Elder and eldest are used only of persons, confined to
members of the same family. Brave Braver Bravest
While, older and oldest are both used of persons and White Whiter Whitest
things for the members of different families. Fine Finer Finest
For example, * When the Positive Form ends in y, preceded by a
John is my elder brother. consonant, the y is changed into i before adding er and
Alter is my eldest son. east.
My sister is elder to me. Positive Comparative Superlative
Gandhi was older to Nehru.
Happy Happier Happiest
He is older than his sister.
Easy Easier Easiest
Harry is the oldest boy in the eleven.
This is the oldest temple in Calcutta. Heavy Heavier Heaviest
Again, old is used in all three degrees while elder is Merry Merrier Merriest
used in Comparative and eldest in Superlative degree. Wealthy Wealthier Wealthiest
For example, * When the Positive Form is a word of one syllable
Positive Comparative Superlative and ends in a single consonant, preceded by a short vowel,
old older oldest this consonant is doubled before adding er and east
— elder eldest
Positive Comparative Superlative
12. Farther/Further
Fat Fatter Fattest
Farther means more distant one advanced, while
further means additional. Sad Sadder Saddest
For example, Thin Thinner Thinnest
Delhi is farther from the equator than Colombo. Hot Hotter Hottest
After this he made no further remarks. Big Bigger Biggest
I must have a reply without further delay.
Red Redder Reddest
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* Adjectives of more than two syllables, and many of Every one of these chairs is broken.
those with two, form the Comparative by using the adverb Leap year falls in every fourth year.
more with the Positive Form and the Superlative by using
He can to see us every five days.
the adverb most with the positive from.
It rained every day during my vaction.
Positive Comparative Superlative
3. Little, a Little and the little
Beautiful More beautiful Most beautiful
Splendid More splendid Most splendid Little means not much (i.e. hardly any).
Difficult More difficult Most difficult Thus, Little has a negative meaning.
Proper More Proper Most Proper For example, There is little hope of his recovery.
Learned More learned Most learned He showed little concern for his cousin.
Industrious More industries Most industries He has little influence with his old followers.
Courageous More courageousMost courageous He showed little mercy to the culprit.
* The Adjectives whose Comparative and Superlative He has little appreciation of good poetry.
degrees are not formed from the Positive Degree. A little means some though not much. It has a positive
Positive Comparative Superlative meaning.
Good Better Best For example,
Bad Worse Worst There is a little hope of his arrival.
Little Less Least A little thought would have saved the situation.
Much More Most A little knowledge is a dangerous thing.
Many More Most The little means not much, but all what is.
Late Later Latest For example,
Old Older Oldest The little information he had might lead him to
Far Farther Farthest conclusion.
Nigh Nigher Next The little knowledge of astrology that he had possessed
Fore Former Formost stood him in great stead.
In Inner Innermost 4. Few, a few and the few
Up Upper Upmost Few means not many, hardly any.
Out Outer Utmost Few has a negative meaning.
For example,
CORRECT USE OF SOME ADJECTIVES
Few persons can keep a secret.
1. Some, any
Few people are so rockless as gamblers.
Some is used to express quantity or degree in
Few college in India have scientific libraries.
affirmative sentences while, any is used to express the
same in negative or interrogative sentences. Few men are free from faults.
For example, Fewmen reach the age of a hundred years.
I shall buy some books. A few means some. It has a Positive meaning and is
apposed to ‘none’.
I shall not buy any books.
For example,
Have you bought any books?
A Few of the members were present in the meeting.
But, some is also used in questions which actually
express – commands or requests. A few words of love will cheer her up.
For example, A few Europeans have their offices in Delhi.
A few days rest is all that is needed.
Will you please lend me some money?
A few words spoken in earnest will convince line.
Bring me some sweet to eat.
When I met him after a few years, he looked old and
2. Each, every
haggard.
Each and every are similar in meaning, but every
It is a question of spending a few rupees.
is a stronger word than each.
The few means not many, but all there are.
Each is used in speaking of two or more things.
Each is used only when the number in the group is limited For example,
and definite. The few friends that he has are all very poor.
Every is used in speaking of more than two things. The few poems he has written are all of great
Every is also used when the number is indefinite. excellence.
For example, The few remarks that he made were very suggestive.
Every seat was taken. The few days that are left to him he spends in solitude.
Five girls were seated on each bench. The few clothes they had were all tattered and torn.
SEE–33
Do What does he want? Who did it?
VERB I do believe you. He did his part well.
Shall I shall go. He shall get his
A Verb is a word that tells or asserts something about dues tomorrow.
a person or thing. Verb comes from the Latin 'verbnum' You shall do yourwork.
meaning a word.' Will He will go.
A Verb may tell :
I will help you.
(i) What a person or thing does. God willed other.
For example, May God save us. He may pass the test.
The man laughs. The car moves. May You may go. Work hard that you
Neena sings. may succeed.
(ii) What is done to a person or thing. Transitive and Intransitive Verbs
For example, Look at the sentences
The door is shut. The glass is broken. I love, Tom saw, You lost
Ram is scolded. The meaning is not clear and the sentences are also not
(iii) What a person or thing is. complete. We do want to know what I love, what saw and
For example, what you lost. The Verb love, saw and lost require some
I feel sorry. Man is mortal. other word put after each of them to make the meaning
Robin is dead. clear and to complete the sentences.
A Verb often consists of more than one word. So, if we put in these words :
For example, I love my parents.
Boys were running. Tom saw a tiger.
He has worked his sum. You lost a pen.
The purse has been found. the meaning gets clear and also, the sentences are com
I have done my duty. plete.
Principal And Auxiliary Verbs Thus, verbs like love, see and lose which take an
Ray worked hard. Children like games. other word to make their sense complete are called Tran-
sitive Verbs .
I want a pen.
Boys help themselves. Trans means across or over; itive means passing or
going. Therefore, Transitive means passing over.
In these sentences, each of the verbs expresses its
full meaning without the help of any other Verb. In the sentence above, I love my parents, the action of
loving passes across from myself to parents. This is why
They are called Principal Verbs.
we call love a transitive Verb. Similarly, the verbs see and
Look at the following sentences :
lose are also transitive verbs.
See that I may go there.
Thus, A Transitive Verb is a verb that denotes an
I shall go there. action which passes over from the door or subject to an
He will go there. object.
You did not go there. Intransitive Verbs
In each of the above sentences, we have two verbs Look at the sentences
may go, shall go, will go and did go. The Principal Verb is
The boy runs. The bird sings.
go. Each of the other verbs may, shall, will and do gives
a new meaning to the Principal Verb go. All of them help The dog barks.
the Verb go by giving it different meaning in each sen The verbs runs, sings and barks tell us what the sub
tence. They are Helping verbs or Auxiliary verbs. ject does. No other word is required to make sense here.
Thus, a Verb that helps another Verb in forming its Thus, An Intransitive Verb is a Verb that denotes an
tenses is called a Helping or Auxiliary Verb. action which does not pass over to an object, or which
The verbs : be (am, is, are, was, were), have, has, expresses a state or being.
had, do, does, did, shall, will and may are used both as Intransitive means not transitive.
Auxiliary Verbs and Principal Verbs. For example,
For example, He ran a long race. [Action].
Verb Auxiliary Principal The baby sleeps. [State].
I am going. I am glad. There is a flaw in this diamond. [Being]
Be Tom is writing. Tom is ready. USAGE OF VERBS
You are loved. You are right. 1. Most verbs can be used both as transitive and as
I was reading Bob was late. intransitive verbs.
They were coming. They were said. Used Transitively Used Intransitively
I have seen him. I have a hat. (a) I feel a severe pain in How do you feel.
Have Doll has left. She has to go.
my teeth.
I had seen it before. I had breakfast there.
(b) The ox kicked the man. The ox never kicks.
We do not see air. Do your duty.
SEE–34
(c) He spoke the truth. He spoke haughtily.
INFINITIVES
(d) The ant fought the wasps. Some ants are very
fierce. There are different forms of infinitive according as it
is used in the active or passive voice in relation to present
(e)The shot sank the ship. The ship sank
or past time :
rapidly.
From Active Voice Passive
(f)
The dirver stopped The bus stopped
Present Indefinite To love To be loved
the bus. suddenly.
Present Continuous To be loving
(g)Ring the bell. The bell rang loudly.
Past Perfect To have loved To have been
2.Most transitive verbs take a single object. But such
loved
transitive verbs as give, offer, ask, promise, tell etc.
Take two objects after them — an Indirect object. Present Perfect To have been
Which denotes the person to whom something is Continuous loving
given or for whom something is done, and a Direct Let us take a few examples :
object which is usually the name of some thing. (a) To err is human.
For example, (b) Birds love to sing.
His mother gave him (Indirect) a chocolate (Direct). (c) To respect our parents is our duty.
She told me (Indirect) a story (Direct). (d) He refused to obey the orders.
3.But sentences where the subject and the object both (e) Many men desire to make money quickly.
refer to the same person, the Verb is said to be In the first sentence, the infinitive, like a Noun, is the
used reflexively. subject of the Verb is.
For example, In the second sentence, the infinitive like a Noun, is
The man killed himself. the object of the Verb love.
The boy did himself. They love themselves. In the third sentence, the infinitive like a Noun, is the
4.Sometimes, though the Verb is used reflexively, the subject of the Verb is.
object is not expressed. In the fourth sentence, the infinitive like a Noun, is
the object of the Verb refused.
For example,
In the fifth sentence, the infinitive like a Noun, is the
The bubble burst (itself).
object of the Verb desire.
The guests made (themselves) enjoy.
Again, the word to is frequently used with the infini
Please keep (yourselves) quiet. tive, but is not an essential part or sign of it.
With these words she turned (himself) Thus, after certain verbs like : bid, let, make, need,
The Indians feed (themselves) chiefly on rice. dare, see, hear, etc. we use the infinitive without to.
5.There are certain verbs which can be used reflexively For example,
are also as ordinary transitive verbs. Bid him go there. I bade him go.
For example, Let him sit there. I will not let you go.
Do not forget her name. Make him stand. I made him run.
I forget her name. We need not go today. You need not do it.
Acquit yourself as man. You dare not do it. I saw him do it.
The magistrate acquitted him of the charge against I heard him cry.
him. The infinitve without to is also used after the verbs
I enjoy myself sitting along. shall, will, do, did, should, would, may, might, must, can
He enjoys good health. and could.
For example,
His talk does not interest me.
You shall do it [You shall be compelled to do it].
He interested himself in his friend's welfare.
I will play. [I am determined to play].
Finite And Infinite Verbs He may go. [He is at liberty to go.
Look at the sentences : He is permitted to go.]
(i) They always find fault with me. You must go. [You are commanded to go.]
(ii) They always try to find fault with me. I can swim. [I am able to swim.]
In the first sentence, the Verb find has they for the The infinitive without to is also used after had better,
subject. The Verb find is limited by person and number. had rather, would rather, sooner than, rather than etc.
We, therefore, call it a Finite Verb . For example,
In the second sentence, to find names the action de You had better ask permission.
noted by the Verb find and is used without mentioning the I had rather play than work.
subject. It is therefore not limited by person and number I would rather die than suffer so.
as a Verb that has a subject and is therefore, called Non- Uses of the Infinitive
finite Verb or only infinitive . 1. Infinitive may be used like a Noun as a subject of a
Verb.
SEE–35
For example, Thus. we see that the Verb takes the same Person
To err is human. To find fault is easy. and its subject or, that the Verb agrees with its subject
2. Infinitive may be used like a Noun as the object of a and Person.
transitive Verb. The Verb has two Numbers.
For example, (i) The Singular, (ii) The Plural
I do not mean to read. For example,
He likes to play cards. (a) He listens. (b) They listen.
3. Infinitive may be used like a Noun as the This is because of the difference in Number of the
complement of a Verb. subjects.
For example, Therefore,
His greatest pleasure is to read. In the first sentence He listens, we find the Subject is
Her duty is to practise daily. singular and so, the Verb is singular.
4. Infinitive may be used like a Noun as the object of a In the next sentence They listen, we find the subject
preposition. is plural and so, the Verb is also plural.
For example, Thus, we see that the Verb takes the same Number as
He had no choice but to obey. its subject or, that the Verb agrees with its subject in Num
The party is about to begin. ber.
5. Infinitive may be used like a Noun as an objective Rules to Which Verb Agrees :
complement. 1. The Verb must agree with its subject in Number
For example, and Person, i.e. the Verb must be of the same
I saw him go. I made him sing. Number and Person as its subject.
6. Infinitive is also used to qualify a Verb, usually to For example,
express purpose. I am here. I was there.
For example, I play badminton. I have a racket.
We eat to live. 2. If the subject is of the Singular Number, Third
He called to see my brother. Person, the Verb must be of the Singular Number,
7. Infinitive is used to qualify an Adjective. First person.
The pupils are anxious to learn. He is here. He was there.
He plays badminton.
He is too ill to do any work.
He has a racket.
8. Infinitive is used to qualify a Noun.
3. If the subject is of the Plural Number, Third Person,
For example,
the Verb must be of the Plural Number, Third Person.
The house is to let.
For example,
This is not the time to play.
They are here.
9. Infinitive is also used to qualify a sentence. They were there.
For example, They plays badminton.
To tell the truth, I quite forgot my promise. They have rackets.
I did this all for you, to make you happy. Thus, the setting of Persons in both the Numbers (Sin
10. Infinitive is again used as an Adverb of Purpose. gular and Plural) is in the following way :
For example, (in the Verb to be)
You are slow to move. Singular Plural
I come to buy Caesar. First Person : I am We are
Second Person : You are You are
PERSON AND NUMBER Third Person : He/She/it is They are
There are three persons in Verb. Subject - Verb Agreement
(i) The First Person (ii) The Second Person The Verb agrees with the subject in Number and Per
(iii) The Third Person son. The followings are the norms which follow the agree
For example, ment :
(a) I read. (b) You read. (c) He reads. 1. When two or more singular subjects are connected
by and, they take a Verb in the Plural.
In the first sentence, I read, the subject is of the First
For example,
Person, therefore the Verb is also of the First Person.
He and his friend have arrived.
In the second sentence, You read, the subject is of the
second Person, Therefore the Verb is also of the Second Fire and water do not agree.
Person. Plato and Aristotle were Greek Philosophers.
2. If two singular nouns refer to the same person or
In the third sentence, He reads, the subject is of the
thing, the Verb must be singluar.
Third Person, therefore the Verb is also of the Third Per
son. For example,
SEE–36
The philosopher and critic is dead. 12. When a plural Noun comes between a singular
The captain and adjutant was present. subject and its Verb, the Verb is often wrongly made
3. If two subjects together express one idea, the Verb to agree with the nearest plural Noun instead of
remains in singular. with the real subject.
The horse and carriage is at the door. Each of the brothers is clever.
Slow and steady wins the race. Each of the participantgs was given a prize.
4. If the singular subjects are preceded by each or Neither of the man was very tall.
every, the Verb usually is used in the singular form. A variety of pleasing objects charms the eye.
For example, The quality of the oranges was not good.
Every man, woman and children was lost. 13. The words joined to a singular subject by with,
Every father and mother was present at the together with, in addition to or as well as etc. are
meeting. parenthetical and therefore do not affect the number
5. Two or more singular subjects connected by or, nor, of the Verb.
eitheror, neithernor take a Verb in the singular. For example,
For example, The minister, with his loyals has arrived.
No nook or corner was left undiscovered. Sheena as well as Rose, deserves praise.
Neither he nor I was there. Justice, as well as mercy, allows it.
Neither blame nor praise seems to affect him. 14. The Verb to be takes the same case after it as before
6. it.
When the subjects joined by or, nor are of different
numbers, the Verb must be plural, and the plural For example,
subject must be placed next to the Verb. He said to them, it is I and be not afraid.
For example, 15. When the subject of the Verb is a Relative Pronoun
Neither the Principal nor the teachers were care should be taken to see that the Verb agrees in
present. numbers and person with the antecedent of the
Relative Pronoun.
Either the girl or his parents have erred.
For example,
Neither Sushil nor his attendants were hurt.
She is one of the best mothers that have ever lived.
7. When the subjects joined by or, nor are of different
Persons, the Verb agrees in Persons with the one He, who is my friend, should stand by me.
nearest to it. You, who are my brother, should not worry me.
For example, I, who am your your friend, will save you in danger.
Either he is mistaken or I am. PARTICIPLE
He is not to blame, nor are you.
8. When subjects differing in Number or Person, or A participle is that form of the Verb which partakes of
both are connected by and, the Verb must always the nature both of a Verb and of an Adjective.
be in the plural. For example,
For example, Hearing the song, the girl woke up. Here, hearing
My mother and I have lived here for five years. qualifies the Noun girl as an Adjective does.
You and she are birds of the same feather. Therefore, learning partakes of the nature of both a
You and I have done our duties. Verb and an Adjective and is called participle.
9. A collective Noun takes a Singular Verb when the There are the two kinds of participle :
collection is thought of as a whole; a Plural Verb 1. Present Participle
when the individuals of which it is composed are 2. Past Participle
thought of. 1. Present Participles are those which end ining and
For example, represent an action as going on or incomplete or
The army was large. imperfect.
The army were given gurard of honour. For example,
Parliament has elected its speaker. We met a girl carrying a bunch of flowers.
The majority is against any compromise. The blind man, thinking all was safe, attempted to
10. Some nouns which are plural in form but singular cross the road.
in meaning, take a singular Verb. Loudly knocking at the door, he demanded
admission.
For example,
2. Past Participles are those forms of Verbs which
The news is true.
represents a completed action or state of the thing
The wages of sin is death.
spoken of.
Mathematics is a branch of study in every school.
For example,
11. Some nouns which are singular in form but plural
Deceived by his girl, he lost all hope.
in meaning, take a Plural Verb.
Time misspent is time lost.
For example,
We saw a few trees, ladden with fruit.
Ten dozen cost one hundred rupees.
Driven by hunder, he stole a piece of cake.
Twelve pair of socks cost ninety rupees.
SEE–37
Note : The Past Participle usually ends in ed,d,t, en, n
etc. GERUND
The participles are used as simple qualifying adjec A Gerund is that form of the Verb which ends in ing
tives in front of a Noun and are thus called Participial and has the force of a Noun and a Verb.
Adjectives. For example,
For example, Hunting deer is a favourite sport in India.
A rolling stong gathers no moss. I like writing poetry.
He played a losing game. In these sentences, the Gerund, like a Noun, is the
subject of a Verb, but like a Verb, it also takes an object,
A burnt child dreads the fire.
thus, showing it has also the force of a Verb.
He wears a worried look. Again,
Education is the most pressing need of our country. He is fond of collecting stamps. In this sentence, the
A lying witness ought to be punished. Gerund like a Noun as governed by a Preposition, but like
Thus, we recall that : a Verb, it also takes an object.
(1) A Participle is a Verbal Adjective. Both the Gerund and the infinitive have the force of a
Noun and a Verb and also their usages are same. Thus, in
(2) A Participle may govern a Noun or Pronoun, like a
many sentences, either of them may be used without any
Verb.
special difference in meaning.
(3) A Participle may be modified by an Adverb, like a For example,
Verb. To see is to beleive.
(4) A Participle may qualify a Noun or Pronoun, like Seeing is believing.
an Adjective. To give is better than to receive.
(5) A participle may be compared, like an Adjective. Giving is better than receiving.
Uses of Gerund
Forms Of Different Participles In Active and Passive
The Gerund has the force of a Noun and a Verb. It is
Forms
thus a VerbalNoun and may be used as :
Active Passive (1) Subject of a Verb
Present : caring Present : being cared For example,
Perfect : having cared Perfect : having been cared Seeing in believing
Past : cared Hunting deer is a favourite sport in India.
(2) Object of a Transitive Verb
Uses of Participles
For example,
(1) The Continuous Tenses (Active Voice) are formed Stop talking.
from the Present Participle with tenses of the Verb Children love making noise.
be. I like writing poetry.
For example, (3) Object of a Preposition.
I am caring. For example,
I was caring. I am tired of waiting.
He is fond of fishing.
I shall be caring
He was punished for telling a lie.
(2) The Perfect Tenses (Active Voice) are formed from (4) Complement of a Verb.
the Past Participle with tenses of the Verb have. For example,
For example, Writing is learning.
I have cared. I had cared. What I most dislike is smoking.
I shall have cared. (5) Absolutely.
For example,
(3) The Passive Voice is formed from the Past Participle
Playing cards being his aversion, we did not
with tenses of the Verb be. play bridge.
For example, Moreover, the Persent Participle has the force of an
I am cared. I was cared. Adjective and a Verb. It is called a Verbal Adjective.
I shall be cared. For example,
(4) Participles that qualify Nouns or Pronouns may be Walking along the road, he noticed a big elephant.
used also as attributively, predicatively and Seeing, he believed.
Strong And Weak Verbs
absolutely with a Noun or Pronoun going before.
Verbs are divided into two kinds :
For example, 1. Weak Verbs 2. Strong Verbs
A rollong stone gather no moss. Let us take a few verbs and see their past tense and
A lost opportunity never returns. past participle.
The man seems worried. (Modifying the subject). For example,
He kept me waiting. (Modifiying the object). Verbs Present Tense Past Tense Past Participle
The sea being smooth, we went for sail. play play played played
Jack having arrived, we were freed from anxiety. like like liked liked
learn learn learnt learnt
SEE–38
The conjugation of these verbs shows that their Past Some weak verbs their Past Tense and Past
Tense and Past Participle are formed by adding the suffiz Participle in t after shortening their long inside
ed, d or t to their Present Tense form. They are called vowel.
weak verbs , because they cannot form their Past Tense Present Tense Past Tense Past Participle
and Past Participle without the help of the suffixes ed, d deal dealt dealt
or t. dream deamt dreamt
On the other hand, when a Verb in the Present Tense dwell dwelt dwelt
forms its Past Tense and Past Participle by changing or feel felt felt
shortening its inside vowel, it is called a strong Verb .
keep kept kept
For example,
kneel knelt knelt
Verbs Present Tense Past Tense Past Participle
mean meant meant
come come came come
creep crept crept
sing sing sang sung
sleep slept slept
see see saw seen
smell smelt smelt
take take took taken
spell spelt spelt
speak speak spoke spoken
sweep swept swept
write write wrote written
Weak Verb Suffixes : their addition and Pronunciation
Note : Weak Verbs are also called Regular verbs; while,
Most weak verbs add ed (pronounced d, id or t) in
strong verbs are Irregular Verbs.
their Past Tense and Past Participle.
We can detect a weak Verb from a strong Verb by : 1. -ed pronounced -t : weak Verbs ending in df, h, k,
(i) finding the absence of d or t in the Present Tense p, s, ss and sh sounds add the suffix -ed in the
of the Verb. Past Tense and Past Participle.
For example, f : puff puffed (puft) rebuff rebuffed (uft)
Present Past Present Past cough coughed (cuft) laugh laughted (luft)
Tense Tense Tense Tense bluff bluffed (bluft) stuff stuffed (stuft)
believe believed think thought h : march marched (t) search searched (t)
sell sold bring brought reach reached (t) touch touched (t)
work worked owe ought attach attached (t) enrich enriched (t)
tell told burn burnt patch patched (t) perch perched (t)
teach taught catch caught preach preached (t) watch watched (t)
flee fled buy bought k : talk talked (t) pack packed (t)
seek sought kick kicked (t) lurk lurked (t)
(ii) Finding the Verbs ending in d which this d to t in shock shocked (t) burk burked (t)
the Past Tense.
peck pecked (t) wink winked (t)
Present Tense Past Tense
risk risked (t) walk walked (t)
bend bent
blink blinked (t) wreck wrecked (t)
send sent
bask basked (t) suck sucked (t)
spend spent
cork corked (t) work worked (t)
lend lent
shriek shrieked (t)
build built
p : harp harped (t) heap heaped (t)
rend rent
jump jumped (t) help helped (t)
(iii) Finding the Verbs ending in d or t which simply
reap reaped (t) gasp gasped (t)
shorten the vowel sound in the Past Tense.
trap traped (t) trip triped (t)
Present Past Present Past
carp carped (t) leap leaped (t)
Tense Tense Tense Tense
camp camped (t) pump pumped (t)
speed sped lead led
clasp clasped (t) grasp grasped (t)
feed fed flee fled
s : pass passed (t) mass massed (t)
free freed shoot shot
miss missed (t) address addressed (t)
meet met read read
dismiss dismissed (t) cross crossed (t)
(iv) finding the Verbs ending in d or t which have the
discuss discussed (t) express expressed (t)
same form for the Present and Past Tense.
canvass canvassed (t) confess confessed (t)
Present Past Present Past
impress impressed (t)
Tense Tense Tense Tense
toss tossed (t)
spread spread split split
Sh : dash dashed (t) wish wished (t)
shut shut cut cut
banish banished (t) brush brushed (t)
hit hit let let
push pushed (t) rush rushed (t)
put put thrust thrust
wash washed (t) blush blushed (t)
bet bet burst burst
flash flashed (t) abolish abolished (t)
cast cast cost cost
relish relished (t) crash crashed (t)
hurt hurt rid rid
demolish demolished (t)
set set shed shed
SEE–39
x : tax taxed (t) fix fixed (t) supply supplied (aid) reply replied (aid)
vex vexed (t) mix mixed (t) satisfy satisfied (aid) fortify fortified (aid)
box boxed (t) coax coaxed (t) dignify dignified (aid)
2. The suffix - ed pronounced d : 5. The suffix -d pronounced d, t or id
(i) open opened (d) cover covered (d) (i) care cared (d) dare dared (d)
listen listened (d) howl howled (d) live lived (d) blame blamed (d)
long longed (d) enter entered (d) dine dined (d) agree agred (d)
inform informed (d) turn turned (d) argue argued (d) amuse amused (d)
order ordered (d) pardon pardoned (d) please pleased (d) graze grazed (d)
cordon cordoned (d) reform reformed (d) arrive arrived (d) cure cured (d)
return returned (d) govern governed (d) move moved (d) issue issued (d)
(ii) A weak Verb ending in a semivowel (w or y) preceded receive received (d) praise praised (d)
by a vowel, adds ed (pronounced d) in its Past Tense love loved (d) chang changed (d)
and Past Participle. advise adviseded (d)
For example, (ii) The suffix d pronounced t
bow bowed (d) pray prayed (d) For example,
survey surveyed (d) row rowed (d) choke choked (t) joke joked (t)
stay stayed (d) enjoy enjoyed (d) hope hoped (t) type typed (t)
cow cowed (d) bray brayed (d) like liked (t) wake waked (t)
bay bayed (d) employ emplowed (d) pipe piped (t) cope coped (t)
parley parleyed (d) convey conveyed (d) wife wifed (t) poke poked (t)
destroy destroyed (d) allay allayed (d) rebuke rebuked (t)
betray betrayed (d) journey journeyed (d) (iii) The suffix d pronounced ie
Exception : For example,
lay laid (pronunciation leid) hate hated (id) excite excited (id)
pay paid (pronunciation peid) state stated (id) quote quoted (id)
say said (pronunciation sed) promote promoted (id) hesitate hesitated (id)
3. -ed pronounced id : Weak verbs ending in -d on -t recite recited (id) taste tasted (id)
add -ed in their Past Tense and Past Participle. 6. A weak Verb ending in a single consonant with
depend depended (id) add added (id) only one vowel beforeit doubles the final
end ended (id) accept accepted (id) consonant when the suffix -ed is added in making
paint painted (id) fold folded (id) its past tense and past participles (-ed is
head headed (id) need needed (id) pronounced d, t or id).
exist existed (id) trust trusted (id) (i) beg begged (d) clap clapped (d)
mend mended (id) intend intended (id) rub rubbed (d) stop stopped (d)
remind reminded (id) guard guarded (id) tan tanned (d) trip tripped (d)
assist assisted (id) insist insisted (id) fit fitted (d) lag lagged (d)
resist resisted (id) report reported (id) rob robbed (d) sob sobbed (d)
import imported (id) consult consulted (id) drop dropped (d) jam jammed (d)
insult insulted (id) doubt doubted (id) tarry tarried (d) ram rammed (d)
point pointed (id) reject rejected (id) flap flapped (d) sin sinned (d)
scold scolded (id) raid raided (id) grin grinned (d) plan planned (d)
4. Suffix - ied (pronunced (id)) for final y. bar barred (d) ban banned (d)
(i) A weak Verb ending in y preceded by a consonant gut gutted (d)
adds ed in Past Tense and Past Participle after y is (ii) In such a Verb consists of more than one syllable
changed into i. with the accent on the last syllable, the same rule
For example, holds good.
accompany accompanied (id) For example,
bury buried (id) carry carried (id) compel compelled (d) control controlled (d)
hurry hurried (id) marry married (id) excel excelled (d) admit admitted (d)
pity pitied (id) envy envied (id) allot allotted (d) omit omitted (d)
tarry tarried (id) worry worried (id) Exception :
study studied (id) ferry ferried (id) ca'ncel cancelled (d) tra'vel travelled (d)
fancy fancied (id) sully sullied (id) (iii) The foregoing rule of doubling the consonant does
(iii) y replaced by ied pronounced aid. not hold good it there are two vowels before it .
cry cried (aid) try tried (aid) boil boileded (d) coin coineded (d)
apply applied (aid) defy defied (aid) beam beamed (d) claim claimed (d)
fry fried (aid) ply plied (aid) avail availed (d) contain contained (d)
SEE–40
soil soil ed (d) prevail prevailed (d) Shake : The lion shook his It has shaken my
ratain retained (d) loot looted (d) mane. faith.
clean cleaned (d) join joined (d) Shoe : Who shot my horse? I have shod it.
scream screamed (d) Shoot : He shot at the tiger. The tiger was shot
(iv) ed pronounced d, t, id : Weak Verbs ending in more dead.
than one consonant add ed in the Past Tense and Shrink : He shrank from the The linen has shrunk.
Past Participle. scene.
For example, Sing : She sang so sweetly. Often have I sung your
praise.
call called (d) climb climed (d)
Sink : The boat sank. He has sunk a tube
arm armed (d) push pushed (d)
well in his compound.
touch touched (d) lift lifted (d) Sit : I sat down to read. He has set for the test.
Past Tense and Past Participle Slay : He slew his rival. The soldier was slain
Past Tense Past Participle in battle.
Bear : He bore the song in his She has borne twins. Sleep : I slept soundly. He has slept long.
memory. Sow : he sowed many seeds. He must reap what he
Beat : He beat his opponents. They have beaten him. has sown.
Begin : He began to weep. We have begun to Spend : He spent his time in I have spent my all.
write. vain.
Bid : He bade me go away. I was bidden to go. Spin : He span out a nice The top was spun by
Bind : We bound his hands. I was bound to do it. story. me.
Bite : A mad dog bit him. A snake his bitten him. Spread :The news spread We have spread this
Burst : He burst into tears. The bubble has burst. quickly. news.
Choose: We choose this book. They have chosen Spring : He sprang from a high You have sprung a sur
Cost : It cost him his life. It has cost me nothing. family. prise.
Deal : He dealt his rice. John has dealt him a Stand : He stood the test well. I have stood up for
blow. truth.
Draw : He drew his sword. He has drawn a pic Steal : He stole my watch. He has stolen trash.
ture. Stick : He stuck at nothing. A bone has stuck in
Drink : We drank a cup of We were drunk with may gullet.
milk. joy. Sting : The remark stung He was stung by a
Drive : I drove a car. He has driven out his me. bee.
guest. Strike : He struck a blow on It has never struck
Eat : I ate a loaf. He has eaten rice. my face. me.
Fall : Sam fell ill. He has fallen foul of Strive : He strove hard to win. I have striven to beat
me. him.
Feel : We felt a shock. he has felt for me Swear : he swore to help me. He was sworn to stop.
Find : We found him in. He was found a job. Swing : I swam across the Who has swum the
Forget : I forgot his name. I have not forgotten river. channel?
you. Take : I took rest here. He has taken my pen.
Freeze : The river frozen in Water is frozen by Tear : He tore the letter. I was torn to pieces.
winter. cold. Throw : He threw stones at me. He was thrown over
Get : I got a prize. I have got a headache. overboard.
Go : I went home. he has gone to law. Use : I used your pen. He is not used to hard
I have grown wiser. work.
Grow : He grew angry.
It was hidden in a box. Wear : His patience wore out He has worn a new
Hide : He hid his face from
at last. coat.
me.
Weave : He wave a sheet of The story was skilfully
Hurt : This hurt me much. I have hurt by let.
cloth. woren.
Know : I knew him. He was known to me.
Weep : She wept bitter tears. I have long wept to
Lead : Who let the boys? He has led his party you. see.
to victory. Past Participle forms like - bounden, clove, drunken,
Lose : I lost my keys. He has lost his job. gotten, graven, hewn, hidden, motten, shorn, shrunken,
Mean : He meant no harm. I was meant for this. stricken and sunken etc. are used as Adjectives only.
Ring : I rang him up on the Who has rung the bell? For example,
phone. Verbs Verbs used as Adjectives
Rise : They rose in arms. The sun has risen. Tom was bound to work. It is your bounden duty.
Run : He ran a race. I have run into debt. The rock was cleft in two. The cow has cloven feet.
Seek : He never sought Fortune has sought We were drunk with a Harold was found in a
honour. him new spirit. drunken state.
Send : I sent him to jail. I have sent for him. I have got a prize. I have illgotten wealth.
Set : I set my dog on him. He has set out on a He hid himself in a bush. John found a hidden trea
tour. sure.
SEE–41
The woolen coat has The river was in a Is there is any news of hijackers?
shrunk. shrunken state. You are quite wrong in this matter.
We have sunk a tubewell. The ship foundered on I am rather busy.
a sunken rock. She sings pretty well.
The snow has melted. Streams of molten lava came His answer is partly right.
out.
(6) ADVERB OF AFFIRMATION AND NEGATION
Adverbs of Affirmation and Negation includes surely,
ADVERB certainly, not etc.
For example,
An Adverb is a word which modifies the meaning of a Surely you have committed a mistake.
Verb, an Adjective or another Adverb.
He will certainly come here.
For example, I do not know him.
Sunita runs slowly . (7) ADVERB OF REASON
 Adverb of Reason includes therefore, hence etc.
Verb For example,
Shela is very beautiful . The boy therefore went to his home.
 Therefore the answer is 2000.
Adverb Adjective (8) RELATIVE ADVERB
Sita reads quite clearly . Relative Adverbs includes when, how, where and
 why etc.
Adverb Adverb For example,
When did he arrive?
KINDS OF ADVERB That was the time when I was at home.
(9) INTERROGATIVE ADVERB
Adverbs may be divided into the following classes :
The Adverbs when, how and where are used in asking
(1) ADVERB OF TIME
questions and are therefore called Interrogative Adverbs.
Adverbs of Time includes today, yesterday, late, ago, For example,
now, then, soon, before, daily, already, formerly, lately, never,
When did you go to bed yesterday?
since etc.
How did you come inside the gate?
For example,
Where did you get the money?
He will write a letter today.
(10) EXCLAMATORY ADVERB
I went there yesterday.
The adverbs why and how are used in exclamations
I have not seen him since 1988.
and so, are called Exclamatory Adverbs.
(2) ADVERB OF FREQUENCY For example,
Adverbs of Frequency includes again, never, ever, often, How wonderful the scenary is!
seldom, once, twice, frequently, always etc. Why, where is the miller?
For example, In a nutshell,
The postman called again. Adverbs of Time is one which show when.
I have never seen the Taj. Adverbs of Frequency is one which show how
He often makes mistake. often.
(3) ADVERB OF PLACE Adverbs of Place is one which show where.
Adverb of Place includes here, there, everywhere, in, Adverbs of Manner is one which show how or in
out, up, backward, away, within etc. what manner.
For example, Adverbs of Degree or Quantity show how much or in
Come here Go there. what degree or to what extent.
The pet dog followed his master everywhere. Adverbs of Affirmation and Negation affirms and ne
The doctor is out. gates the expression.
Adverbs of Reason show us the cause or affect.
(4) ADVERB OF MANNER
Relative Adverbs show the point of time, place and
Adverb of Manner includes clearly, slowly, soundly,
manner.
bravely, thus, so, well, hard, agreeably etc.
Interrogative Adverbs are used in asking questions
For example, which also point out time, place and manner in their an
Seema writes clearly. swers.
Slowly the old man was laid down. Exclamatory Adverbs are used to express exclama
The man slept soundly. tions.
(5) ADVERB OF DEGREE OR QUANTITY FORMATION OF ADVERBS
Adverbs of Degree or Quantity includes any, quite, rather,Adverbs are formed in various ways by adding our chang
pretty, partly, too, enough, altogether, no better, so, fully, ing the adjectives by the use of suffix or prefix.
almost, very etc. 1. Adverbs of Manner are formed from Adjectives
For example, by adding ly.
SEE–42
For example, therefrom
clever — cleverly therein
wise — wisely thereon
kind — kindly thereof there
foolish — foolishly thereto
quick — quickly therewith
beautiful — beautifully
2.When the Adjective ends in –y preceded by a con hereafter
sonant, we change –v into –i and add –ly. hereby
For example, herein here
heavy — heavily hereupon
happy — happily herewith
ready — readily
3.When the Adjective ends in –le, we simply change whereof
–e into –y in making adverbs. wherefore where
For example, wherein
single — singly whereon
double — doubly
hitherto hither
4. Some Adverbs are made up of a Noun and a quali
fying Adjective. thenceforth
thence
For example, thenceforward
beautiful meanwhile
henceforth
meantime sometime hence
henceforward
otherwise midway
11. We also find sometimes two Adverbs that go to
yesterday
gether after joined by Conjunction — and
5. Some Adverbs are compounds of on and a Noun.
For example,
For example,
(a) Out and out
ahead — on head
He is out and out an honest person.
asleep — on sleep
abroad — on broad

beyond all comparison
away — on way
(b) Over and over
afoot — on foot
abed — on bed She reads Keats over and over.
6.Some Adverbs are also compounds of some Prepo 
sition and a Noun. repeatedly
For example, Off and on
today tomorrow overboard He works off and on on his project.
besides betimes 
7.Some Adverbs are compounds of a Preposition irregularly
and an Adjective. (c) Once and again
For example, I warned him once and again of his impen
abroad along aloud ding danger. 
anew beyond below repeatedly
behind (d) Out and away
8.Some Adverbs are compounds of a Preposition Her role in the film is out and away, the best.
and an Adverb. 
beneath before beyond all comparison
within without (e) Over and above
9.Again, a few Adverbs are also derived from the Over and above being hardworking, he is
Pronouns : the/that, he, who.  honest.
ADVERBS besides
Pro- Place Motion Motion Time Manner (f) Again and again
nouns to from I asked him again and again if he has
The there thither thence then thus 
He here hither hence — — more than once
Who where whither whence when how
POSITION OF ADVERBS
10. The Adverbs : the, there, here, where, hither, thence, 1. Adverbs of manner like : well, fat, quickly, care
and hence are compounded with Preposition. fully, calmly etc. are generally placed after the verb or
For example, after the object if there is one.
thereby
SEE–43
For example, 9. The Adverb enough is always placed after the word
It is raining heavily. The bus is moving slowly. which it modifies.
He speaks Spanish well. She does her work carefully. For example,
2. Adverbs or Adverbial Phrases of place and of time Is the box heavy enough?
like : here, there, everywhere, on the wall etc. and now, He was rash enough to interrupt.
then, yet, to day, next Wednesday respectively are usually He spoke loud enough to be heard.
placed after his verb or after the object if there is one. 10. Only should be placed immediately before the word
For example, it modifies.
He will come here. I searched everywhere. For example,
Put the scenary there. I met her yesterday. I worked only two sums.
They are to be married next week. He has slept only three hours yesterday night.
3. When there are two or more Adverbs after a Verb,
the normal order is — Adverb of Manner, Adverb of Place, SOME IMPORTANT ADVERBS
Adverb of Time.
For example,
1. INTRODUCTORY 'THERE'
There is an Adverb of Place (Demonstrative Adverb)
She sang well in the concert.
but when the subject of the verb is indefinite, the sen
We would go there tomorrow evening.
tence is introduced with a there which has no meaning
He spoke earnestly at the meeting last night.
except as a mere introductory word.
4. Adverbs of Frequency like : always, never, often,
For example,
rarely, usually, generally, and also some other adverbs
There is no doubt about it.
like : almost, already, hardly, nearly, just, quite etc. are
There were guards at the gate.
normally put between the subject and the verb if the verb
There has been no rain in this month.
consists of only one word; if there is more than one word
There is no denying the fact.
in the verb, they are put after the first word.
There lived a hermit in the wood.
For example,
There goes our friend Tom.
His wife never cooks.
There shines the moon in all her glory.
He has never seen a lion.
2. QUITE AND VERY
I have often told her to write neatly.
The adverb quite means completely, perfectly and is
We usually have dinner at nine.
not used in the sense of very except with past participles.
My cousin has just gone out.
For example,
I quite agree with you.
I am quite (very) tired.
5. If the Verb is am/are/is/wFor example, these Ad
This road is very (not quite) dangerous.
verbs are placed after the Verb.
3. TOO AND VERY
For example,
Too means beyond proper limit and it should not be
I am never late for school.
used unless any limit is intended though the limit may be
He is always at home on holidays.
understood.
We are just off from work.
For example,
6. The Adverbs : always, already, usually, sometimes
This glass is too small (for my purpose).
etc. are usually put before an auxiliary or the single verb
I missed the train as I started
be, when it is stressed.
too late (to catch the train).
For example,
The limit is often expressed by an explanatory phrase
"Veenu has come late again."
with to or for.
"Yes, she always does come late."
For example,
"When will you write the letter?"
James was too busy to come here.
"But I already have written it."
Stephen was too strong for his opponent.
"Will you be free on Sundays?"
Too is often confused with very by many who forget
"I usually am free on Sundays."
the necessary element of limit in the former.
"Do you eat meat?"
For example,
"Yes, I sometimes do."
It is very hot today (not too hot).
7. The auxilliaries have to and used to prefer the ad
It is too hot to walk out (not very hot).
verb in front of them.
4. VERY AND MUCH
For example,
(i) Very qualifies present participles as well as Adjec
I often have to go to school on foot.
tives in the Positive Degree.
He always used to agree with me.
For example,
8. When an adverb modifies an adjectives or another
This book is very interesting.
adverb, the adverb usually comes before it.
You are very fat.
For example,
(ii) Much qualifies past participles as well as Adjec
Sham is a rather lazy boy. tives and Adverbs in the Comparative Degree.
The cat was quite dead. For example,
The picture is very interesting. I am much indebted to you.
Do not speak so fast. My lot is much harder than yours.
SEE–44
You left much earlier than usual. (c) From now :
I am much surprised at his conduct. For example,
(iii) Both much and very are used with the Superlative I saw him long since.
Degree of Adjectives but the article is placed before very * Since , as a conjunction, means from which time and
and after much. is used after a noun or a phrase denoting a period of time
For example, and not a a point of time.
Kiran is the very best boy of his class. For example,
Jahar is much the best boy of his class. It is now five years since I visited the Taj.
5. VERY MUCH : TOO MUCH : MUCH TOO A year has gone by since he left us.
(i) Very much means enough and is used before Ad * Again, Since as a preposition, means from and is
jectives and Participles. used after a verb in the Present or Past Perfect Tense and
For example, before a noun or a phrase denoting a point of time.
I am very much sorry for you. For example,
I am very much obliged to you. I has been absent since Frinday last.
(ii) Too much qualifies Nouns while much too quali I had been suffering since the 09th of December
fies Adjectives. last.
For example, 9. BEFORE
Mr. Dutta gave you too much indulgence. (a)As an adverb, Before means on a former occasion .
The weather is too much cloudy. For example,
6. ONLY I remember to have seen you before.
The following sentences show that the meaning of a (b) As a preposition, before is used with a noun or a
sentence varies according to the placing of the Adverb. phrase denoting a point of time and never a period of time.
I have only taken tea (and done nothing more). For example,
I have taken tea only (no other thing). You must come back by 5 P.M.
I only have taken tea (and none else). I shall join you before your departure.
I have only a son (and no other child). (c) As a conjunction, Before introduces an adverbial
I have a son only (and no daughter). clause of time if the verb in the Principal clause is in the
Tom only agreed to accept this offer. Future Tense.
(and did nothing). For example,
Tom agreed only to accept this offer. I shall reach home before it is too late.
(and not to do anything else). 10. LITTLE AND A LITTLE
Tom agreed to accept this offer only. Little , as an adverb, is used in a negative sense to
(and no other offer) mean almost not .
Tom agreed to accept only this offer. For example,
(and nothing else). He cared little for his future.
Only too means very. [i.e., He did not care for his future].
For example, A little is used in an affirmative sense to mean
slightly
I am only too glad to meet you (very glad). or somewhat .
7. ENOUGH For example,
Enough means just the opposite of too. While too We felt a little disturbed.
means beyond proper limit, enough means thatthe proper 
limit has been reached and not exceeded. Slightly
For example, or
Any pen is good enough for me. Somewhat
[i.e., is as good as I wish it to be]
We walked far enough today.
[i.e., as far as it was proper for us] PREPOSITION
* Enough is sometimes used in the sense of very.
A Preposition is a word placed before a Noun or a
For example,
Pronoun to show in what relation the person or thing
I was bad enough to wait so long.
denoted by it in regard to something else.
8. SINCE
For example,
Since as an Adverb is used in the following senses :
(a) From then up to now : There is someone in the room.
For example, 
I saw the Taj five years ago and have remem Preposition
bered it ever since. She is fond of honey
They said that they had been careful ever since.
(b) Between then and now :

For example, Preposition
He left last year and has never written to me The horse jumped off the wall.
since. 
He resigned his post and has remained unem Preposition
ployed since.
SEE–45
KINDS OF PREPOSITION
(4) Double Prepositions
Preposition are of different kinds.
Double Prepositions include from behind, from beyond,
(1) Simple Prepositions from within etc. where, often two prepositions are used
Simple Prepositions include at, by, for, from, in, on, of, with the same object.
off, to, through, up, with, out, till, etc. For example,
Of these, at, by, with, in and on are used after verbs indi The mischief was done from behind the screen.
cating rest in a place.
The news came from beyond the Atlantic.
For example,
Somebody shouted from within the room.
Moni is at Darjeeling.
I sat by John. (5) Disguised Prepositions
I was in the garden. Disguised Prepositions include ahunting, ashore (a =
The keys were with me. on), o'clock (o' = of), once a week, two rupees a day (a =
The book was on the table. on)
To, from, of, through and up are used after verbs indi For example,
cating motion. We jumped overboard at 3 o' clock and swam ashore.
For example, (6) Detached Prepositions
I went to London. Detached Prepositions are those which are far removed
Tom came from his house. from their objects.
You came of a high family. For example,
We went through the field. Whom did you speak to?
Jack and Jill went up the hill. (7) Phrasal Prepositions
Let us start for school. Phrasal Preposition or Phrase Prepositions are the
(2) Compound Prepositions groups of words which are used with the force of a single
Compound Prepositions include above, across, along, preposition.
amidst, around, about, among, amongst, before, behind, be For example,
low, beneath, beside, between, beyond, into, inside, out Jack succeeded by means of hard labour.
side, undereath, within, without, etc.
Compound Prepositions are generally formed by pre

fixing preposition to a Noun, Adjective or an Adverb. by
For example, James failed on account of his negligence.
above = on + by + up 
across = on + cross for
into = in + to The object to a Preposition may also be a Descriptive
adverb, an Adverbial phrase or a Noun clause.
(3) Participial Prepositions (a) Adverbs as objects to a Preposition
Participial Prepositions include barring, concerning, con John is by for the best boy of his class.
sidering, during, expecting, judging, notwithstanding, regard
He will have reached home by then.
ing, respecting etc. are the present participles of verbs.
These participles have acquired the character of preposi Much might happen between now and then.
tions, no longer needing the prop of a noun to cling to. He left at once to come back before now.
For example, From here to there is a long distance.
Barring accident, the mail will arrive in time. (b) Adverbial phrases as objects to a Preposition
 The ship suddenly came to view from beyond the
expecting, horizon.
apart from. He did not reach till long after midnight.
Concerning yesterday's murder, many persons were (c) Noun clauses as objects to a Preposition
 arrested. He informed me of what had happened there.
about It depends on whether you can go or not.
Considering the quality, the price is too high. A list of Phrasal Prepositions
 according to agreeably to
taking into account along with away from
Notwithstanding the resistance offered by him, he because of by dint of
 was arrested. by means of by reason of
in spite of by virtue of by way of
Touching this matter, I have not as yet made up my conformably to for the sake of
 mind. in accordance with in addition to
with regard to in (on) behalf of in case of
SEE–46
in comparison to incompliance with For example,
in consequence with in consequence of Each article was sold at over a shilling.
in course of in favour of The noise comes from across the river.
in front of in lieu of I sold my car under its half cost.
in order to in place of He swore from dawn till far into the night.
in reference to in regard to He did not see her till a few days ago.
in spite of instead of A clause can also be the object to a Preposition.
in the event of on account of For example,
owing to with a view to Pay careful attention to what I am going to say.
with an eye to with regard to There is no meaning in what you say.
with reference to The object to a Preposition, when it is a relative pronoun
Several words are used sometimes as Adverbs and is sometimes omitted.
sometines as Prepositions. A word is a preposition, when For example,
it governs a noun or pronoun and it is an Adverb, when it He is the man I was looking for.
does not. (Whom is understood here)
For example, These are the good rules to live by.
Adverb : Go and run about. (Which is understood here)
Preposition : Don't loiter about the street. RELATIONS EXPRESSED BY PREPOSITIONS
Adverb : He could not do before. (1) Time
Preposition : I came the day before yesterday. For example,
Adverb : Has he come in? After his death. At an early age.
Preposition : Is he in his room? Arrived before me. Behind time.
Adverb : The wheel came off. By three o' clock. During the whole day.
Preposition : The driver jumped off the cabin. For many years. From January 1, 2000.
Adverb : Let us move on. In the morning.
Preposition : The pen lies on the table. Sat watching far on into the night.
Adverb : His brother arrived soon after. Lived under the Britishers.
Preposition : After a mouth he returned. On Wednesday. Pending his return.
Adverb : Take his parcel over to the postoffice. Since yesterday. Lasted through the night.
Preposition : The king rules over a vast empire. Throughout the year. Wait till tomorrow.
Adverb : I have not seen him since. Fifteen minutes to one p.m.
Preposition : I have not slept since day before yesterday. Towards evening. Until his arrival.
The object to a Preposition is a Noun or a Pronoun. Rise with the sun. Within a month.
Sometimes the object to a Preposition is an Adverb of Time (2) Place
or Place. For example,
For example, Went about the world. Ran across the road.
I, will be done by then. Leaned against the wall. Fell among thieves.
 Quarrelled among themselves.
that time At death's door. Athwart the deck.
Since then, she did not come here. Stood before the door. Stood behind the curtain.
 Lies below the surface. Sat beside me.
that time Plies between Delhi and Jaipur.
Come away from there. Stand by me.
 Rains comes from the clouds.
that place In the sky. Fell into a ditch.
He must have reached there by now. Lies near the heart. Calcutta is on the Hooghly.
The cliff hangs over the sea.

Tour round the world. Marched through the town.
this time
Came to the end of the road.
How far is it from here?
Put pen to paper. Travelled towards Goa.
 Lay under the table. Climbed up the ladder.
this place Lies upon the table. Within the house.
Sometimes the object to a Preposition is an Adverbial Stood without the gate.
phrase.
SEE–47
(3) Agency, instrumentality Since and From
For example, Both Since and from are used before a point of time
Sell goods at auction. Sent the parcel by post. but since is preceded by a verb in the perfect tense, while
Was stunned by a blow. Was destroyed by fire. from can be used with any tense.
Heard is through a friend. Cut it with a knife. For example,
(4) Manner John has started rowing from
For example, (or since) Monday Last.
Dying by inches. Fought with courage. John started rowing from yesterday
Worked with enthusiasm. Won with ease. (Not since).
(5) Cause, Reason, Purpose John starts rowing from today (not since).
For example, John will start rowing from tomorrow.
Laboured for the good of humanity. (Not since)
Died of fever. The very place for a picnic. Before, By and Within
Did it for our good. Suffers from pain. Before, and by are used with a point of time, while
Died from fatigue. Does it from perversity. within is used with a period of time.
Reached through fear of an ambush. For example,
Concealed it through shame. You must reach here before (or by) 8 o' clock.
Lost his purse through negligence.
(not within)
Shivers with fever. Took medicine for cold.
Henry came back within an hour (not before).
(6) Possession
Note : There is a distinction in use between before
For example,
and by.
There was no money by him.
By means not after the specified limit or time while
The church of Bethlehem.
before means any time within specified limit of time.
A man of means.
For example,
The boy with grey hair.
You must come back by 5 p.m. (not after 5 p.m.)
(7) Measure, Standard, Rate, Value
You must come back before 5 p.m. (any time before
For example,
the clock strikes five)
He charges interest at nine p.c.
In and Within
Stories like these must be taken at what they are
worth. In means at the end of, while within means before the
end of.
Cloth is sold by the meter.
For example,
I am taller than you by five inches.
The game will end within in an hour (before the hour
It was one by the towerclock.
is passed).
(8) Contrast, Concession
The game will end in an hour (at the end of, and not ex
For example,
ceeding an hour).
After every effort, he failed.
In and Into
For one enemy he has a hundred friends.
In refers to a position already inside anything and into
For all his wealth he is not content. refers to a movement towards the inside of anything.
With all his faults, I adore him. For example,
(9) Inference, Motive, Source or Origin
John was in the garden.
For example,
Mary went into in garden.
From what I know of him, I hesitate to trust him.
In and At
The knights were brave from gallantry of spirit.
In refers to a much wider space or time than at.
He did it from gratitude.
For example,Come at 8 o' clock in the morning.
Light emanates from the sun.
The Taj is at Agra in India.
From labour health, from contentment springs.
In and After
This is quotation from Shakespeare.
His skill comes from practice. In is used about the future time, while after is used
about the past.
SOME IMPORTANT PREPOSITIONS For example,
Since and For Fred will come in a few minutes (not after).
Since is used before a point of time, while for is used Arthur left after an hour (not in).
before a period of time. On and At
For example,
On is used before a particular date or day and at be
Monica has been here since Monday last. fore a particular hour.
I did not see you for a long time.
SEE–48
For example,
I shall come on Friday at 5 o' clock. PREPOSITION
Between and Among Nouns Followed by Preposition ‘of’
Between is used about two persons or things, while Abhorrence of Assurance of
among is used for referring to more than two persons or
Charge of Distrust of
things.
Doubt of Experience of
For example,
Failure of Observance of
Divide the mango between Ram and Sham.
Proof of Result of
Distribute all the chocolates among the pupils.
Want of
The money was divided not between his two sons
only but among all his defendants. Adjectives Followed by Preposition ‘of’
Beside and Besides Accused of Acquitted of
Beside means by the site of while, besides means in Afraid of Apprehensive of
addition to. Apprised of Assured of
For example, Aware of Bereft of
Besides my son, my cousin also sat beside me. Bought of Cautious of
By and With Certain of Characteristic of
By is used with the doer or agent, while with is used Composed of Confident of
before the instrument with which a person does a thing. Conscious of Convinced of
For example, Covetous of Defrauded of
The tiger was not shot by me. Deprived of Desirous of
The tiger was shot with a rifle. Devoid of Diffident of
Except and Excepting Distrustful of Dull of
The use of the participle excepting formed from the Easy of Envious of
verb of except (= to exclude) is often confused with that of
Fearful of Fond of
the preposition except (= without).
For example, Greedy of Guilty of
All the boys except John went there Heedless of Ignorant of
(Preposition = without). Informed of Innocent of
All the boys not excepting John went there (Participial Irrespective of Lame of
preposition = not excluding). Lavish of Negligent of
All the boys went there, John not being excepted Productive of Proud of
(verb). Regardless of Sanguine of
There are also a few special prepositions like : Sensible of Sick of
(a) Than Slow of Subversive of
Than is usually a conjunction, but is sometimes used Sure of Suspicious of
as a preposition. Tolerant of Vain of
For example, Void of Weary of
I cannot accept less than fifty rupees for this article. Worthy of Beware of
I speak of Keats, than whom there is none greater as Verbs Followed by Preposition ‘of’
a poet.
Acquit of Beware of
(b) But
Boats of Complain of
As a rule but is a conjunction. When used as a prepo
sition, but means except, with the exception of. Despair of Die of
For example, Disapprove of Dispose of
What can he do but die? Divest of Dream of
All our ambitions death defeats, but one. Heal of Judge of
None but the brave deserves the award. Repent of Taste of
She returned all her gifts but one. Nouns Followed by Preposition ‘for’
All is lost but honour. Affection for Ambition for
(c) A is sometimes used as weakened form of the prepo Anxity for Apology for
sition on. Appetite for Aptitude for
For example, Blame for Candidate for
The house is a building. Capacity for Compassion for
I meet her once a week. Compensation for Contempt for
Rice is twenty rupees a kg. Craving for Desire for
His wages are thirty rupees a day. Esteem for Fitness for
SEE–49
Fondness for Guarantee for Resemblance to Sequel to
Leisure for Liking for Submission to Supplement to
Match for Motive for Temptation to Traitor to
Need for Opportunity for Adjectives Followed by Preposition ‘to’
Partiality for Passion for Abhorrent to Acceptable to
Pity for Predilection for Accessible to Impertinent to
Pretext for Relish for Incidental to Inclined to
Remorse for Reputation for Indebted to Indifferent to
Adjectives Followed by Preposition ‘for’ Indispensable to Indulgent to
Anxious for Celebrated for Inimical to Insensible to
Conspicuous for Customary for Injured to Irrelevant to
Designed for Destined for Favourable to Hurtful to
Eager for Eligible for Immaterial to Impervious to
Eminent for Fit for Indigenous to Liable to
Good for Grateful for Limited to Lost to
Notorious for Penitent for Loyal to Material to
Prepared for Proper for Natural to Necessary to
Qualified for Ready for Obedient to Obliged to
Sorry for Sufficient for Offensive to Opposite to
Useful for Zealous for Painful to Partial to
Verbs Followed by Preposition ‘for’ Peculiar to Pertinent to
Atone for Canvass for Pledged to Preferable to
Care for Clamour for Prejudical to Profitable to
Feel for Hope for Prior to Prone to
Mourn for Pine for Reduced to Related to
Start for Stipulate for Relevant to Repugnant to
Sue for Wish for Responsible to Restricted to
Yearn for Sacred to Sensitive to
Verbs Followed by Preposition ‘on’ Serviceable to Subject to
Comment on Decide on Suitable to Suited to
Deliberate on Depend on Supplementary to Tantamount to
Determine on Dwell on True to
Embark on Encroach on Verbs Followed by Preposition ‘to’
Enlarge on Impose on Accede to Adapt to
Insist on Intrude on Adhere to Allot to
Resolve on Subsist on Allude to Appologize to
Trample on Appoint to Ascribe to
Nouns Followed by Preposition ‘to’ Aspire to Assent to
Access to Accession to Attain to Attend to
Allegiance to Alternative to Attribute to Belong to
Antidote to Antipathy to Conduce to Conform to
Approach to Assent to Consent to Contribute to
Attachment to Attention to Lead to Listen to
Concession to Disgrace to Object to Occur to
Dislike to Encouragement to Prefer to Pretend to
Enmity to Exception to Refer to Revert to
Incentive to Indifference to Stoop to Succumb to
Invitation to Key to Surrender to Testify to
Liniency to Likeness to Yield to
Limit to Menace to Adjectives Followed by Preposition ‘in’
Obedience to Objection to Absorbed in Abstemious in
Obstruction to Opposition to Accomplished in Accurate in
Postscript to Preface to Assidous in Backward in
Reference to Repugnance to Bigoted in Correct in
SEE–50
Defective in Deficient in Verbs Followed By Preposition ‘from’
Experienced in Deligent in Abstrain from Alight from
Enveloped in Fertile in Cease from Debar from
Foiled in Honest in Derogate from Desist from
Implicated in Interested in Detract from Deviate from
Involved in Lax in Differ from Digress from
Proficnet in Remiss in Dissent from Elicit from
Temperate in Versed in Emerge from Escape from
Verbs Followed by Preposition ‘in’ Exclude from Preserve from
Involve in Persist in Prevent from Prohibit from
Acquiesce in Dabble in Protect from Recoil from
Delight in Employ in Recover from Refrain from
Enlist in Excel in Nouns Followed By Preposition ‘from’
Fall in Glory in Respite from Inference from
Increase in Indulge in Abstinence from Cessation from
Persevere in Deliverance from Descent from
Nouns Followed by Preposition ‘with’ Digression from Escape from
Acquaintance with Alliance with Exemption from
Bargain with Compromise with We now present a list of some Nouns and Appropriate
Conformity with Enmity with Prepositions.
Intercourse with Intimacy with A LIST OF NOUNS & APPROPRIATE
Relations with PREPOSITIONS
Adjectives Followed by Preposition ‘with’
Acquainted with Afflicted with 1. Abstinence from wine.
Beset with Busy with 2. Ability for or in some work.
Compatible with Compliant with 3. Abundance of wealth.
Consistent with Contemporary with 4. Accession to the throne.
Contended with Contrasted with 5. Access to a person or place.
Conversant with Convulsed with 6. Accomplice with a person in a crime.
Delighted with Deluged with 7. Accusation of forgery.
Disgusted with Drenched with 8. In accordance with some rule.
9. Affinity with something.
Endowed with Fatigued with
10. Adherence to a rule.
Fired with Gifted with
11. Affection for somebody.
Infaturated with Infected with
12. Affinity between two things.
Infested with Inspired with
13. Alliance with a person or state.
Invested with Overcome with
14. Allusion to something.
Popular with Replete with
15. Alternative to a method/something.
Satiated with Satisfied with
16. Analogy of one thing with another.
Touched with
17. Analogy between things.
Verbs Followed By Preposition ‘with’
18. Animosity against somebody.
Associate with Bear with
19. Antidote against infection.
Clash with Coincinde with
20. Antidote to some poison.
Comply with Condone with
21. Apprehension of danger.
Condole with Cope with
22. Approach to (step towards) anything.
Correspond with Credit with
23. Arrival in a country.
Deluge with Disagree with
24. Arrival at a place.
Dispense with Fill with
25. Assault on a person or thing.
Grapple with Expostulate with 26. Attack (vt+) somebody.
Intrigue with Meddle with 27. Attack (n/c) on a country.
Part with Quarrel with 28. Attraction to or towards a thing.
Remonstrate with Side with 29. Authority over a person.
Sympathisize with Vie with 30. Authority on a subject
Trifle with 31. Aversion to a person or thing.
SEE–51
32. Candidate for a post. 86. Excuse for a mistake.
33. Care for somebody’s safety. 87. Failure of electricity.
34. Care for his health. 88. Failure of somebody in something.
35. Charge of murder. 89. Faith in somebody or something.
36. Charge with theft. 90. Familiarity with a person or thing.
37. Claim on or against somebody. 91. Freedom from care.
38. Claim to property. 92. Freedom of action.
39. Compact with a person. 93. Glance at a person or thing.
40. Comment on something. 94. Glance over a wide surface.
41. Comparison of somebody with somebody. 95. Gratitude for a thing.
42. By/in comparison with . 96. Gratitude to a person.
43. Compassion for somebody. 97. Grief at an event.
44. Competition with somebody. 98. Grief for a person.
45. Competition for something. 99. Guess at the truth /something.
46. Complicity in a crime. 100. Harmony with anything.
47. Compliance with a request. 101. Hatred of or for somebody.
48. Condemnation to death. 102. Hatred of a thing.
49. Confidence in somebody. 103. Heir to some property.
50. Conformity with anyone’s views. 104. Heir of somebody.
51. Conformity to rule. 105. Hindrance to something.
52. Compensation for a loss. 106. Hint at some reward.
53. Connection with a person or thing. 107. Hope for better a luck.
54. Connivance at anyone’s fault. 108. Hostility to a person or cause.
55. Consciousness of guilt. 109. Identity with somebody/something.
56. Consideration for somebody. 110. Immersion into water.
57. Contact with somebody/something. 111. Implication in this crime.
58. Contempt for a person or thing. 112. Implication on someone.
59. A contrast with a person. 113. Imputation against somebody.
60. A contrast to a person or thing. 114. Incentive to a worker.
61. Controversy on or about something. 115. Inclination for sport/something.
62. Contribution to a fund. 116. Indifference to help others.
63. Contribution towards some project. 117. Indulgence to a beautiful woman.
64. Conversation with somebody. 118. Influence over or with somebody.
65. Decision on some case. 119. Influence on decision of wife.
66. Decision of some dispute. 120. Inquiry into circumstances/a case.
67. Decline of an empire. 121. Insight into something somebody’s character.
68. Decline in moral/price. 122. Intercession with a superior.
69. Degradation from rank. 123. Intercession for a friend.
70. Delight in music / in something. 124. Jurisdiction in a lawsuit.
71. Descent from ancestors. 125. Justification of or for crime.
72. Desire for wealth. 126. Key to understanding of the problem.
73. Desirous (Adj.) of something. 127. Liability to an illness.
74. Disgust at meanness. 128. Libel against his character.
75. Dislike to a person or thing. 129. Liking for nonvegetarian /something.
76. Distaste for mathematics/something. 130. Longing for luxury / something.
77. Doubt of or about a thing. 131. Lust for life / something.
78. Duty to a person. 132. Malice against an enemy.
79. Encroachment on /upon one’s rights. 133. Neglect of duty.
80. Engagement with somebody. 134. Neglect of doing a thing.
81. Entrance into a place. 135. Nomination of a member.
82. Enmity with somebody. 136. Nomination to a position.
83. Esteem for somebody. 137. Opportunity for going abroad / doing something.
84. Exception to a rule. 138. Partnership in a thing.
85. (Make) an exception of somebody or something. 139. Power over a person.
SEE–52
140. Precaution against infection. 17. Answer for misconduct/something.
141. Preface to a book. 18. Apologise to somebody.
142. Preference for something. 19. Apologise for something.
143. Preparation for examination/something. 20. Appeal to the judge/something.
144. Proof against somebody. 21. Appeal against a sentence.
145. Proof of guilt. 22. Appeal for mercy/something.
146. Qualification for a post. 23. Apply to a person.
147. Quarrel with somebody/something. 24. Apply for some post/something.
148. Readiness in responding. 25. Appoint to a post.
149. Readiness for journey. 26. Argue with a person for or against a point.
150. Reference to a person or thing. 27. Arrive at a conclusion.
151. In regard to that matter. 28. Arrive at a station/a place.
152. Regard for a person. 29. Arrive in a country.
30. Ask for assistance.
153. Relation between two things.
31. Ask of or from somebody.
154. Relation with somebody.
32. Associate with a group.
155. Remonstrance against somebody’s conduct.
33. Blame a person for something.
156. Remonstrance with somebody.
34. Blush at one’s own mistake.
157. Reply to a query / a person.
35. Blush for somebody who is at fault.
158. Request for a thing.
36. Border on a place.
159. Resemblance to a person or thing.
37. Borrow of or from a friend/somebody.
160. In respect of some quality. 38. Break the news of somebody’s death.
161. Rivalry with a person. 39. Break through restraint.
162. Rival in something. 40. Break ill news to a friend/to somebody.
163. Search for a after wealth. 41. Break (dissolve partnership) with somebody.
164. In search of wealth /a job etc. 42. Bring a thing to light.
165. Share in the property /something. 43. Bring a thing under notice.
166. Share with somebody. 44. Burst upon (sudenly invade) a country.
167. Sin against God./ mankind/humanity. 45. Burst into laughter.
168. Sympathy with or for somebody. 46. Burst into tears.
169. Temptation to evil. 47. Call on a person.
170. Temptation in diet. 48. Call for (demand, require) something.
171. Trespass against the law. 49. Call something in (order or request the return of).
172. Warrant for somebody’s arrest. 50. Canvass for (support) votes.
173. With a view to . 51. Care for (attach value to) to a person or thing.
174. Witness of or to a case. 52. Care about (feel interest, anxiety or sorrow)
175. Wonder at his behaviour/something. something.
53. Challenge a man to combat /fight.
SOME VERBS & APPROPRIATE PREPOSITIONS 54. Charge a man with a crime.
55. Charge payment to a person.
1. Abound in or with something. 56. Coincide with one’s opinion.
2. Accrue to somebody. 57. Come about (happen).
3. Accure from something. 58. Come across (to meet suddenly).
4. Accuse somebody of cheft. 59. Come after somebody (follow).
5. Acquit a person of all charges/all complicity. 60. Come into fashion.
6. Acquit a person in a crime. 61. Come by something (obtain by effort).
7. Adapt to new surroundings. 62. Come of a rich family.
8. Adhere to a plan / a rule / a principle. 63. Commence with a thing.
9. Agree to a proposal. 64. Communicate a thing to somebody.
10. Agree with a person. 65. Communicate with somebody.
11. Agree on some matter. 66. Compare somebody with somebody.
67. Compare something with something (similar).
12. Aim at a target.
68. Compare to (dissimilar things).
13. Aim at doing something.
69. Compensate for loss.
14. Alight from a bus/a train etc.
70. Compete with somebody for a prize/something.
15. Allude to a fact.
71. Complain to somebody.
16. Answer to a description.
72. Complain against somebody.
SEE–53
73. Complain of/about something. Therefore,
74. Conceal facts from somebody. A conjunction that joins two words or two coordinate
75. Concede to some demand. clauses or sentences is called a Coordinating Conjunc
76. Concur with a person. tion.
77. Concur in an opinion. Let us take an example,
78. Condemn a person to death. Smith is honest though poor.
79. Conform to a norm.
(Smith is honest though he is poor).
80. Conform with one’s opinion.
Here he is poor is a subordinate clause dependent for
81. Congratulate somebody on his success.
its full meaning on the main clause Smith is honest to which
82. Consult with (discuss with) one’s friends. it is joined by the conjunction though.
83. Consult a person/a lawyer/a map/a dictionary (take
Though is a Subordinating conjunction. All clauses in
advice, get information etc.)
troduced by Subordinating conjunctions are Subordinate
84. Contribute to a fund. clauses.
85. Converse with a person about a thing.
Hence,
86. Cope with situation.
A conjunction that joins a Dependent or Subordinate
87. Correspond with a person (write).
clause to the main or coordinate clause of a complex sen
88. Correspond to something (agree). tence, is called a Subordinating Conjunction.
89. Cure a man of a disease. List of Subordinating Conjunctions :
90. Cure (n/u) for a disease. After Although
As Before
CONJUNCTION If Least
Though Till
A Conjunction is a word which joins together sen
Unless Where
tences and sometimes words.
Until Whether
For example,
While Whither
Meenu and Rishi are good friends.
Why, etc.
 Coordinate conjunctions are of four different kinds :
Conjunction (i) Copulative or Cumulative Conjunctions only add some
She must weep or she will die. thing to what has been already stated : also, and, as well,
 For example, further, too, well, now, no less than, not
only .... but also.
Conjunction
For example,
God made man and man made inventions.
We carried not a line and we raised not a stone.
 (ii) Adversative conjunctions contrast one idea to an
Conjunction other : but, however, nevertheless, whereFor example,
Our boat is small but the sea is great. while, only, still and yet are all adversative conjunctions.
 For example,
Conjunction Our hoards are little but our hearts are great.
Conjunctions are of two kinds. : (iii) Alternative Conjunctions offer a choice between two
thoughts : or, nor, either ... or, neither ... nor, otherwise
(i) Coordinating etc.
(ii) Subordinating For example,
For example, Do or die.
Shelly and Keats were great poets. Neither a borrower nor a lender be.
John and Henry are brothers. Speak out the truth, else (otherwise) you will suffer.
In these sentences, the conjunction and joins two (iv) Illative conjunctions expresses a relation of cause
words. and effect between the clauses joined by them : for, there
Again, fore, them, so, etc.
John came here and sat down. For example,
Smith is poor but honest. We must go now; for it is already late.
Here, the conjunction and joins two Independent or Subordinating Conjunctions are of the following kinds :
coordinate clauses or sentences (John came here + John (i) Those denoting apposition : that
sat down), while the conjunction but joins two similar For example,
clauses or sentences (smith is poor + Smith is honest). John gave me his word that he would help me.
And and but are both coordinating conjunctions. All
(ii) Those denoting cause : since, For example, because,
clauses joined by and, but, or and nor are coordinate
clauses. etc.
SEE–54
For example, Though he is poor but he is honest. — Wrong
I trust him since he is honest. Though he is poor yet he is honest. — Correct
(iii) Those denoting effect : that Although she is beautiful but she is gentle.
For example, — Wrong
You lie so often that nobody trusts you. Although she is beautiful yet she is gentle.—Correct
(iv) These denoting purpose : that 5. Even if is followed by but
Work hard that you may succeed. Even if he is hungry yet he cannot beg. — Wrong
(v) Those denoting condition : as if, if, if not, in case, Even if he is hungry but he cannot beg. — Correct
provided that, unless, whether, etc. 6. That cannot be used to express interrogative or im
For example, perative expression.
If you come, I will go. For example,
(vi) Those denoting concession : although, though She asked me that what my name was. — Wrong
For example, She asked me what my name was. — Correct
Charles was intelligent though not industrious. She said that to bring a chair. — Wrong
(vii) Those denoting manner : as She said to bring a chair. — Correct
For example, 7. Wheather is followed by or no or not.
I spoke as I liked. For example,
(viii) Those denoting comparison : For example, then + Can you say whether he is ill or not. — Correct
For example, Again,
It is not as bad as you think. I cannot say that she is going to Bombay. — Wrong
Mary is taller than her sister. I cannot say whether she is going to Bombay.
(ix) Those denoting time : after, before, are, since, while, — Correct
till and until. 8. When is used when two actions take place one by
For example, one, if two actions are simultaneous, use while.
I came to Calcutta before you were born. After I had For example,
departed, no one did any work. When I was on the road I saw a girl. — Wrong
Use of Conjunctions While I was on the road I saw a girl. — Correct
1. Not only .... but also is used before those words While I reached there she had gone out. — Wrong
which it stresses. When I reached there she had gone out. — Correct
For example, 9. Lest is followed by should, it is negative do not use
He is not famous in his state but also in his coun another negative with it.
try. — Wrong For example,
He is famous not only in his state but also in his Work hard lest you may fail. — Wrong
country. — Correct
Work hard lest you should fail. — Correct
2. Neither is followed by nor while either is followed by
Run fast lest you should not miss the train.
or
— Wrong
For example,
Run fast lest you should miss the train. — Correct
She is neither intelligent or laborious. — Wrong
10. No sooner is followed by than, just after no sooner
She is neither intelligent nor labourious. — Correct
we use helping verb.
But,
For example,
He is neither good at Physics nor at Chemistry.
No sooner did he go out then she came. — Wrong
— Wrong
No sooner did he go out than she came. — Correct
He is good neither at Physics nor at Chemistry.
No sooner I did reach there than he started.
— Correct
— Wrong
3. Both is followed by and
No sooner did I reach there than he started.
For example,
— Correct
Both Mohan or Ram goes there. — Wrong
11. Other is followed by than.
Both Mohan and Ram go there. — Correct
For example,
Again,
He has other work that to do. — Wrong
Both Sohan as well as Prem is good. — Wrong
He has other work than to do. — Correct
Both Sohan and Prem are good. — Correct
12. Until is used for time while unless is used for con
4. Though and although are followed by yet dition. They are negatives. So do not use any other
For example, negative with them.
SEE–55
For example,
Until you labour you cannot pass. — Wrong TENSE
Unless you labour you cannot pass. — Correct
Tense is that form of a Verb which shows the time and
Until he does not come I shall wait for him.
state of an action and an event. [Tense comes from Latin
— Wrong
Until he comes I shall wait for him. tempus, meaning time.]
— Correct
13. Scarcely, hardly, and barely are followed by when. Let us take three sentences.
After scarcely, hardly etc. we use helping first then 1. I sing this song to please you.
subject. 2. I sang the song in her very presence.
For example, 3. I shall sing another song for her tomorrow.
Hardly had he gone out than he reached. — Wrong In the first sentence, the Verb sing refers to present time.
Hadly had he gone when he reached. — Correct In the second sentence, the Verb sang refers to past time.
Scarcely I had reached there when she went out. In the third sentence, the Verb shall sing refers to future
— Wrong time.
Scarcely had I reached there when she went out.
Thus, a Verb may refer to :
— Correct
(i) Present time (ii) Past time
14. So and so that are used for cause and purpose. So
that cannot be used in negative. (iii) Future time
For example, (i) A Verb that refers to present time is said to be in the
He is ill so he wants to take rest. present tense.
Or, He is ill so that he wants to take rest. For example
But, I go. I run. I sleep. I write.
He is ill so that he cannot go there. — Wrong I walk.
He is ill so he cannot go there. — Correct (ii) A Verb that refers to past time is said to be in the
15. Nothing is followed by but. past tense.
For example, For example
Nothing can be said that is required. — Wrong I went I ran I slept I wrote I walked
Nothing can be said but is required. — Correct (iii) a Verb that refers to future time is said to be in the
16. After these verbs : treat, regard, describe, present, future tense.
portray, define, depict, etc. we use as before noun.
For example
For example,
Do not treat a servant a servant. — Wrong I shall go. I shall run.
Do not treat a servant as a servant. — Correct I shall sleep. I shall write.
She regards me her brother. — Wrong I shall walk.
She regards me as her brother. — Correct There are three main tenses :
17. Such is followed by as (1) The Present Tense (2) The Past Tense
For example, (3) The Future Tense
Such boys are good that believe in me. — Wrong Each of these three tenses has been subdivided into
Such boys are good as believe in me. — Correct four forms under the following heading :
Present Tense Past Tense Future Tense
(1) Simple Present/ (1) Simple Past/ (1) Simple Future/
Present Indefinite Tense Past Indefinite Tense Future Indefinite Tense
(2) Present Continuous Tense (2) Past Continuous Tense (2) Future Continuous Tense
(3) Present Perfect Tense (3) Past Perfect Tense (3) Future Perfect Tense
(4) Present Perfect Continuous (4) Past Perfect Continuous Tense (4) Future Perfect Continuous
Tense Tense
TABLE OF TENSES OF VERB TO GIVE
Simple Continuous Perfect Perfect

Continuous
Present Active I give. I am giving. I have given. I have been giving.
Passitve I am given. I am being given. I have been given.
Past Active I gave. I was giving. I had given. I had been giving.
Passive I was given. I was being given. I had been given.
Future Active I shall give. I shall be giving. I shall have given. I shall been giving.
Passive I shall be given. I shall have been given.
SEE–56
Uses of Tenses [in both the cases, none is reading at this moment].

THE PRESENT TENSE (iii) For an action that is planned or arranged to
take place in the near future.
(1) Present Indefinite Tense For example,
The Present Indefinite or Simple Present Tense is used : I am going to the party tonight.
(i) To express a habitual action. My father is arriving day after tomorrow.
For example, Exception : The following Verbs are not generally used in
The cock crows every morning. the continuous form.
I get up everyday at 6.o’ clock. For example,
He goes to school everyday.
(a) Verbs of Perception, like : see, hear, smell,
(ii) To express general truths
notice, recognize.
For example,
The earth is round. (b) Verbs of Appearance, like : appear, look, seem.
Slow and steady wins the race. (c) Verbs of Emotion, like : want, wish, desire,
The sun sets in the west. feel, like, love, hate, hope, refuse, prefer.
(iii) In exclamatory sentences beginning with here (d) Verbs of Thinking, like : think, suppose, be
and there to express what is actually taking place lieve, agree, consider, trust, remember, forget,
in the present. know, understand, imagine, mean, mind.
For example, (e) have, own, possess, belong to, contain, con
Here comes the tram! sist of, be etc.
There goes the ball! (3) Present Perfect Tense
There he goes!
The Present Perfect Tense is used :
(iv) In vivid narrative, as substitute for the Simple
Past. (i) To indicate complete activities in the immediate
For example, past.
The officer now comes forward and tells the For example,
staff to complete all the work by 6 pm. He has just finished the work.
Immediately the minister hurries to the capi The train has just started.
tal. (ii) To express past actions whose time is not given
Sachin now makes quick runs to save the and not definite.
follow on.
For example,
(v) To indicate a future event that is part of a plan
or arrangement. I have never known him to be pessimistic.
For example, Mr. John has been to Europe.
We leave for Delhi next Wednesday. (iii) To describe past events when we think more of
We go to Bangkok next week. their effect in the present than of the action it
When does the school reopen? self.
Simple Past is also used to introduce quotations. For example,
For example, I have finished my homework. (and now I am
Rousseau says, "Every man is born free, but free).
everywhere he is in chains today."
Mohan has drunk all the milk. (there is no
Simple Past is used instead of the Simple Future Tense,
milk in the port)
in clauses of time and of condition.
(iv) To denote an action beginning at some time in the
For example,
past and continuing upto the present moment.
I shall sing till you sleep.
If it rings, I shall pick up the receiver. For example,
(2) Present Continuous Tense I have known him for a long time.
The Present Continuous Tense is used : He has been ill since last week.
(i) For an action going on at the time of speaking. We have lived here for five years.
For example, (4) Present Perfect Continuous Tense
He is reading. The Present Perfect Continuous Tense is used for an ac
The boys are playing cricket. tion which began at some time in the past and is still con
(ii) For a temporary action which may not be actually tinuing.
happening at the time of speaking. For example,
For example, I have been watering the plants since 5 o' clock.
I am reading 'Romeo Juliet'.
He has been fishing for two hours.
He is reading 'Illyus and the Oddyssey'.
They have been playing for several hours.
SEE–57
THE PAST TENSE THE FUTURE TENSE
(1) Past Indefinite Tense (1) Future Indefinite Tense
The Past Indefinite or Simple Past Tense is used : The Future Indefinite or Simple Future Tense is used
for an action that is still to take place.
(i) To indicate an action completed in the past. For example,
For example, I shall meet him tomorrow.
The boy left school an hour ago. Day after tomorrow will be Friday.
(2) Future Continuous Tense
I did this work a week ago.
The Future Continuous Tense represents an action as
The ship sailed last week. going on at some time in future time.
(ii) To denote past habits. For example,
For example, I shall be writing the letter then.
When I go into the class, the teacher will be
He practised many hours every day.
teaching.
She always sang a romantic song. * The Future Continuous Tense is also used for repre
(2) Past Continuous Tense senting future events that are planned.
The Past Continuous Tense is used : For example,
I shall be waiting for you till 4 pm.
(i) To denote an action going on at some time in the
She will be meeting me next week.
past.
(3) Future Perfect Tense
For example, The Future Perfect Tense is used to indicate the
The light went out while I was reading. completion of an action by a certain future time.
We were watching the television all evening. For example,
I shall have done my homework by that time.
(ii) With always, continually etc. for persistent hab
Before you go to meet him, he will have left
its in the past.
the office.
For example, (4) Future Perfect Continuous Tense
He was always refusing. The Future Perfect Continuous Tense indicates an ac
She was continually neglecting her duty. tion represented as being in progress over a period of
time that will end in the future.
(3) Past Perfect Tense
For example,
The Past Perfect Tense is used : By next January, we shall have been living in
(i) To describe an action completed before a certain Delhi for three years.
moment in the past. When he completes his school, he will have
For example, been studying at NIIT.
Conjugation of Verb ‘To be’
I met him in 1995. I had seen him last five
years before. PRESENT INDEFINITE TENSE
I called him at 5 a.m. I had found him got up Singular Plural
at 7 a.m. 1st Person I am We are
2nd Person You are You are
(ii) When two actions happened in the past and it
3rd Person He/She/It is They are
may be necessary to show which action happened
earlier than the other. We use Past Perfect in the PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE
event that happened earlier. Singular Plural
For example, 1st Person I am being We are being
2nd Person You are being You are being
When I reached the station, the train had started.
3rd Person He/She/It is being They are being
I had completed my work before the officer came.
PRESENT PERFECT TENSE
I had done my work when Seema came to see
Singular Plural
me.
1st Person I have been We have been
(4) Past Perfect Continuous Tense 2nd Person You have been You have been
The Past Perfect Continuous Tense is used for an ac 3rd Person He/She/It has been They have been
tion that began before a certain point in the past and con
PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE
tinued upto that time.
Singular Plural
For example, 1st Person I have been being We have been being
He had been serving the institution for the last 2nd Person You have been You have been being
one year. being
At that time he had been writing a short story 3rd Person He/She/It has been They have been being
for three months. being
SEE–58
PAST/INDEFINITE TENSE For example,
Singular Plural I can help you.
1st Person I was We were I can swim across the river.
2nd Person You were You were Could is used to denote polite request.
3rd Person He/She/It was They were For example,
PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE Could you pass me the salt?
Singular Plural Could is often used without reference to past
1st Person I was being We were being time.
2nd Person You were being You were being For example,
3rd Person He/She/It was They were being I think, I could help you (can).
being Could have denotes a past possibility not ful
filled.
PAST PERFECT TENSE
For example,
Singular Plural
1st Person I had been We had been You could have done the sum with a little more
2nd Person You had been You had been attention.
3rd Person He/She/It had been They had been May, Might
May is used in expressing doubt or in asking or giving
PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE permission.
Singular Plural For example,
1st Person I had been being We had been being
He may catch the train (doubt).
2nd Person You had been You had been being
May I go out? (asking permission).
being
You may sleep now (permission).
3rd Person He/She/It had been They had been being
May is used to express possibility in affirmative sen
being
tences.
FUTURE INDEFINITE TENSE For example,
Singular Plural It may rain tomorrow.
1st Person I shall be We shall be He may be at home.
2nd Person You will be You will be May is also used to express a wish.
3rd Person He/She/It will be They will be For example,
FUTURE CONTINUOUS TENSE May you live long!
Singular Plural May success attend you!
1st Person I shall be being We shall be being Might is the past tense of may and is used to express
2nd Person You will be being You will be being a degree of dissatisfaction or reapproach.
3rd Person He/She/It will be being They will be being For example,
FUTURE PERFECT TENSE He cried aloud so that his friends might hear
Singular Plural him.
1st Person I shall have been We shall have been You might see me tomorrow.
2nd Person You will have been You will have been You might pay a little more attention to your appear
3rd Person He/She/It will have They will have been ance.
been Might is also used in polite request.
For example,
FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE
Might I have your umbrella for a day?
Singular Plural
Note : (i) Could and Might are used as the past equiva
1st Person I shall have We shall have
lent of can and may.
been being been being
For example,
2nd Person You will have You will have
been being been being I could draw scenery when I was young (ability).
3rd Person He/She/It will They will have He said I might/could sit (permission).
have been being been being He thought he might be at home (possibility).
He wondered if it could be correct. (possibility).
MODAL (ii) Could and might are also used as less positive
Modals are the auxiliaries which express attitudes like per versions of can and may.
mission, possibility, necessity etc. such as : For example,
Can Could May Might Shall Should I could attend the party.
Will Would Must Ought Need Dare Might/Could I borrow your pen?
They are also called Modal Auxiliaries. It might be sunny tomorrow.
Uses of Modals (iii) May not denotes denial of permission or improb
Can, Could ability.
Can is a Principal Verb followed by an Infinitive with For example,
out ‘to’. Its Past tense is could but it, has no Past Parti
Outsiders may not use the similar gate.
ciple. It means ability or capacity.
SEE–59
Shall, Should Will is used to express volition.
Shall is used in the first person to express pure future. For example
For example I will (= am willing) to carry your luggage.
I shall do this work. I will (= promise to) try to do better the next
When shall we visit the zoo? time.
Shall I do it for you? Will is used to express characteristic habit.
Tomorrow we shall meet our uncle. For example
Shall is used to express command, desire, promise or He will talk about nothing but politics.
threat etc. in second and third person. She will sit for hours watching the television.
For example Will is used to express assumption or probability.
Shall you go tomorrow? (desire). For example
He shall not enter my house (command). This will be the magazine you want, I think.
You shall have a surprise tomorrow (promise). That will be the milkman, I think.
You shall be punished for unfair means in ex Would is used to express the future in the past i.e.,
amination (threat). action which was at one time in the past regarded as be
Shall he post the letter? ing still in the future.
(is it your desire that he will post the letter?) For example
Shall is also used in the second and third person to He said that he would help us.
ask after the will of the person addressed.
Would is used as Principal Verbs to express determi
For example nation.
Shall I open the door? (Do you feel like me to open For example
the door).
He would cry without any reason.
Which pen shall I buy? (What is your suggestion).
I would buy it thought it was costly.
Shall the gardener water the plants now?
Note : (i) Should and Would are used instead of shall
Should is used as the past equivalents of shall.
and will in making a polite request.
For example
For example
I expected that I should get distinction.
I should thank you if you would let me go.
I said that I should meet him once.
Would you kindly lend me your hat?
Should is used in all persons to express duty or obli
(ii) Should and Would are used as the past equivalents
gation.
of shall and will.
For example
For example
We should obey the laws.
I expected that I should get a prize.
You should keep your vows.
He said he would be twenty next year.
Boys should obey their teachers.
(iii) Should and Would are both used as auxiliary Verbs
You should get up early.
to express the future in the past i.e, action which
Should is used to express a supposition that may not
was at one time in the past regarded as being still
be true.
in the future.
For example
For example
If it should rain, they will not visit.
I said that I should meet him once.
If he should see me there, he will be pleased.
He said that he would manage them.
Should is to be used in the first person with a Verb
Must, Ought
like : to like, to care, to be glad, to be pleased etc.
Must is used to express :
For example
(i) Necessity or Obligation.
I should like to read this poem.
For example
I should feel to be pleased with his passing
in the examination. We must obey our parents.
One must do his duty.
Should is also used in forming the Subjunctive Mood
and to form a Subjunctive equivalent. (ii) Fixed determination.
For example For example
I must have my way in this matter.
He ran lest he should be caught in rain.
He must be fifty now.
Will, Would Ought is followed by an infinite and it expresses ;
Will is used in the second and third persons to expres (i) Moral obligation, duty or desirability
pure future. For example
For example You ought to have come in time.
Tomorrow will be Sunday. We ought to love our parents.
You will see that I am correct. We ought to love him.
SEE–60
You ought to know more about this matter. (4) Used is followed by the infinitive to. Used to is
(ii) Strong probability. used to express a discontinued habit.
Rakhee ought to win the game. I used to live there during 1980s.
The film ought to win a prize. There used to be a house there. Used to is an
Note : Ought was originally used in the Past tense, anomalous Verb.
but it is now used only in the Present tense. The Use of Shall and Will
Need not, Dare not To express 1st 2nd 3rd
Need is commonly used in negatives, which denote Auxiliary 1. Simple shall will will
necessity or obligation. Future in
For example Assertive
He need not go there. (It was not necessary sentences
for him to go.) (Aux. Verbs)
I need not have bought it. (It was not neces Examples : I shall go home.
sary for me to buy it, but I bought it.) You will reach late.
Dare is generally used in negative sentences, meaning He will go last.
be brave enough to. Auxiliary 2.Simple shall will will
For example Future in
He dare not take such a step? Interrogative
He dared not do it. sentences
Note : (i) If a Verb is used immediately after a Modal (Aux. Verbs)
Auxiliary, that Verb must be always in the first form.
Examples : Shall I go now ?
(ii) If infinitive is used after a Modal Auxiliary, that
Will you go now ?
infinitive must be a bare infinitive.
Will he see me ?
Besides the modal auxiliaries, there are also some spe
cial Verbs or anomalous like : Principal 3. (a) Promise, Will Shall Shall
Be Have Do Used determination
Be used in the formation of the continuous tenses and (Principal Verbs)
of the passive voice. Examples : I Will help you.
For example You shall have my help.
He is talking. He shall have his dues.
I was writing. Principal (b) Threat Will Shall Shall
The door was opened. (Princ. Verbs)
Have is used in the formation of the perfect tenses. Examples : I will dismiss him.
For example If you go, you shall be punished.
She has done. He shall not be excused.
She has been doing. Principal (c) Command Shall Shall
Do is used : (Principal Verbs)
(1) To form the negative and interrogative of the Examples : You shall not go.
present simple and past simple tenses of non Monday shall be a holiday.
anomalous Verbs. Shall he wait ?
For example Shall, Should
He doesn't talk. Shall is used in the first person to express pure future.
He didn't do. For example
Does she talk? I shall do this work.
When shall we visit the zoo?
Did she do?
Shall I do it for you?
(2) To avoid repetition of a previous ordinary Verb. Tomorrow we shall meet our uncle.
For example Shall is used to express command, desire, promise or
Do you know her? Yes I do. threat etc. in second and third person.
She sings well. Yes, she does. For example
You called him, didn't you? Shall you go tomorrow? (desire).
He eats apples and so do you. He shall not enter my house (command).
(3) Do is also used to emphasize the affirmative na You shall have a surprise tomorrow (promise).
ture of a statement. You shall be punished for unfair means in ex
For example amination (threat).
Shall he post the letter?
You do go there.
(is it your desire that he will post the letter?)
I told me not to do, but he did do.
SEE–61
Shall is also used in the second and third person to Note : (i) Should and Would are used instead of shall
ask after the will of the person addressed. and will in making a polite request.
Shall I open the door? (Do you feel like me to open I should thank you if you would let me go.
the door). Would you kindly lend me your hat?
Which pen shall I buy? (What is your suggestion). (ii) Should and Would are used as the past equivalents
Shall the gardener water the plants now? of shall and will.
Should is used as the past equivalents of shall. For example
For example I expected that I should get a prize.
I expected that I should get distinction. He said he would be twenty next year.
I said that I should meet him once. (iii) Should and Would are both used as auxiliary Verbs
Should is used in all persons to express duty or obli to express the future in the past i.e, action which
gation. was at one time in the past regarded as being still
For example in the future.
We should obey the laws. For example
You should keep your vows. I said that I should meet him once.
Boys should obey their teachers. He said that he would manage them.
You should get up early. Must, Ought
Should is used to express a supposition that may not Must is used to express :
be true. (i) Necessity or Obligation.
If it should rain, they will not visit. We must obey our parents.
If he should see me there, he will be pleased. One must do his duty.
Should is to be used in the first person with a Verb (ii) Fixed determination.
like : to like, to care, to be glad, to be pleased etc. For example
For example I must have my way in this matter.
I should like to read this poem. He must be fifty now.
I should feel to be pleased with his passing Ought is followed by an infinite and it expresses ;
in the examination. (i) Moral obligation, duty or desirability
Should is also used in forming the Subjunctive Mood For example
and to form a Subjunctive equivalent. You ought to have come in time.
For example We ought to love our parents.
He ran lest he should be caught in rain. We ought to love him.
Will, Would You ought to know more about this matter.
Will is used in the second and third persons to expres (ii) Strong probability.
pure future. For example
For example Rakhee ought to win the game.
Tomorrow will be Sunday. The film ought to win a prize.
You will see that I am correct. Note : Ought was originally used in the Past tense,
Will is used to express volition. but it is now used only in the Present tense.
For example Need not, Dare not
I will (= am willing) to carry your luggage. Need is commonly used in negatives, which denote
I will (= promise to) try to do better the next necessity or obligation.
time. For example
Will is used to express characteristic habit. He need not go there. (It was not necessary
For example for him to go.)
He will talk about nothing but politics. I need not have bought it. (It was not neces
She will sit for hours watching the television. sary for me to buy it, but I bought it.)
Will is used to express assumption or probability. Dare is generally used in negative sentences, meaning
For example be brave enough to.
This will be the magazine you want, I think. For example
That will be the milkman, I think. He dare not take such a step?
Would is used to express the future in the past i.e., He dared not do it.
action which was at one time in the past regarded as be Note : (i) If a Verb is used immediately after a Modal
ing still in the future. Auxiliary, that Verb must be always in the first form.
For example (ii) If infinitive is used after a Modal Auxiliary, that
He said that he would help us. infinitive must be a bare infinitive.
Would is used as Principal Verbs to express determi Besides the modal auxiliaries, there are also some spe
nation. cial Verbs or anomalous like :
For example Be Have Do Used
He would cry without any reason. Be used in the formation of the continuous tenses and
I would buy it thought it was costly. of the passive voice.
SEE–62
For example Examples : I will dismiss him.
He is talking. If you go, you shall be punished.
I was writing. He shall not be excused.
The door was opened. Principal (c) Command Shall Shall
Have is used in the formation of the perfect tenses. (Principal Verbs)
For example Examples : You shall not go.
She has done. Monday shall be a holiday.
She has been doing. Shall he wait ?
Do is used :
(1) To form the negative and interrogative of the
present simple and past simple tenses of non VOICE
anomalous Verbs.
Definition :
For example
He doesn't talk. Voice is the form of the Verb which shows whether
the Subject acts or is acted upon.
He didn't do.
Does she talk? Example:
Did she do? Sheila writes an email.
(2) To avoid repetition of a previous ordinary Verb. (From this example, we understand that the Subject
For example in the sentence is ‘Sheila’ who is doing some work.)
Do you know her? Yes I do. An email is written by Sheila.
She sings well. Yes, she does. (Again, from this sentence, we understand that some
You called him, didn't you? work is going on with the Subject ‘An email’.)
He eats apples and so do you. Kinds of Voice
(3) Do is also used to emphasize the affirmative na There are two kinds of voice :
ture of a statement. 1. Active Voice – When the Subject of the sentence is
For example the doer or actor, the Verb is Active and said to be in
You do go there. Active Voice.
I told me not to do, but he did do. Examples:
(4) Used is followed by the infinitive to. Used to is He runs. I did it.
used to express a discontinued habit. He said this. She helped me.
For example They did all the work.
I used to live there during 1980s. 2. Passive Voice – When the Subject of the sentence
There used to be a house there. Used to is an is acted upon, the Verb is Passive and is said to be in
anomalous Verb. Passive Voice.
The Use of Shall and Will Examples:
To express 1st 2nd 3rd It was done by me.
Auxiliary 1. Simple shall will will This was said by him.
Future in The letter was posted.
Assertive The thief was arrested.
sentences
The sun was covered by cloud.
(Aux. Verbs)
There is also another kind of Voice called MidVoice or
Examples : I shall go home.
QuasiPassive. The peculiarity of this Voice is that, although
You will reach late. it is Active in form, it is Passive in meaning.
He will go last.
Examples:
Auxiliary 2.Simple shall will will
Candy tastes sweet.
Future in
(It means, candy is sweet when tasted.)
Interrogative
Iron feels hard.
sentences
(Aux. Verbs) (It means, iron is hard when it is felt.)
Examples : Shall I go now ? Oil feels greasy.
Will you go now ? (It means, oil is greasy when felt or touched.)
Will he see me ? There are certain rules associated with changing the
Principal 3. (a) Promise, Will Shall Shall Active Voice into Passive Voice.
determination
(Principal Verbs)
R ULES FOR CHANGING ACTIVE VOICE
Examples : I Will help you. I NTO P ASSIVE VOICE
You shall have my help. 1. The Object of the Active is changed into Subject of
He shall have his dues. the Passive.
Principal (b) Threat Will Shall Shall 2. The Subject of the Active is changed into Object of
(Princ. Verbs) the Passive.
SEE–63
3. According to the Subject made in the Passive, there Subject 1 + has / have + been + Verb3 + (by + agent)
is the usage of the helping Verb. If it is not the helping Example:
Verb ‘to be’, then according to the helping Verb present Active: Seema has bought a nail polish.
there, a form of ‘to be’ is taken into usage.
4. After ‘to be’ there is the usage of Verb .3   
5. Preposition ‘by’ is used before the Object made in Subject has Verb 3
Object
the Passive. This (by + Object) is also known as (by + Passive: A nail polish has been bought by Seema.
Agent), which is completely optional.   
Let us look at that usage of these rules through these Subject 1 has been Verb 3 by Agent
examples. Likewise,
Active: Sekhar called Chandra. Active: Narayan has cheated Pallavi.
Passive: Chandra was called by Sekhar. Passive: Pallavi has been cheated by Narayan.
Active: Raja invited Kaushik on his birthday. Note that, no Passive formation is allowed in Present
Passive: Kaushik was invited by Raja on his birthday. Perfect Continuous Tense.
T ENSE AND VOICE (d) Past Indefinite
There are eight forms of Tenses used in Passive Voice. The construction of Active Voice here is –
(a) Present Indefinite Subject + Verb 2 + Object
The construction of Active Voice here is – The construction of Passive Voice here is –
Subject + Verb 1 / Verb 5 + Object Subject 1 + was / were + Verb 3 + (by + agent)
The construction of Passive Voice here is – Example:
Subject 1 + am / is / are + Verb 3 + (by + agent) Active: The Deccan Chargers won the IPL trophy.
Here, S1 is the Subject of the Passive and (by + Agent)
is optional.
  
Examples: Subject Verb 3 Object
Active: She loves you. Passive: The IPL trophy was won by the Deccan
  
Subject Verb 5 Object Subject 1 was Verb 3 by Agent
Passive: You are loved by her. Chargers.
 Likewise,
Subject 1 are Verb 3 by Agent Active: She sold a jewellery.
Likewise, Passive: A jewellery was sold by her.
Active : Hira calls Simpy. (e) Past Imperfect
  The construction of Active Voice here is –
Subject Verb 5 Object Subject + was / were + Verb (+ing) + Object
Passive: Simpy is called by Hira. The construction of Passive Voice here is –
 Subject 1 + was / were + being + Verb 3
+ (by + agent)
Subject 1 is Verb 3 by Agent Example:
(b) Present Imperfect Active: Karuna was practising tennis.
The construction of Active Voice here is –  
Subject + am / is / are + Verb (+ing) + Object Subject was Verb (+ing) Object
The construction of Passive Voice here is – Passive: Tennis was being practised by Karuna.
Subject 1 + am / is / are + being + Verb 3
+ (by + 
agent) Subject 1 was being + Verb 3 by Agent
Example: Likewise,
Active: Sonu is singing a song. Active: Pinki was making a doll.
 Passive: A doll was being made by Pinki.
(f) Past Perfect
Subject is Verb (+ing) Object
The construction of Active Voice here is –
Passive: A song is being sung by Sonu.
Subject + had + Verb2 + Object
 The construction of Passive Voice here is –
Subject 1 is being sung by Agent Subject 1 + had been + Verb3 + (by + agent)
Likewise, Example:
Active: They are playing chess. Active: He had called her.
Passive: Chess is being played by them.  
(c) Present Perfect Subject had Verb 3 Object
The construction of Active Voice here is – Passive: She had been called by him.
Subject + has / have + Verb 3 Object  
The construction of Passive Voice here is – Subject 1 had been Verb 3 by Agent
SEE–64
Likewise, t Note that, can, could, may, might, shall, should,
Active: The builder had built a mall. will, would, must, ought to, used to, need not, dare not,
Passive: A mall had been built by the builder. etc. are Modal Auxiliary Verbs.
Note that, no Passive formation is allowed in Past Per Passive of Verbs with two Objects
fect Continuous Tense. There are a few Verbs which can take two Objects.
(g) Future Indefinite Example:
The construction of Active Voice here is – (i) She gave me some sweets.
Subject + shall / will + Verb1 1 + Object (ii) You appointed him manager.
The construction of Passive Voice here is – (iii) We elected him Chairman.
Subject 1 + shall / will + be + Verb 3 + (by + agent) (iv) They gave her offer letter.
Example: In these sentences above, you will find there are two
Active: She will complete it. Objects.
They are:
  
In sentence (i), ‘me’ and ‘some sweets’ are two Ob
Subject will Verb Object
1
jects.
Passive: It will be completed by her. In sentence (ii), ‘him’ and ‘manager’ are two Objects.
  In sentence (iii), ‘him’ and ‘chairman’ are two Objects.
Subject 1 will be Verb 3 by Agent In sentence (iv), ‘her’ and ‘offer letter’ are two Ob
Likewise, jects.
Active: The minister will address the gathering. On careful observation of these sentences, you will
Passive: The gathering will be addressed by the min note that in sentence (i), ‘me’ is the Indirect Object, while
ister. ‘some sweets’ is the Direct Object. Similarly, in sentences
Note that, no Passive formation is allowed in Future (ii), (iii) and (iv), ‘him’, ‘him’ and ‘her’ are Indirect Objects,
Imperfect Tense. while ‘manager’, ‘chairman’ and ‘offer letter’ are Direct Ob
(h) Future Perfect jects, respectively.
Remember a few important facts.
The construction of Active Voice here is –
(a) Verbs which take only one Object are called Mono
Subject + shall / will + have + Verb + Object 3
Transitive Verbs.
The construction of Passive Voice here is –
Examples:
Subject 1 + will / shall + have + been + Verb 3 + (by
They refused you.
+ agent)
Example:  
Active: She will have bought a laptop. Monotransitive Verb Object
Kavita likes you.
  
 
Subject shall / will + have + Verb 3 Object
Monotransitive Verb Object
Passive: A laptop will have been bought by her.
(b) Verbs that take two Objects are called DiTransi
   tive Verbs.
Subject 1 will have been Verb 3 by Agent Examples:
Likewise, He gifted me a bracelet.
Active: Jack will have completed the project in time.
  
Passive: The project will have been completed by Jack
DiTransitive Verb Indirect Object Direct Object
in time.
The manager offered me
ACTIVE AND P ASSIVE OF M ODAL VERBS  
The constructions in Active and Passive are as fol DiTransitive Verb Indirect Object
lows. an opportunity.
Active: Subject + modal + Verb 1 + Object 
Passive: Subject 1 + modal + be + Verb 3
+ (by + agent) Direct Object
Example: Remember that, when a Verb is used in the form of
Active: You can sing this song. DiTransitive, it takes two Objects as you could see in the
   examples above. In these Objects, the one which refers to
‘thing’ or which gives the answer when a question is asked
Subject modal Verb 1 Object)
using ‘what’ is the Direct Object, while the other Object
Passive: This song can be sung by you.
which refers to ‘person’ or which gives the answer when a
  question is asked using ‘to whom’ is called the Indirect
Subject 1 can be Verb 3 by Agent Object.
Likewise, Example:
Active: You must finish it. She gave me a book.
Passive: It must be finished by you. Here, if we ask question as –
SEE–65
What did she give? Active: Do / Does + Subject + Verb 1 + Object?
We get the answer as – Passive: Am/Is/Are + Subject 1 + Verb3 + by + Agent?
A book Example:
Hence, the answer ‘A book’ is the Direct Object. Active: Does he need some curry?
Again, if we ask question like –   
To whom did she give the book? Does Subject Verb 1 Object
We get the answer – Me Passive: Is some curry needed by him?
Here, ‘Me’ is the Indirect Object.   
(c) There are a few Verbs which act as Mono and Di
Is Subject 1 Verb 3 by Agent
Transitive.
(b) To change questions from Active to Passive begin
Examples:
ning with Did.
She told a fable.
Active: Did + Subject + Verb 1 + Object?
  Passive: Was / Were + Subject1 + Verb3 + by + Agent?
MonoTransitive Object Example:
She told me a fable. Active: Did he entertain you?
   
Indirect Object Direct Object Did Subject 1 Verb 1 Object
(d) A few Verbs like – tell, give, appoint, make, prom Passive: Were you entertained by him?
ise, elect, make, fetch, offer, present, lend, get, pay, sell,  
bring, take, teach, promise, etc. can act both in the form of
Mono and DiTransitive. Were Subject 1 Verb 3 by Agent
Now, look at the sentence which has two Objects (c) To change questions from Active to Passive begin
and is Passive. You can do so – ning with Have / Has.
(i) By converting Indirect Object into Subject. Active: Have / Has / Had + Subject + Verb 3 + Ob-
ject?
Example:
Passive: Have /Has / Had + Subject 1 + been + Verb 3
Active: He lent me some money.
+ by + Agent?
Passive: I was lent some money by him.
Example:
(ii) By converting Direct Object into Subject.
Active: Has Anuradha sang a song?
Example:
Active: He lent me some money.
 
Passive: Some money was lent (to) by him. Has Subject Verb 1 Object
Remember that, in order to convert a sentence into Passive: Has a song been written by Anuradha?
Passive having two Objects, generally the Indirect Object   
is changed into Subject, which is thought of as the best Has Subject 1 been Verb 3 by Agent
option. But, it is wrong to take for guaranteed that it is (d) To change questions from Active to Passive begin
incorrect to change Direct Object into Subject. Again, in ning with Modal Auxiliary Verbs.
such cases, the order of selecting the Subject in Passive Active: Modal + Subject + Verb 1 + Object?
depends on whom we are giving importance to. Passive: Modal + Subject 1 + be + Verb 3
+ by + Agent
P ASSIVE OF I NTERROGATIVE SENTENCES Example:
1. The questions are of two kinds – One that gives Active: Can you control this situation?
‘Yes’ answer and the other ‘No’.    
The question that begins with a helping Verb like – Modal Subject Verb 1 Object
does, do, did, has, have, is, are, am, can, could, may, Passive: Can this situation be controlled by you?
might, etc. and the answer of which is generally either Yes 
or No.
Modal Subject 1 be Verb 3 by him
Example:
(e) Passive of WhQuestions
Question: Are you ready?
Here, by making the Passive of questions which an
Answer: Yes, I am Or, No, I am not
swer in Yes / No and before which, Interrogative words
2. Questions with ‘Wh’ beginning with any of the In are added and made into WhQuestions.
terrogative words like – why, who, what, how, when, Example:
where, etc. The answer to these question cannot be given
Active: Have you broken the glass?
in either ‘Yes’ or ‘No’, rather they can be answered by us
ing a complete sentence. Passive: Has the glass been broken by you?
Example: Now, let us add Interrogative words before these Yes/
No questions.
Question: Where do you live?
Active: Why have you broken the glass?
Answer: I live in East of Kailash.
Passive: Why has the glass been broken by you?
Look at the rules for Passive of Yes / No questions
(a) To change questions from Active to Passive begin  
ning with Do / Does. Interrogative word Yes / No question
SEE–66
That is, Interrogative words + Yes / No questions = Likewise,
Interrogative questions Active: Love the unprivileged.
This rule is applicable with Interrogative words like – Passive: The unprivileged should be loved.
why, how, when, where, what, etc. Likewise,
But, look at the Passive of the question that begins Active: Refrain from the seven deadly sins.
with ‘who’ or ‘whom’. Passive: The seven deadly sins should be refrained
Active: Who wrote the Sri Sai Satcharitra? from.
Passive: By whom was the Sri Sai Satcharitra writ (c) Passive of the sentence that expresses ‘request’.
ten? Or, In the sentence that expresses ‘request’ in the Active
Passive: Who was the Sri Sai Satcharitra written by? Voice, Verb1 + Object is used. But, there is the usage of
Note that, it is wrong to say – ‘Whom was the Sri Sai ‘please’, ‘kindly’, etc. which are used in the beginning or at
Satcharitra written by?’ the end of the sentence.
Also remember, Example:
“…
if the proposition comes at the end of the sentence (i) Please, help that blind man cross the road.
or clause, then use who.” (ii) Kindly, vacate the room as soon as possible.
Example: (iii) Do it for me, kindly.
(iv) Send a mail at the earliest, please.
Who is that letter from? (not ‘whom’)
Let us see how the Passive of these sentences are
Who did you give it to? (not ‘whom’)
made.
– A Remedial English Grammar for Foreign
As a rule, ‘You are requested to’ is added to convert
Students by F.T. Wood
them into Passive.
Again, look at these sentences. The construction will be – You are requested to +
Active: Whom have you invited to dinner? Verb1 + Object
Passive: Who has been invited by you to dinner? Examples:
P ASSIVE OF I MPERATIVE SENTENCES (i) You are requested to help that blind man cross the
Imperative sentence is used to express – order, re road.
quest, suggestion, etc. The sentence in an Imperative sen (ii) You are requested to vacate the room as soon as
tence begins with its Principal Verb. possible.
Example: (iii) You are requested to do it for me.
(iv) You are requested to send the mail at the earliest.
Do it at once.
Note that, it is wrong to use – ‘You are kindly requested
Save my child, please.
to’. Problems are often created by using ‘kindly’ before
Or, ‘requested’.
Please, save my child.
Look at the forms of this type.
P ASSIVE OF I NFINITIVE (T O + VERB 1)
(a) Passive of a sentence stating ‘order’. Look at the sentences.
Active: Verb1 + Object A. (i) I am to do it.
(ii) You are to serve her.
Passive: Let + Subject 1 + be + Verb3
(iii) They are to buy a home.
Example:
(iv) She was to tell the story.
Active: Blow the horn.
In these sentences, there is the usage of Infinitive (to
 + Verb1).
Verb 1 Object Remember that when there is –
Passive: Let the horn be blown. Subject + To be + Infinitive
  i.e., Subject + am / is / are / was / were + to +
Let Subject 1 be Verb 3 Verb1
Likewise, its Passive forms along with it. Like –
Active: Bring a garland of rose. Subject 1 + am/is/are/was / were + to + be + Verb 3
Passive: Let a garland of rose be brought. Now, following this rule, we can convert the sentences
given above as :
(b) Passive of a sentence that states ‘suggestion’ or
‘advice’. (i) It is to be done by me.
(ii) She is to be served by you.
Active: Verb1 + Object
(iii) A home is to be bought by them.
Passive: Subject 1 + should + be + Verb3
(iv) The story was to be told by her.
Example:
B. But, if there a Noun after the Subject and an Infini
Active: Help the poor people. tive after that Noun, and also the Subject agrees to the
  Verb, the Passive of this Infinitive cannot be made.
Verb 1 Object Example:
Passive: The poor people should be helped. I have go a work to do.
    
Subject 1
should be Verb 3
Subject Noun Infinitive
SEE–67
In this sentence, ‘I’ is the Subject; ‘work’ a Noun and Passive: Some money has to be lent by him.
‘to do’ is the Infinitive used after the Noun. The Subject ‘I’  
is himself the doer of the ‘work’. Therefore, the Passive of Subject 1 has to be Verb 3 by Agent
this Infinitive cannot be made.
Likewise,
Note that, in some of the books, it has been stated Active: You have to choose a design.
that the Passive of ‘to be + Infinitive’ can be made. Like
Passive: A design has to be chosen by you.
– ‘to read’ can be made into ‘to be read’, which is wrong.
“If the subject of the sentence is the person who has P ASSIVE OF STATIVE VERBS
to do the action, the active infinitive is used.” There are a few Verbs which instead of stating the
Example: action signifies the state of mind or feeling and which also
I have work to do. does not make use of ‘by’ after them and rather takes an
It is wrong to say – I have work to be done. Appropriate Preposition.
– Practical English Usage by Michael Swan Example:
Likewise, look at the examples below. Active: I know her.
I have two shirts to press. Passive: She is known to me.
It is wrong to say – ‘to be pressed’ Active: The trick of the magician amused me.
I have a poem to write. Passive: I was amused by the trick of the magician.
It is wrong to say – ‘to be written’ Look at a few Verbs along with the Prepositions used
C. Infinitive Passive is not allowed if there is a Noun + after them.
Infinitive after the Subject and also the action is being surprised at amazed at
done by another person. known to startled at
Example: vexed at annoyed with (somebody)
Kalidasa was a scholar to be admired. annoyed at (something) contained in
It is wrong to say – Kalidasa was a scholar to admire. included in embodied in
Note that, problems are often created in context to crammed with filled with
this rule. decorated with ornamented with
D. If the Subject of a sentence is a Noun or a Pronoun thronged with moved by
which does not do any action and rather any action can be Example:
performed on them then after those Noun or Pronoun there Active: She annoyed me.
is the usage of Passive Infinitive and not Active Infinitive. Passive: I was annoyed with her. (It is wrong to say
Examples: ‘by her’)
These colours are to be painted. Active: Your behaviour annoyed me.
It is wrong to say – ‘are to paint’ Passive: I was annoyed at your behaviour. (It is wrong
The scout is to be guided. to say ‘by your behaviour’)
It is wrong to say – ‘is to guide’ Note that, problems are often created in questions
E. Passive can be done of the construction – related to the usage of these Prepositions. So try to re
There + To be + Noun + Infinitive member the usage of these Prepositions.
Example: Passive of Verb + Preposition + Object
Active: There is a lot of work to do. There are a few Verbs which takes a Preposition after
   them before taking the Object.
The construction is as under.
There To be Noun Infinitive to Verb 1
Subject + Verb + Preposition + Object
Passive: There is a lot of work to be done.
In order to create Passive of this construction, the
  Preposition is kept intact with that Verb.
There To be Noun To be Verb 3 Now look at the construction below.
Likewise, look at the other example. Subject 1 + to be + Verb3 + Preposition + (by Agent)
Active: There are five rhymes to recite. Example:
Passive: There are five rhymes to be recited. Active: The CBI enquired into the case.
Therefore, after There + To be , there is the usage of
  
Infinitive in both Active and Passive voice.
Subject Verb Preposition Object
Passive of ‘Have / Has / Had + To + Verb 1’
Passive: The case was enquired into
Look at the construction.
Active: Subject + have / has / had + to + Verb 1 + 
Object Subject 1 To be Verb 3 Preposition
Passive: Subject 1 + have / has / had + to + be + by the CBI.
Verb3 + (by + Agent) 
Example: by Agent
Active: He has to lend some money. But, problems are generally created by removing the
  Preposition after the Verb from such sentences in the Pas
Subject has to Verb 1
Object sive Voice.
SEE–68
Example: Example:
The boy was laughed by most of his friends. Rahul says, “I want to visit Mumbai.” – Direct Speech
In this sentence, Preposition ‘at’ should be used after Rahul says that he wants to visit Mumbai. – Indirect
‘laughed’; because ‘at’ is the Preposition that is followed Speech
after ‘laughed’. Some Important Facts on Narration
The correct form of the sentence will be – 1. Look at the following sentence.
The boy was laughed at by most of his friends.
Raju said, “I am happy.”
Likewise,
The first part of the sentence – ‘Raju said’ is called
Active: He laughed at the beggar.
Reporting speech / Reporting clause / Reporting verb,
   etc.
Subject Verb Preposition Object The second part of the sentence – ‘I am happy’ is
Passive: The beggar was laughed at called Reported speech / Reported clause / Reported state
   ment, etc.
Subject To be Verb 3 Preposition 2. Reported speech can be used at the beginning /
by him. end / middle of the sentence.
 Examples:
by Agent The principal said , “The school shall remain
Let us look at a few Verbs that first take a Preposition closed for a month.”
and then the Object. “Let’s go for long drive”, he said to his friends .
look at + Object look after + Object “Shakespeare”, said the teacher , “was a
look down upon + Object laugh at + Object worldfamous dramatist”.
smile at + Object ride at + Object
mock at + Object fire at + Object GENERAL RULES OF NARRATION
travel by + Object driven by + Object A. Direct Narration into Indirect Narration
came on + Object sing to + Object In order to convert Direct Narration into Indirect Nar
take for + Object ignorant of + Object ration, there are certain rules which are applicable for all
written in + Object kinds of sentences. These rules are called General rules.
1. The inverted commas (“ ”) used in Direct Narration
are removed while changing the sentence into Indirect Nar
NARRATION ration.
Narration means something that is narrated, an ac Example:
count of, detailing an event, etc. The word ‘narration’ is Direct Narration: She says, “I am late”.
taken from the word ‘narrate’, which means ‘to give an Indirect Narration: She says that she is late .
account or tell something’. (Here, inverted commas (“ ”) has been removed.)
The other synonyms of ‘narration’ are – Statement, 2. When the Reporting Verb is in the Present Tense of
Assertion, Declaration, etc. Future Tense, there is no change in the Verb of the Re
Direct Narration states the statement of person, ex ported Speech.
actly the same, spoken by him or her. This statement is Examples:
put within inverted commas (“ ”).
Direct Narration: He says, “Ruchi goes early”.
Example:
Indirect Narration: He says that Ruchi goes early.
Sita said, “I have seen Hanuman.”
Direct Narration: Kumar will say , “Prakash is always
The sentence contains the statement as said by Sita – angry”.
“I have seen Hanuman”, which in Direct Narration.
Indirect Narration: Kumar will say that Prakash is
Indirect Narration states the statement of a person, always angry.
which we analyse or interpret in our own words or just 3. When the Reporting Verb is in the Past Tense, a
narrate or summarise the principal motive of the speaker.
few changes take place in the Tense of the Verb of the
Example: Reported Speech.
Sonia said that she was late for the meeting. (a)Present Indefinite changes into Past Indefinite Tense.
The sentence focuses the statement of Sonia, which Example:
we expressed in our own words. This sentence is said to
Direct Narration: You said, “I never go there”.
be in Indirect Narration.
Indirect Narration: Yousaid that you neverwent there.
Kinds of Narration
(b)Present Imperfect changes into Past Imperfect Tense.
When a speech is quoted in the actual words used by
Example:
the speaker, it is called the Direct Speech or Narration .
But when the speech is reported in the form of a narra Direct Narration: Saroj said, “I am willing
tive, giving the substance or meaning or the words used  
by the speaker, without quoting his actual words, it is Past Tense Present Imperfect
called the Indirect Speech or Narration . to go there”.
SEE–69
Indirect Narration: Saroj said that she Indirect Narration: Megha said that they
 
Past Tense Past Tense
was willing to there. had been laughing in the class.
 
Past Imperfect
Past Perfect Continuous
(c) Present Perfect changes into Past Perfect Tense.
(g) Like the various changes, ‘can’ changes into ‘could’,
Example:
‘shall’ into ‘should’, ‘will’ into ‘would’, ‘may’ into ‘might’.
Direct Narration: Manoj said, “I have bought
Remember that:
 
(i) The expression in the sentence in Past Perfect and
Past Tense Present Perfect
a white shirt”. Past Perfect Continuous Tense does not change at all.
Indirect Narration: Manoj said that he had bought (ii) If there is any Universal Truth or Habitual Truth
in the Reported Speech, there is no change in the Re
 
ported Speech.
Past Tense Past Tense
a white shirt. Examples:
(d) Present Perfect Continuous changes into Past Direct Narration: The teacher said, “The sun
Perfect Continuous Tense. 
Example: Past Tense
Direct Narration: Prayag said to me, “I is a star”.
 
Present Tense Present Tense
have been teaching in this school for six months.
Indirect Narration: The teacher said that the


Present Perfect Continuous Tense
Indirect Narration: Prayag said to me that he Past Tense
sun is a star.

Present Tense 
had been teaching in this school for six months. Present Tense
 Direct Narration: Mother said, “Cow gives milk”.
Past Perfect Continuous Tense  
(e) Past Indefinite changes into Past Perfect Tense. Past Tense Present Tense
Example: Indirect Narration: Mother said that cow gives milk.
Direct Narration: You said, “She sent me a mail ”.  
  Past Tense Present Tense
Past Tense Past Indefinite Tense
4. Changes also occur in the Pronouns of the Reported
Indirect Narration: You said that she had sent
Speech. These changes are according to a formula.
 
Past Tense Past Perfect Tense SON
(a) (This means, according to the First Per
me a mail. 1 2 3
t Note that, various problems related to these rules son Subject, according to the Second Person Object and in
are asked in the examinations. Let us look at a few prob Third Person No change.)
lems. Examples:
She told her servant that his work is not up to the mark.
Direct Narration: She said to me, “I am intelligent but
In this Indirect Narration, instead of ‘is’, ‘was’ will be you are fool”.
used in the sentence. This is because, the Reporting Verb
Indirect Narration: She said to me that she was intel
‘told’ is in the Past Tense.
ligent but I was fool.
Pressed by his students, the principal suddenly said
Note that (I is First Person which according to the
that I am in no way responsible for the quarrel.
Subject she has changed into she; while, you is Second
In this Indirect Narration, instead of ‘I am’, it will be
Person which, according to the Object me, has changed
‘he was’, because the Reporting Verb ‘told’ is in the Past
into I.)
Tense.
Direct Narration: You said to me, “She is honest”.
(f) Past Imperfect changes into Past Perfect Continu
ous Tense. Indirect Narration: You said to me that she was hon
est.
Example:
Note that (He is Third Person, therefore, no change
Direct Narration: Megha said, “They were laughing
has been in the sentence.)
  (b) If ‘we’ is used for the sake of Universal Truth,
Past Tense Past Imperfect then this ‘we’ is not changed in the Indirect narration.
in the class. Examples:
SEE–70
Direct Narration: They said, “We breathe in oxygen”. (i) said remains said or can change into explained /
Indirect Narration: They said that we breathe in oxy remarked, etc.
gen. said to remains said to
In this sentence, ‘we’ is not changed because, the said to can also change into told
usage of ‘we’ is made to refer to Universal Truth. Remember that –
(c) If any magazine, newspaper, periodical, etc. uses (A) ‘Told’ is never used without an Object because
we / our / us, etc. to represent them, then in Indirect ‘tell’ is a Transitive Verb. Problems are generally created
Narration they are changed to ‘it’ or ‘its’. by using ‘told’ without an Object.
Example:
Example:
Direct Narration: The Times of India says, “We are the
She told that she was depressed.
leader in print media”.
Indirect Narration: The Times of India says that it is The usage of ‘told’ in the sentence is wrong, because
leader in print media. there is no Object after it. Instead of ‘told’, ‘said’ should be
In this sentence, ‘we’ and ‘our’ are gradually changed used to make the sentence correct.
into ‘it’ and ‘its’. (B) After ‘said’, the usage of Object without ‘to’ is strictly
(d) If there is no use of Object in the Reporting Verb, restricted. In context to this, problems are created by
but there is the usage of ‘you’ in the Reported Speech, straightway using Object after ‘said’.
then this ‘you’ is changed to Third Person or First Person Example:
as per requirement. She said me that she liked that designer suit.
Examples: In this sentence, ‘to’ should be used after ‘said’. That
Direct Narration: He said, “You are culprit.” is, instead of ‘said me’ you should say ‘said to me’ or just
Indirect Narration: He said that he was guilty. you can use ‘told’ instead of ‘said’.
Direct Narration: She said, “You all are culprit.” (ii) Inverted Commas (“ ”) are removed and ‘that’ is
Indirect Narration: She said that they all were culprit. used after the Reported Speech.
Direct Narration: He said, “You are culprit”. Example:
Indirect Narration: He said that I was culprit. Direct Narration: Shoma said, “I am going to Kolkata”.
Direct Narration: She said, “You all are culprit”. Indirect Narration: Shoma said that she was going
Indirect Narration: She said that we all are culprit. 
5. When Present Tense is changed into Past Tense in
that
the Reported Speech in Indirect Narration, there are
changes in a few words, the list of which is given below. to Kolkata.
Now changes into then (iii) The Tense of the Verb of the Reported Speech is
Come changes into go (but not always) changed as per requirement in the sentence.
This changes into that Example:
Today changes into that day (but not always) Direct Narration: Anurag said to Reha, “Juhi is punc
These changes into those tual”.
Tonight changes into that night (but not always) Indirect Narration: Anurag said to Reha that Juhi was
Here changes into there punctual.
Tomorrow changes into the next day Or,
Hence changes into thence Indirect Narration: Anurag told Reha that Juhi was
Next day changes into the following day punctual.
Thus changes into so. (iv) Full Stop (.) is used at the end of the sentence.
Last night changes into the previous night Example:
Ago changes into before Direct Narration: Narayan said to Priya, “I will go and
Note that, if this / here / now / today / come, etc. are take Roma back”.
used with those things / places / destination, etc. which 
were there with the Speaker when he was talking to, no Full Stop
changes take place. Indirect Narration: Narayan said to Priya that he will
go and take Roma back .
INDIRECT NARRATION OF ASSERTIVE SENTENCES

Let us look at a few problems based on this topic.
Full Stop
The lady said tat she should be away from home to
morrow as Mita’s friend would come to visit Mumbai. DIRECT NARRATION OF INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES
In this sentence, instead of ‘tomorrow’ it should be
either ‘the next day’ or ‘on the morrow.’ Look at the following sentences.
Again look at these two examples. She said to me, “Are you coming with me?”
Manisha said, “I am responsible for it”. He said to me, “Do you go to school?”
Anurag said to Juhi, “You are punctual”. You said to me, “What are you planning to do?”
Rules Ranu said to Bhanu, “Why were you late?”
SEE–71
Priyanka said to Rahul, “Why did you travel by train?” I would do this day.
Now, let us look at the rules. 
Rules Subject Verb
(i) ‘Say’ is changed into – enquire (of), want to know Note that, several silly problems are created on this
(of), etc. rule to vex students.
Example: Example:
Direct Narration: Kaushik said to me, “Who teaches The guard of the company asked me who do I want to
you Maths?” meet in the office.
Indirect Narration: Kaushik wanted to know In this sentence, instead of ‘who do I want’, you should
 use ‘whom I wanted’.
‘Said’ is changed to ‘wanted to know’ The correct sentence will be –
who teaches me Maths. The guard of the company asked me whom I wanted
(ii) Inverted Commas (“ ”) are removed from the sen to meet in the office.
tence. Remember these rules related to the example given
Example: above.
Direct Narration: Siddharth said to Ajay, (i) In Indirect Narration, the sentence is always in
“How did you learn to drive a car?” Assertive, therefore, the Assertive of ‘do I want’ will be ‘I
Indirect Narration: Siddharth enquired Ajay of how want’.
did he learn to drive a car. (ii) As the Reporting Verb ‘asked’ is in the Past Tense,
(Inverted Commas (“ ”) have been removed) therefore, there will also be the usage of Past Tense in the
Indirect Narration. Because of this reason, instead of ‘I
(iii) If there is the question in the Reported Speech
want’ it will be ‘I wanted’.
whose answer can come as “Yes” or “No”, we should use
‘if’ or “whether” before the Reported Speech. (iii) Instead of ‘who’ it will be ‘whom’; because, ‘who’
does the work of a Subject and ‘whom’ Object.
Direct Narration: Piyali said to Raju, “Do you know
the arrival time of Mumbai Rajdhani?” (iv) The sign of Interrogation (?) is replaced with a
Full Stop (.) in the sentence.
Indirect Narration: Piyali asked Raju if / whether he
knows the arrival time of Mumbai Rajdhani. Example:
(iv) But if there are ‘Wh’ – Question (beginning with – Direct Narration: Raja said to me, “Who have you
who / what / how / where / when / why, etc.) then visited in the morning?”
before the Reported Speech i.e., Interrogative word, there Indirect Narration: Raja asked you whom you had vis
will be no usage of any Conjunction. ited in the morning.
Example: Remember that, at the end of the sentence in Direct
Direct Narration: You said to your sister, “What are Narration, there is always the sign of Interrogation (?),
you writing?” while at the end of sentence in Indirect Narration there is
Indirect Narration: You asked your sister what she always a Full Stop (.).
was writing. Now, let us follow these rules to implement their us
Note that, problems are generally created in context age and try the first five sentences given at the beginning
to this rule, where ‘that’, ‘as to’, etc. are put before Inter of this topic.
rogative words. (i) She asked me if / whether I was coming with her.
Example: Or,
She asked me that how I got time to practice all these She wanted to know if I was coming with her.
sums. (ii) He asked me if / whether I go to school.
In this sentence, instead of ‘that how I got’, you should (iii) You asked me / wanted to know what I was plan
use ‘how I got’; i.e., before the Interrogative word ‘how’ ning to do.
the usage of ‘that’ should not occur, which is wrong. (iv) Ranu asked Bhanu why he had been late.
The correct form of the sentence will be – (v) Priyanka wanted to know from Rahul why had he
She asked me how I got time to practice all these travelled by train.
sums. Remember that, when the Reporting Verb is in the
(v) The Reported Speech is changed into Assertive Past Tense and there is the presence of was / were in
sentence (i.e., the order of Verb + Subject is changed into Reported Speech, this was / were changes into ‘had been’.
Subject + Verb). I NDIRECT N ARRATION OF I MPERATIVE
Example:
Direct Narration: Lali said to me, “What
SENTENCES
will you do today?” Look at the instincts of Imperative sentence.
(i) Imperative sentence is used for stating Order, Re
 quest, Negative Command, etc.
Verb Subject (ii) Imperative sentence begins with the Principal Verb
Indirect Narration: Lali asked me what in the sentence, like – Go, Bring, Make, etc.
SEE–72
(iii) Imperative sentence also begins with a Negative (i) Rakhi said to her assistant, “Bring a glass of
Command like – Do not or Don’t. water”.
Here are few rules associated with these inferences Rakhi ordered her assistant to bring her a glass of
on Imperative sentence. water.
Rules regarding Order / Request (ii) Raveena said to her brother, “Please, bring me an
(i) According to the meaning of say / said, the Verbs ice cream.”
also change their forms; like – ask / asked, beg / begged, Raveena requested her brother to bring her an
tell /told, order/ordered, request/requested, go/went, etc. icecream.
(ii) Inverted commas (“ ”) are removed and ‘to’ is used (iii) My fatherinlaw said to me, “Join my company
before the Principal Verb. and become the CEO.”
(iii) The Pronouns of the Reported Speech are changed My fatherinlaw requested me to join his company
as per requirement. and become the CEO.
(iv) The usage of kindly, please, etc. are strictly re
(iv) The teacher said to the children, “Do not walk in
stricted in Indirect Narration.
the sun.”
Here are the examples on the above laws.
The teacher asked the children not to walk in the sun.
(i) Rakhi said to her assistant, “Bring a glass of wa
ter”. Or,
(ii) Raveena said to her brother, “Please, bring me an The teacher forbade the children to walk in the sun.
ice cream.” Usage of ‘Let’ in Indirect Narration
(iii) My fatherinlaw said to me, “Join my company Inferences on ‘Let’.
and become the CEO.” (i) The usage of ‘Let’ is only ‘to suggest’ and some
(iv) The teacher said to the children, “Do not walk in times ‘to propose’.
the sun.” (ii) ‘Let’ is used to mean ‘to allow’.
Rules regarding Negative Command Here are a few rules on the context when ‘let’ is used
(a) As per requirement, say / said is changed to ask/ to refer ‘to advice’ or to ‘state a proposal’ in Indirect Narra
asked, tell / told, remind / reminded, etc. in the sen tion.
tence. Rules
(b) Inverted commas (“ ”) are removed and instead (a) ‘say’ and ‘said’ are changed into propose / pro
“not + to + Verb 1
” is used. For example, ‘do not go’ changes posed, suggest / suggested, etc.
into ‘not to go’, ‘do not make’ into ‘not to make’, ‘do not
(b) If there is an Object in the Reporting Verb, ‘to’ is
sing’ into ‘not to sing’, etc.
used after proposed / suggested to make use of the Ob
Example: ject.
My friend advised me to do not go to Bangalore for
Examples:
joining Yahoo.
He suggested to me.
In this sentence, the usage of ‘to do not go’ is wrong.
It should be ‘not to go’. The correct form of the sentence  
will be: suggested to Object
My friend advised me not to go to Bangalore for join They proposed to you .
ing Yahoo. 
(c) The construction: (forbid / forbade) + Object +
proposed to Object
to + Verb 1 is used.
(c) After removing the Inverted commas (“ ”), ‘that’ is
Example:
used before the Reported Speech.
Direct Narration: She said to me, “Don’t watch this
(d) Verb1 is used by joining ‘should’ after the Subject
movie”.
in the Reported Speech.
Indirect Narration:
She forbade me to watch this movie. Examples:
Direct Narration: He said to his cousin, “Let’s go to
  
see the Taj.”
forbade Object to Verb 1
Indirect Narration: He proposed to his cousin that he
Again, the construction like – prohibit / prohibited,
should go to see the Taj.
prevent / prevented + Object + from + Verb (+ ing) is
used. Direct Narration: We said to the people, “Let’s punish
the thief.”
Example:
Direct Narration: You said to your brother, “Stop eat Indirect Narration: We suggested to the people that
ing too much”. we should punish the thief.
Indirect Narration: You prohibited / prevented your Note that, if there is no Object after ‘propose’ or ‘sug
brother from eating too much. (prohibited / prevented gest’, then directly there is the usage of Verb4 (Verb + ing).
+ Object + from + Verb4) Example:
Now that we have learnt all these rules, let us take a Direct Narration: She said, “Let’s go to the café.”
note of those examples given in Indirect Narration under Indirect Narration: She suggested going to the café.
the topic ‘Rules Regarding Order / Request.’ That is, the constructions will be:
SEE–73
(i) Subject + propose / suggest + to + object + that (d) As per requirement, ‘should’ and ‘might’ are used
+ should + Verb1 + .... and alongwith them the usage of Verb 1.
Example: Now following these rules, let us treat those sentences
You proposed / suggested to your friends that you given at the beginning of this topic.
should have exercise in the morning. (i) Father prayed that God might bless me.
(ii) Subject + propose / suggest + Verb (+ ing) + ... (ii) Granny wished / prayed that I might succeed in
Example: the examination.
You proposed / suggested having exercise in the morn (iii) They wished / prayed that the king should live
ing. long.
Remember that, the construction: propose / suggest (iv) We wished / prayed that the earth should be saved
+ to + Verb1 is never used. by God from evil.
Therefore, if we say – She proposed to me to have
dinner outside – is wrong. INDIRECT NARRATION OF EXCLAMA
We should say – She proposed to me that we should TORY SENTENCES
have dinner outside.
Here are a few rules on the context when ‘let’ is used Look at these sentences.
to refer ‘to allow’ in Indirect Narration. (i) Piyush said, “What a splendid beauty it is!”
Rules (ii) The coach said, “Well done! my players.”
(a) ‘say to’ and ‘said to’ are changed into order / or (iii) Pankaj said, “Alas! I am undone.”
dered, request / requested, etc. according to the mean (iv) The businessman said, “Ah! I am ruined.”
ing. A few inferences on Exclamatory sentences:
(b) The Reported Speech is started by using ‘to allow’. (a) Exclamatory sentence is used to express some
thing wonderful or surprising. For expressing in Exclama
(c) ‘To’ is used before the Principal Verb.
tory sentences – What / How / Alas / Ah / Oh / Hurrah,
Examples: etc. are used at the beginning of the sentence.
Direct Narration: Radha said to her boss, “Let me go (b) The sentence in Exclamatory sentence always re
home as I am unwell.” mains Assertive (i.e. Subject + Verb).
Indirect Narration: Radha requested her boss to allow (c) The sing of exclamation (!) is used in Exclamatory
her to go home as she is unwell. sentences.
Direct Narration: The officer said to the guard, “Let There are certain rules used in Exclamatory sentence.
the beggar come in.” Rules
Indirect Narration: The officer ordered the guard (a) According to the meaning and intention, ‘said’ in
to allow the beggar to come in. the Reporting Speech of the sentence is changed into –
Note that, sometimes, ‘let’ is used as ‘to let’ in Indirect exclaimed with joy / exclaimed with sorrow / exclaimed
Speech. with grief / exclaimed with regret / shouted with applause
Example: / cried out, / eagerly wished, etc.
Direct Narration: Prakash said to his wife, “Let the (b) Replacing Inverted commas (“ ”), ‘that’ is used
children watch television.” before the Reported Speech.
Indirect Narration: Prakash ordered his wife to let the (c) As per requirement, sometimes the Verb is changed
children watch television. Or, into Tense.
Prakash told his wife that the children might be al (d) At the end of the sentence, full stop (.) is used
lowed to watch television. replacing the sign of exclamation (!).
Now following these rules, let us treat those sentences
I NDIRECT NARRATION OF O PTATIVE SENTENCES given at the beginning of this topic.
Look at these sentences. (i) Piyush exclaimed that it was a splendid beauty.
(i) Father said, “May God bless you.” (ii) The coach shouted with applause that you players
(ii) Granny said, “May you succeed in the examina have done well.
tion.” (iii) Pankaj exclaimed with sorrow that he is undone.
(iii) They said, “Long live the king.” (iv) The businessman exclaimed with regret that he is
(iv) We said, “Lord save the earth from evil.” ruined.
Optative sentences is used to express wishes, de M UST AND I NDIRECT NARRATION
sires, curses, etc. Look at these sentences.
Rules (i) The teacher said, “We must love out country.”
(a) ‘said’ is changed into prayed / wished, etc. (ii) His grandpa said, “One must do one’s duty.”
(b) Inverted commas (“ ”) are removed and before the When, by the usage of ‘must’ it refers to ‘morality,
Reported Speech ‘that’ is used. ‘universality’, etc., no change does take place in the usage
(c) Reported Speech (where there is Verb + Subject) of ‘must’. Therefore, abiding by the rules of Indirect Nar
is changed into Subject + Verb, i.e. made into Assertive ration, the Indirect Narration of the above given two sen
sentence. tences would be –
SEE–74
(i) The teacher said that we must love our country. There may, however be sentences which are Inter
(ii) His grandpa said that one must do one’s duty. rogative only in form but are Exclamatory in Character.
Note that, when ‘must’ is used in the sense of Present Such sentences can be converted into Assertive ones.
or Future, then according to the meaning of the sentence, For example,
‘must’ changes into has to / had to/ will have to / would Interrogative : Did I not help you?
have to, etc. Assertive :I did help you.
Example: Interrogative into Asertive
Direct Narration: Jolly said, “I must go to office at once.”Interrogative : Can a leopard change his spots?
Indirect Narration: Jolly said that she had to go to Assertive : A leopard cannot change his spots.
office at once.
Interrogative : Who will not help a man in distress?
Direct Narration: Naren said, “I must discuss the
Assertive : Everybody will help a man in distress,
project with my senior tomorrow.”
Interrogative : Can any man, by taking throught, add a
Indirect Narration: Naren said that he would have to
cubit to his stature?
discuss the project with his senior the next day.
Assertive : No man can, by taking thought, add a
cubit to his stature.
TRANSFORMATION OF SENTENCES Interrogative : Is that the way a gentleman should be
have?
The English language is so vivid that the same meaning
may often be expressed in many ways. This gives rise to Assertive : That is not the way a gentleman should
the various forms a sentence may take in expressing the behave.
same idea. Interrogative : Shall I ever forget those happy days?
For example, Assertive : I shall never forget those happy days.
(i) Nature say, ‘God is good’ Interrogative : Who would have trusted Socrates or
Coleridge to post a letter?
(ii) Nature exclaims, ‘How good is God!’
Assertive : Everybody would have trusted Socrates
(iii) Nature proclaims the goodness of God. or Coleridge to post a letter.
(iv) The goodness of God is proclaimed by nature. Assertive into Interrogative
(v) Nature never ceases to proclaim the goodness of Assertive : Now here in the world will you find a
God. mountain peak higher than Everest.
(vi) That God is good is proclaimed by nature Interrogative : Where in the world will you find a moun
(vii) We find the goodness of God in nature tain peak higher than Everest?
(viii) The goodness of God is quite large on the face of Assertive : Nobody else could have done it.
nature Interrogative : Who else could have done it?
(ix) Nature teaches us that God is good Assertive : He saw someone in the house?
(x) Nature teaches us the goodness of God Interrogative : Did he see anyone in the house?
Thus, to transform or convert a sentence is to rewrite Assertive : Surely you will join us.
it to change its form without any change of meaning. Interrogative : Am I not sure that you will join us?
Sentences may be of various forms. Assertive : There is nothing wrong with me.
(a) Statement or Assertive (affirmative or negative); Interrogative : Is there anything wrong with me?
Question or Interrogative; Desires or Imperative Assertive : There is nothing better than a pious life.
and Optative and Exclamatory santences Interrogative : Is there anything better than a ious life.
(b) Active and Passive Assertive : I am not the man to submit.
(e) Simple, Complex, Double and Multiple Interrogative : Am I the man to submit?
(Compound) Exclamations and Statements
(d) Direct and Indirect (Narration) An Exclamatory Sentence can be converted into an
Statement: Questions: Exclamations Assertive sentence, but all Assertive sentences cannot be
Interchange of form is not possibe in all cases. An turned into Exclamatory sentences.
Assertive sentence or Statement (e.g. Sin leads to ruin) Exclamatory : Was any man ever immortal!
cannot be turned into an Imperative or optative one. Assertive : No man was ever immortal.
A Statement or Assertive sentence can be changed Exclamatory : What a piece of work is man!
into a Question or an Interrogative sentence. Assertive : Man is a wonderful piece of work.
Assertive : Everybody knows that the earth is round. Exclamatory : What an unhappy life he leads!
Interrogative : Who does not know that the earth is Assertive : He leads a most unhappy life.
round? Exclamatory : Oh! how desirous I am to meet you once
But an Interrogative sentence which merely asks for more!
information cannot be changed into an Assertive one : why Assertive : I am very desirous to meet you once
did you go there? more.
SEE–75
Exclamatory : How beautiful is night! Active : They proposed to hold a meeting.
Assertive : Night is very beautiful. Passive : It was proposed by them that a meeting should
Exclamatory : How sweet the moonlight sleeps upon this be held
bank! Active : They were conducting him to the chair.
Assertive : The moonlight very sweetly sleeps upon Passive : He was being conducted by them to the chair.
this bank. Active : The audience highly applauded his speech.
Exclamatory : O that I were young again! Passive : His speech was highly applauded.
Assertive : I wish that I were young again. Active : Brutus stabbed Caesar.
Exclamatory : Alas! that youth should pass away! Passive : Caesar was stabbed by Brutus.
Assertive : It is sad to think that youth should pass Active : The people will make him king
away. Passive : He will be made king by the people
Affirmative and Negative Sentences Affirmative into Active : Who taught you grammer?
Negative
Passive : By whom was grammar taught you?
Affirmative : He failed to notice me when he came in.
or By, whom were you taught grammar?
Negative : He did not notice me when he came in
Active : The king gave him a reward.
Affirmative : As soon as he came he made objections.
Passive : He was given a reward by the king.
Negative : No sooner did he come than he made
or, A reward was given him by King
objections.
Active : The Romans expected to conquer Carthage
Affirmative : Only the everning star has as yet ap
peared. Passive : It was expected by the Romans that they would
conquer Carthage
Negative : None but the evening star has yet ap
peared. Passive : It is time to shut up the shop
Affirmative : He was a man of some intelligence. Active : It is time for the shop to be shut up.
Negative : He was a man of no great intelligence Passive : The audience loudly cheered the Mayors
speech.
Affirmative : Kolkata is the biggest city in India.
Active : The Mayor’s speech was loudly cheered.
Negative : There is no other city in India as big as
Kolkata. or Passive
into Active
There is no bigger city in India than Passive : The house had been deserted by those who
Kolkata. lived in it.
Negative into Affirmative Active : Those who lived in the house had deserted it.
Negative : I am not a little tired. Passive : I have been shocked at his conduct.
Affirmative : I am very tired. Active : His conduct has shocked me.
Negative : There is no rose without a thorn. Passive : John prayed to the judge that he might be
Affirmative : Every rose has a thorn. pardoned.
Negative : We did not find the road very bad. Active : John prayed that the judge might pardon him.
Affirmative : We found the road fairly good. Passive : Everybody was satisfied with him
Negative : There could be no smoke without fire. Active : He satisfied everybody.
Affirmative : Wherever there is smoke there in fire. Passive : Our purpose has been served.
Negative : None but a Hercules could do this. Active : It has served our purpose.
Affirmative : Only a Hercules could do this. Passive : Caves must be dug for them.
Negative : A good boy never neglects his lessons. Active : Others must dig caves from them.
Affirmative : A good boy alwasys minds his lessons. Passive : I was compelled to go.
Negative : No one can deny that he was a great man. Active : Circumstances compelled me to go.
Affirmative : Everybody must admit that he was a Passive : Police has arrested the thief.
great man. Active : The thief has been arrested.
Active into Passive Simple into Double or Multiple (Compound)
Active : They proposed to build a dam for irrigation Simple sentences may be converted into Compound
purposes. ones by enlarging Words or Phrases into Coordinate
Passive : It was proposed by them that a dam should clauses.
be built for irrigation purposes. Simple : Besides doing his own work, he helped me.
Active : The Curator of the Museum showed us some Compound : He not only did his own work, but also he
ancient coins. helped me.
Passive : We were shown some ancient coins by the Simple : Shifting himself along the arm, he rose to
Curator of the Museum. his feet.
Active : They laughed at him. Compound : He shifted himself along the arm and rose to
Passive : He was laughed at by them his feet.
SEE–76
Simple : You must work hard to pass the examina Simple : Besides being a poet, Tagore was a great
tion. statesman.
Compound : You must work hard or you will not pass the Compound : He not only robbed the poor child but also
examination. raped her
Simple : You may take either of the pens. Simple : Besides robbing the poor child, he raped her.
Compound : You may take this pen or you may take that Compound : He finished his exercise and put away his
Simple : Due to poverty he could not shine in life. books.
Compound : He was poor and so he could not shine in Simple : Having finished his exercise, he put away
life. his books.
Simple : For all his troubles, he is cheerful Compound : Not only did his father give him money, but
Compound : He is in great troubles, still he is cheerful. his mother too.
Simple : He must work very hard to make up for the Interchange of one Part of Speech for another
lost time. He presumptuously ignored my advice.
Compound : He must work very hard and make up for He presumed to ignore my advice.
the lost time Few historians have written in a more interesting man
Simple : To his eternal disgrace, he betrayed his coun ner than Gibbon.
try. Few historians have written more interestingly than
Compound : He betrayed his country, and this was to his Gibbon.
eternal disgrace. We passed an anxious hour.
Simple : Besides robbing the poor child, he also mur We passeed an hour anxiously.
dered her. He examined the document carefully.
Compound : He not only robbed the poor child but also He examined the document with care.
murdered her. I see him everyday.
Simple : He must work very hard to win the first I see him daily
prize.
The Act made the negro slaves free.
Compound : He must work very hard, or he will not win The Act gave freedom to the negeros slaves.
the first prize.
There is a slight difference between the two shades
Simple : He must not attempt to escape, on pain of
The two shades are slightly different.
death.
He showed generosity even to his enemies.
Compound : He must not attempt to escape, or he will be
put to death. He was generous even to his enemies.
Simple : Notwithstanding his hard work, he did not He fought bravely.
succeed. He put up a brave fight.
Compound : He worked hard, yet did not succeed. That kind of joke does not amuse me.
Simple : Owing to illluck, he met a bad accident on That kind of joke does not give me any amusement.
the eve of his examination. It costs twelve paise.
Compound : He was unlucky and therefore met with bad The cost is twelve paise.
accident on the eve of his examination. He has disgraced his family.
Simple : The teacher punished the boy for disobedi He is a disgrace to his family.
ence. The treaty of Salbai should be remembered as one of
Compound : The boy was disobedient, and so the teacher the landmarks in the history of India.
punished him. The treaty of Salbai is worthy rememberance as one of
Double or Multiple (Compound) into Simple the landmarks in the history of India.
Double and Multiple (Compound) Sentences can be Simple to Complex
changed into Simple sentences by contracting Clauses into Simple sentences may be changed into Complex sen
words or phrases tences by enlarging words or phrases into Subordinate
Compound : I gave him not only money but also good ad clauses.
vice. Simple : He confessed his crime.
Simple : Besides giving him money, I gave him good Complex : He confessed the crime he had committed.
advice.
Simple : Fortunately he had a trong ssense of humour.
Compound : Love the neighbours and be a friend to them.
Complex : It was fortunate that he had a strong sense
Simple : Be a loving friend to the neighbours of humour.
Compound : John did his best but could not succeed. Simple : Let him enjoy his hardearned money.
Simple : In spite of doing his best, John could not Complex : Let him enjoy the money which he earned by
succeed. hard work.
Compound : Tagore was not only a poet but also a great Simple : I wish your success.
statesman.
Complex : I wish that you may succeed.
SEE–77
Simple : His failure is almost certain. Simple : The duration of my stay is doubtful.
Complex : That he will fail is almost certain. Complex : Except that he hurt his hand, he was lucky
Simple : They would no doubt, send out all the sol Simple : Except for the hurt to his hand, he was lucky.
diers in search of the party. ADJECTIVE CLAUSE
Complex : There is no doubt that they would send out Complex : I have no advice that I can offer you.
all the soldiers in search of the party. Simple : I have no advice to offer you.
Simple : Only first class men need apply. Complex : The place where Buddha was cremated has
Complex : Only those who are first class men need ap recently been discovered.
ply. Simple : The place of Buddha’s cremation has recently
Simple : The news is too good to be true. been discovered.
Complex : The news is so good that it cannot be true. Complex : The son who was his chief pride in his old
Simple : Our teacher is a man of spotless character. age is dead.
Complex : Our teacher is a man who bears a spotless Simple : His son, the pride of his old age, is dead
character. Complex : The exact time when this occurred has not
Simple : Truly speaking, he rever came here been ascertained
Complex : The truth is that he never came here Simple : The exact time of the occurence has not been
Simple : A man’s modesty is in inverse proportion to ascertained.
his ignorance. Complex : Youth is the time when the seeds of charac
Complex : The more ignorant a man is, the less modest ter are sown.
he is Simple : Youth is the time for the formation of charac
Complex into Simple ter.
Complex : A child who has lost its parents is to be pit ADVERB CLAUSE
ied. Complex : The Rajah was annoyed that he had not car
Simple : An ophan is to be pitied. ried out his orders.
Complex : If you fail, you must make another attempt. Simple : The Rajah was annoyed at his not having car
Simple : Failing this attempt, you must make another. ried out his orders
Complex : The report that the king was dead is false. Complex : Everything comes if a man will ony work and
wait.
Simple : The report of the king’s death is false
Simple : Everything comes to a diligent and patient
Complex : Wherever you go, I shall follow you.
man.
Simple : I shall follow you everywhere.
Complex : I am pushing my businesss wherever I can
Complex : A boy who neglects his studies, cannot find an opening.
progress.
Simple : I am pushing my business in every possible
Simple : A boy neglecting his studies cannot progress. direction.
Complex : Where there is a will. there is a way.
Complex : He will not pay unless he is compelled.
Simple : A will has a way.
Simple : He will pay only under compulsion.
Complex : Father desired that I should go.
Complex : You have succeeded better than you hoped.
Simple : Father desired me to go.
Simple : You have succeeded beyond your hopes.
Complex : That he should resign was beyond doubt.
Complex : When the cat is away the mice will play.
Simple : His resignation was beyond doubt
Simple : In the absence of the cat the mice will play.
NOUN CLAUSE
Complex : He does not always speak as he thinks.
Complex : He said that he was innocent.
Simple : He does not always speak his thoughts.
Simple : He declared his innocence. Double and Multiple (Compound) into Complex
Complex : That you are drunk aggravates your offence.
Compound : Listen and I will tell you all.
Simple : Your drunkenness aggravates your offence.
Complex : If you listen, I will tell you all.
Complex : Tell me where you live.
Compound : She must weep or she will die.
Simple : Tell me your address.
Complex : Unless she weeps, she will die.
Complex : It is pity that we should have to undergo this
Compound : He was very tired and therefore he fell asleep.
disgrace.
Complex : He fell asleep because he was very tired.
Simple : Our having to undergo this disgrace is a pity.
Compound : Beware of pickpockets and there will be no
Complex : It is proclaimed that all men found with arms
trouble.
will be shot.
Complex : If you are beware of pickpockets, there will
Simple : According to the proclamation all men found
be no trouble.
with arms will be shot.
Compound : Leave this room or I will compel you to do so.
Complex : He remarked how imprudent the boy was
Complex : Unless you leave this room. I will compel you
Simple : He remarked on the boys imprudence to do so.
Complex : How long I shall stay is doubtful
SEE–78
Compound : Jones is a rich man but he is not honest. Simple : The news is too good to be true.
Complex : Jones is not honest although he is a rich man. Complex : The news is so good that it cannot be true.
Compound : Search his pockets and you will find the watch. Simple : It is never too late to mend.
Complex : If you search his pockets, you will find the Complex : It is so late that it cannot be mended.
watch. Simple : He is too late to hear the first speech.
Compound : Do as I tell you, or you will regret it. Complex : He is so late that he can not hear the first
Complex : Unless you do as I tell you you will regret it. speech.
Compound : The lion was wounded but not killed. Simple : The boy is too old for a whipping.
Complex : The lion was not killed although he was Complex : The boy is so old that he cannot whip.
wounded. (b) Sentences expressing a Condition.
Compelx into Double or Multiple (Compound) Double : Work hard and you will succeed.
Complex : If you speak, you shall die. Complex : If you work hard, you will succeed.
Compound : Speak and you will die. Complex : Should you work hard, you will succeed.
Complex : If you do not speak, you shall die. Compound : Unless you work hard you will not succeed.
Compound : Speak or die. Simple : It is never too late to mend.
Complex : He failed although he did his best. Complex : It is never so late for anything that it cannot
Compound : He did his best, still he failed. be mended.
Complex : I have lost the pen which my father gave me. (c) Sentences expressing Concession or Contrast.
Compound : My father gave me a pen and I have lost it. He is honest though poor.
Complex : I am certain you have made a mistake. Poor as he is, he is honest.
Compound : You have made a mistake, and of this I am Although he is poor, he is honest.
certain. In spite of his poverty, he is honest.
Complex : I am glad that he has recovered from illness. For all his poverty, he is honest.
Compound : He has recovered from illness, and I am glad Admitting that he is poor, he is honest.
of it. He is poor; all the same he is honest.
Complex : We can prove that the earth is round. (d) Interchange of Degrees of Comparison.
Compound : The earth is round, and we can prove it. Positive : This book is not as good as that.
Complex : I have found the book that I had lost. Comparative : That book is better than this.
Compound : I had lost a book, but I have found it. Positive : Birds do not fly as fast as the aeroplane.
Complex : As soon as he got the telegram, he left in a Comparative : The aeroplane flies faster than birds.
taxi.
Positive : I am as strong as he.
Compound : He got the telegram, and immediately he left
Comparative : He is not stronger than I.
in a taxi.
Positive : This razor is not as sharp as that one.
Complex : He worked hard so that he might win the
Comparative : The razor is sharper than this one.
prize.
Positive : Few historians write as interestingly as
Compound : He aimed at winning the prize and worked
Joshi.
hard.
Comparative : Joshi writes more interestingly than most
Other ways of Transformation of Sentences
historians.
(a) Sentences with the Adverb too can be transformed as
Comparative : Ram is better than any other boy in the
follows :
class.
Simple : He speaks too fast to be understood.
Positive : No other boy in the class is as good as
Complex : He speaks so fast that he cannot be under
Ram.
stood.
Positive : No other metal is as useful as iron.
Simple : This tree is too high for me to climb.
Comparative : Iron is more useful than any other metal.
Complex : This tree is so high that I cannot climb it.
Superlative : Iron is the most useful of all metals.
Simple : He was too small to reach up to the branches
Comparative : Shakespeare is greater than any other
of the tree.
English poet.
Complex : He was so small that he could not reach up
Superlative : Shakespeare is the greatest of the En
to the branches of the tree.
glish poets.
Simple : She is too clever not to see through your
Comparative : This newspaper has a bigger circulation
tricks.
than any other morning paper.
Complex : She is so clever that she will be through your
Superlative : This newspaper has the biggest circula
tricks.
tion among morning papers.
Simple : These mangoes are too cheap to be good.
Superlative : This building is the tallest in the city.
Complex : These mangoes are so cheap that they can
Comparative : No other building in the city is taller than
not be good.
this.
SEE–79
Superlative : The pacific is the deepest ocean. — Jumping up he ran away.
Comparative : The Pacific is deeper than any other He was tired of play. He sat down to rest.
ocean. — Tired on being tired of play he sat down to rest.
Superlative : Abraham Lincoln was the greatest Ameri (ii) By using a Noun or a Phrase in Apposition
can ever lived. For example,
Comparative : Abraham Lincoln was greater than any This is my friend. His name is Tom.
other American ever lived. — This is my friend Tom.
(e) Interchange of one part of speech for another. William I defeated Harold and Senlac in 1066.
Preposition : I have not seen him since Monday last. Harold was the successor of Edward the Confes
Adverb : I saw him on Monday last but I have not sor.
seen him since then. — William I Defeated Harold, the successor of Ed
Adverb : He gets up early in the morning. ward the Confessor, at Senlac in 1066.
Adjective : He gets up in early morning. This town was once a prosperous seaport. It is
(f) Replacement of one word by another. now a heap of ruins.
1. But : help : who not : which not : unless : — This town once a prosperous seaport, is now a
I could not but feel sorry for you. heap of ruins.
I could not help feeling sorry for you. (iii) By using a Preposition with a Noun or Gerund :
There is no mother but loves her child. For example,
The moon rose. Their journey was not ended.
There is no mother who does not love her child.
— The moon rose before the end of their journey.
But for your help, I could not have finished the work.
He had failed many times. He still hopes to suc
Unless you helped me, I couldnot have finished the ceed.
work.
— In spite of many failures he hopes to succeed.
2. Preferable : better : superior : prefer : Her husband died. She heard the news. She
Better to reign in hell than serve in heaven. fainted.
To reign in hell is preferable to serving in heaven. — On hearing the news of her husband's death she
I prefer riding to in heaven swimming. fainted.
I like riding better than swimming. (iv) By using the Nominative Absolute Construction
He is better than his friend in merits. For example,
His merits are superior to his friend's. The soldiers arrived. The mob dispersed.
3. Or : unless : — The soldiers having arrived, the mod dispersed.
Leave this room or I will compel you to do so. The town was enclosed by a strong wall. The en
emy was unable to capture it.
Unless you leave this room, I will compel you to do so.
— The town having been enclosed by a strong wall,
4. Therefore : because :
the enemy was unable to capture it.
He was very tired and therefore feel asleep.
(v) By using an Infinitive
He fell asleep because he was very tired. For example,
5. Steal : rob : I have some duties. I must perform them.
He stole my money. — I have some duties to preform. We must finish
He robbed me of my money. this exercise. There are still three sentences.
6. Passed : failed : — We have still three sentences of this exercise to
He passed in all subject except mathematics. finish.
He failed only in mathematics. He wanted to educate his son. He sent him to
7. Twelve : twelfth : Canada.
— He sent his son to Canada to be educated.
I am twelve yyears old.
He is very fat. He cannot run.
I am in my twelfth year.
— He is too fat to run.
8. Twice : double :
(vi) By using an Adverb or an Adverbial Phrase
My bag is twice as bit as yours.
For example,
My bag is double the size of yours. He deserved to succeed. He failed.
9. Arrive : arrival : — He failed undeservedly.
Wait till I arrive. The sun set. The boys had not finished the game.
Wait till my arrival. — The boys had not finished the game by sunset.
Combination of two or more Simple sentences into a Combination of two or more Simple Sentences into a
single Simple Sentence : single Compound sentence
(i) By using a Participle Simple sentences may be combined to form compound
For example, sentences by the use of coordinative conjunctions. These
He jumped up. He ran away. are of four kinds :
SEE–80
(i) Cumulative; (iv) Conjunctions which express an inference are called
(ii) Adversative ; Illative.
(iii) Alternative; and For example,
(iv) Illative Abdul is ill. He cannot study. He still attends
Let us take a few sentences : school.
Night came on. The room grew dark. — Abdul is ill and cannot study, yet he still attends
— Night came on and the room grew dark. school.
He is a fool. He is a knave. He saw the boy in the street. He stopped to speak
to him. He gave him a rupee.
— He is a fool and a knave.
— Seeing the boy in the street he stopped to speak
— He is both a fool and a knove.
to him and gave him a ruppe.
— He is not only a fool but also a knave.
Combination of two or more Simple sentences into a
— He is a fool as well as a knave. single Complex sentence
The wind blew. the rain fell. The lightening flashed. Subordinate Clause a Noun Clause
— The wind blew, the rain fell and the lightening For example,
flashed.
You are drunk. That aggravates your offence.
It is found that the conjunction and simply adds one
— That you are drunk aggravates your offence.
statement to another.
He will be late. That is certain.
The conjunctions both ... and, not only.... but also, as
well as are emphatic forms of and do the same work. — It is certain that he will be late.
(i) Conjunctions which merely add one statement to You are repentant. I will not forget it.
another are called Cumulative. — I will not forget that you are repentant.
For example, He may be innocent. I do not know.
He is slow. He is sure. — I do not know whether he is inocent.
— He is slow but he is sure. He is shortsighted. Otherwise he is fit for the
I was arroyed. I kept quiet. post.
— I was annoyed, still (or) yet I kept quiet. — Except that he is shortsighted he is fit for the
He failed. He persevered. post.
— He failed, nevertheless he perserved. The clouds would disperse. that was our hope.
Our hope was cheering.
I shall not oppose your design. I cannot approve
of it. — Our hope, that the clouds would disperse, was
cheering.
— I shall not oppose your design; I cannot however
approve of it. The game was lost. It was the consequence of his
He was all right. He was fatigued. carelessness.
— The consequence of his carelessness was that the
— He was all right; only he was fatigued.
game was lost.
(ii) Conjunctions which express opposition or contrast
between two statements are called Adversative. Subordinate Clause An Adjective Clause
Make haste. You will be late. A fox once met a lion. Th fox had never seen a
lion before.
— Make haste or you will be late.
— A fox who had never seen a lion before met him.
Came in. Go out.
She keeps her ornaments in a safe. This is the
— Come in or go out.
safe.
— Either come in or go out.
— This is the safe where she keeps her ornaments.
Do not be a borrower. Do not be a lender.
A cottager and his wife had a her. The hen laid an
— Do not be a borrower or a lender. egg everyday. The egg was golden.
— Be neither a borrower nor a lender.
— A cottager and his wife had a hen which laid a
(iii) Conjunctions which express a choice between two golden egg everyday.
alternatives are called Alternative.
Subordinate Clause an Adverb Clause
For example,
For example,
He was obstinate. He was punished.
Queen Victoria died in 1901. The Prince of Wales
— He was obstinate, therefore he was punished. thereafter became king.
I cannot see. It is very dark. — When Queen Victoria died in 1901, the prince of
— I cannot see, for it is very dark. Wales became king.
It is raining heavily. I will take an umbrella with I waited for my friend. I waited till his arrival.
me. — I waited for my friend until he came.
— It is raining heavily, so I will take an umbrella He fled somewhere. His pursuers could not fol
with me. low him.
SEE–81
— He fled where his pursuers could not follow him. even if there is a Past Tense in the principal clause, it may
Let them sow anything. They will reap its fruit. be followed by any tense required by the sense in subor
— As men sow, so shall they reap. dinate clause.
You are strong. I am equally strong. For example,
— I am as strong as you are. He liked you better than he likes me.
He was not there. I spoke to his brother for that He helped him more than he helps his own children.
reason. I then saw him oftener than I see him now.
— As he ws not there, I spoke to his brother. He valued his friendship more than he values mine.
We wish to live. We eat for that purpose. A Present or Future Tense in the principal clause may
— We eat that we may live. be followed by any Tense required by the sense.
He was quite tired. He could scarcely stand. For example,
— He was so tired that he could scarcely stand. He thinks that she is there.
Don't eat too much. You will be ill. He thinks that she was there.
— If you eat too much you will be ill. He thinks that she will be there.
He began late. He finished first. He will think that she is there.
— He finished first though he began late. He will think that she was there.
I shall come.My being alone is a condition. He will think that she will be there.
— I shall come if I am alone. But in sentences where the subordinate clause de
I must know all the facts. I cannot help you oth notes purpose, if the verb in the principal clause is Present
erwise. or Future the verb in the subordinate clause must be
— Before I can help you, I must know all the facts. Present.
He is superstitious. He is equally wicked. For example,
— He is as superstitious as he is wicked. I eat that I may live.
I shall nurse him so that he can live.
THE SEQUENCE OF TENSES
The Sequence of Tenses is the principle in accordance CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES
with which the Tense of the verb in a subordinate clause
follows the Tense of the verb in the principal clause. Simple Sentences
The sequence of Tenses applies chiefly to Adverb Two wickets fell at twenty.
Clauses of purpose and Noun Clauses. Rome was not built in a day.
A Past Tense in the principal clause is followed by a In these two sentences, there is only one finite verb.
Past Tense in the subordinate clause. Finite means full i.e., a verb with a subject.
For example, Hence, a sentence that contains only one finite verb
He hinted that he wanted money. as called a Simple Sentence. So a simple sentence con
She replied that she felt better. tains only one subject and one predicate.
I found out that he was guilty.
He saw that the clock had stopped. Complex Sentences
He replied that he would come. I cam to know that six wickets had fallen before
I never thought that I should see him again. lunch.
I took care that he should not hear me. The team that wins the toss usually chooses to
The climbed higher that they might get a better view. bat.
I worked hard. That I might succeed. When the minthwicket partnership was broken,
Exceptions : (i) A Past Tense in the principal clause I felt that we might hope to win the match.
may be followed by a Present Tense in the subordinate In each of these three sentences above has one Main
clause when the subordinate clause expresses a universal or Principal clause and one subordinate clause or more
truth. depending on it.
For example, All these sentences are called Complex sentences.
Newton discoverd that the force of gravitation makes Hence, a sentence that contains only one Main or Prin
apples fall. cipal clause and one or more than one subordinate clause
Galileo maintained that the earth moves round the is called a Complex Sentence.
sun.
Educlid proved that the three angles of a trinagle are Double and Multiple Sentences
equal to two right angles. Actually, there are only two kinds of sentences : Simple
He said that honesty is the best policy. and Complex sentences. But, others are a mixture or com
(ii) When the subordinate clause is introduced by than, pound of these two kinds.
SEE–82
For example,
We carv's not a line and we raised not a stone. QUICK REVIEW OF GRAMMAR
Our hoards are little but our hearts are great. Here, we present some useful rules of grammar.
Do or die. Neither a borrower nor a lender be. You must get by rote all these rules. These will help
I went in but missed you and so I left. enormously in the forthcoming exams.
In these sentences, two or more coordinate clauses n ARTICLES
are joined by the conjunction and, but, or and nor. These The Adjectives a or an and the are usually called Ar
are called Double or Multiple sentences. ticles. They are really Demonstrative Adjectives.
A Double sentence is one which consists of two co There are two types of articles –
ordinate clauses. 1. Indefinite and 2. Definite
A Multiple Sentence is one which is composed of more A/an is called the ‘indefinite Article’.
than two coordinate clauses. The is called the ‘definite Article’.
Use of ‘A’ or ‘An’ : Difference between ‘A’ and ‘An’
Double and Multiple sentences are also called Com-
(i) The form a is used before a word beginning with a
pound sentences.
consonant, or a vowel with a consonant sound :
There are four different kinds of Dobule and Multiple a man, a hat, a cat etc.
sentences composed of — a university, a European, a one way street.
(i) two or more Simple sentences. (Vowel with a consonant sound)
For example, (‘u’ is a vowel but the pronunciation of the ‘University’
is / starts with a consonant sound)
We make our fortunes and we call them fate.
(ii) The form an is used before words beginning with a
(ii) two or more Complex Sentences. vowel (a, e, i, o, u) or words beginning with amute h :
For example, an elephant, an orange.
A custom officer discovered a passenger who had an apple, an island
hidden a watch in his inside pocket and the lat an hour
ter made matters worse by trying to bribe the [‘h’ is a consonant, but it is mute. The word ‘hour’ be
officer who happened to be very honest. gins with a vowel sound. The pronunciation of ‘hour’ is
/ our]
(iii) a Simple Sentence and a Complex Sentence.
(iii) ’An’ is used before individual letters spoken with a vowel
For example, sound :
He is poor but I know that he is honest. an S.D.O., an M.P., an L.L.B., an M.A.
(iv) a Complex Sentence and a Simple Sentence. But we use, a B.D.O., a B.A.
For example, (Consount letter & Consonant Sound)
Use of A/An :
I told them why I stole it but they laughed at me.
A/An is used :
The nature of Double and Multiple Sentences is not, (a) Before a singular countable (i.e. of which there is more
however determined by the number of Subordinate Clauses than one) when it is mentioned for the first time and
in them but by the number of Coordinate Clauses a sen represents no particular person or thing).
tence contains. a cat, a dog, a visa, a flat, an icecream.
A Double or Multiple predicate with their Single Sub (b) We can also use a/an to talk about any one member of
ject makes the sentences Double or Multiple and not a class.
Simple. A doctor, a car, a spider etc.
For example, (c) With a noun complement. This includes names of pro
fessions :
The boy heard, judged and decided cases (Mul (d) In certain expressions of quantity : a lot of, a couple of,
tiple sentence). a great many, a dozen (but one dozen is also possible)
Note : (i) A Double or Multiple subject does nto neces a great deal of.
sarily make a sentnece Double or Multiple. (e) In the vague sense of a certain; A Salman Khan is sus
For example, pected by the
 police.
Jack and Jill went up the hill (simple sentence)
(=a certain person named Salman Khan)
(ii) Who, which and where when used in a continuative (f) To make a common noun of a proper noun; as,
sense (who = and he, which = and it, where = and there) A Daniel came to Judgement! (A Daniel = a very wise
are treated as Coordinating conjunctions and so when man)
they join a cause to the Main or Principal clause, the sen (g) With certain numbers :
tence becomes a Compound (Double or Multiple) sentnece. a hundred, a thousand
For example, Before half when half follows a whole number.
I was waiting for a friend who came soon. 1
1 kilos = one and a half kilos or a kilo and a halfg.
I paid him two shillings which was all I had with 2
me. (h) In expressions of price, speed, ratio : 5 Rs. a kilo,
I went to the station where I bought a ticket. sixty kilometres an hour. Four times a day.
SEE–83
(i) In exclamations before singular, countable nouns : (d) Before the names of certain books:
What a foolish boy!, What a pretty girl! The Vedas, The Ramayan, The Mahabharat, The Bible,
Such a long queue! The Iliad.
What a beautiful building! (e) Before the names of certain material nouns; Only in
(j) As a rule a/an is not used before uncountable nouns specified cases :
but there are some exceptions : The water of the ganges.
On an average, to take an interest in, to give a warn
(f) With superlatives :
ing, a short time ago, to be in a temper; a wrong use
The best, the darkest etc.
of, to make a good guess at,
Have [a headache / a pain / a cold / a cough / a bath (g) ‘The’ is used before other proper names consisting of
/ a drink / a talk / a rest / a walk / a meal / a bear / Adjective + Noun or Noun + of + Noun :
a shame / a shave / a conservation / a good education (h) Before rank or title :
/ a knowledge / a good knowledge / a pity / a sleep / The Captain, The Chairman, The Principal
a good sleep / a dream / a chat / a quarrel / a fight / (i) Before Musical Instruments :
a swim / a ride / a good day / a bad day / a disagree The harmonium, The piano, The violin, etc.
ment / a try / a go/ make /a wrong use of / a noise /
(j) The with names of people has a very limited usethe +
a mistake] in a hurry; in a diagram, as a rule etc.
plural surname can be used to mean ‘the .... family’ :
(k) One is the Pronoun equivalent of a/an;
(k) With ordinals; as,
Did you get a ticket ?
 the first, the second, the tenth etc.
(here a means one) (l) With newspaper/organisation/community.
— Yes, I managed to get one. The Times of India
Omission of A/An The Hindustan Times
A/an is omitted : The U.N.O., The W.T.O.,
(a) Before plural nouns. For example, Books, dogs, girls, The Hindu (Community)
cats
(m) When proper noun is used as common.
(b) Before Proper Noun : Ram, Atal, India, Delhi
Kalidas is the Shakespeare of India.
A/an is used before common Noun Singular Num-
ber (Shakespeare is a Proper Noun but here
(c) Before Uncountable Nouns : Shakespeare means a great dramatist)
Milk, oil, gold, tea etc. (n) As an Adverb with comparatives.
(d) But to show single item of Countable Noun, we use... (o) Before Comparative Degree, if ‘of the two’ has been
a...of + Uncountable Noun’. As, used with it.
A cup of tea A bottle of milk (p) The is used with a host of general expressions that
(e) Before names of meals, except when there are pre refer to our physical environment — the world around
ceded by an adjective. us and its climate — or to other common features of
(f) Articles are often dropped in double expressions, par our life. For example, the town, the country, the sea,
ticularly with preposition. the mountains, the weather (General expression)
With Wife and fork (q) We often use the to refer to wellknown, welldefined
With hat and coat
groups of people (e.g. nationalities), even when we are
From top to bottom
talking about these in general.
On land and sea
Arm in arm The Indians, The English (The people of England not
Inch by inch English language)
Day after day (r) Before the names of political parties :
Use of the Definite Article The Bharatiya Janata Party
The Definite Article the is used — The Labour Party
(a) When we speak of a particular person or thing, or one The Communist Party
already referred to. For example, (s) Before ’Armed Froces’ and law enforcing agencies.
I like the book. (That book is known to us).
the Army the Air Force
(b) When a singular is meant to represent a whole class;
the Navy the Police
as
The cow is a useful animal. (t) With physical positions :
(or we may say ‘Cows are useful animals’) the inside, the top, the back, the outside, the bottom,
(c) The definite article is used when the object or group of the front etc.
objects is unique or considered to be unique or with (u) With names of branches of the Government :
certain proper names : the Judiciary, the legislative,
the Persian Gulf, the himalyas, The Ganges, the earth, (v) With Appositions,
the sea, the equator, the stars, the moon, The red sea, Sumanji, the poet
the Alps, The Indian ocean, The Bay of Bengal, The
Shakespeare, the dramatist.
top, The bottom, The East Indies, The Andmans, The
Advani, the politician
Punjab, The Sudan, The Congo, The U.S.A.
SEE–84
(Judging from his walk that he is drunk this compari
ADJECTIVE son doesn’t belong to the category of unreal, essentially).
An Adjective is a word used to qualify a Noun or Pro But,
noun: He walks as if he were drunk. (implying he is drunk,
For example : ared cover, along time, abeautiful girl. but he is not).
CLASSIFICATION  An infinitive is used after such as / such as.
Adjectives may be classified as follows : My behaviour was not such as to cause a problem.
1. Qualitative — Wonderful, noble, intelligent, red, good, I am not such a fool as to believe that.
bad, beautiful, short, tall, big, small, sharp, blunt, long,  We use such a statement (Not, a such statement)
lovely, handsome. Such a decision (Not, a such decision)
2. Quantitative — Little, some, much, any, no, none,  Such is not generally used demonstratively, to refer
whole, enough, half, a lot of, lots of, a great deal of, the things in the present situation. To express the idea, ‘of
plenty of, some, enough. the kind that I am showing you’ or ‘of the kind that we can
3. Proper — Indian, American, English, German. see / hear now.’ We prefer like this / that or this / that
4. Numerical : (a) Definite kind / sort of,
Cardinal — One, two, three etc.. 2. Before : Whenever before is used as a conjunction
Ordinal — First, second, third etc. with reference to somefuture event, it is never followed by
a Verb in the Future Tense, even if the Verb in the principal
Multiplicative — Single, double, triple etc.
clause is future :
(b) Indefinite— Many, a great many, a good many,
3. If
many a, several, various, numberous, a lot of, lots of, a If is used to mean :
great deal of, all, any, no, few, some (i) Admitting that
5. Possessive —My, our, his, her, their, its. If I am dull, I am at least honest.
6. Distributive —Each, every, either, neither. (ii) Whenever
7. Demonstrative — If you feel any doubt, you inquire.
(a) Definite —this, that, these, those, such, the same, (iii) On supposition,
the other. If he is there, I shall see him.
(b) Indefinite —a, an, a certain, certain, another, other, (Here the use of ‘shall’ is valid, see ‘Problems’)
some, any etc. (iv) Whether,
8. Interrogative — what, which, whose, etc. I wonder if she comes.
9. Exclamatory — What 4. ‘And’ is used after ‘Both’ (Not, as well as, or, else) :
What a genius! Both Sita or Shyam may come today. — incorrect
What a blessing! Both Sita and Shyam may come today. — correct
(10) Emphasizing — own, very 5. ‘Except’ and ‘Without ’.
I saw it with my own eyes. ‘Except’ or ‘without’ are sometimes wrongly used for
That is the very thing we want. unless.
Comparison of Adjectives — there arethree Degrees She will not come except you need her. — incorrect
of Comparison : She will not come unless you need her. — correct
Positive Comparative Superlative Similarly, without is also a Preposition.
(1) (2) (3)  ‘Whether’ and ‘or’
Tall taller tallest ‘Or’ is used after whether (Not that)
Great greater greatest I do not know that he wil come or not. — incorrect
Noble nobler noblest
(Whether should be used in place of that)
Happy happier happiest
I don’t know whether he will come or not. —
Wealthy wealthier wealthiest
correct
Hot hotter hottest
Tell me that whether you will return soon. —
Fat fatter fattest
incorrect
Difficult more difficultmost difficult
‘That’ Conjunction should never be used before a sen
Beautiful more beautifulmost beautiful
tence is Direct Narration, nor before Interrogative Adverbs
CONJUNCTION or Pronouns in Indirect Narration
He sings as well as cooks  ‘Or’ is used to introduce an alternative, you must
(= he not only cooks, but also sings). work or starve.
He sings as well as he cooks.  ‘Or’ means ’otherwise’
(= His singing is as good as his cooking). We must hasten or night will overtake us.
1. As if and as though mean the same. We use them to  ‘Or’ is also used between two numbers to indicate
say what the situation seems like. As, you look as if / that you are giving an approximate amount :
though you’re going to kill me. You are supposed to polish your can threeor four times
 As if / as though is used to indicate imaginary case a year.
(Particularly to snow that a comparison is unreal).  ‘Or’ is also used to introduce a comment which cor
He walks as if he’s drinking. rects or modifies what you have just said : My organisation
is paying rent or at least contributing to it.
SEE–85
‘Or’ is used when you are telling someone what will no sooner. This rule is widely accepted in formal usage.
happen if they don’t follow your instruction or advice: 11. Lest
Don’t put anything plastic in the ovenor it will probably ‘Should’ is used after lest (not may/ will).
start meeting.
7. That TIME AND TENSE
That is a Conjunction. It connects two sentences: Tense shows :
I know. He is wicked. (Two separate sentences) (i) the time of an action,
I know that he is wicked. (ii) its degree of completeness.
That is used after some verbs, nouns, and adjectives A verb has three main Tenses :
to introduce a clause : (i) the Present
She suggested that Itelephones you (ii) the Past and
That can be the complement : (iii) the Future
The main thing is that you’re satisfied. I write a letter to please you.
See, the above sentence without ‘that’ : You wrote a letter to my brother.
The main thing is you’re satisfied. I shall write a letter to you.
(The above sentence seems unusual). ‘Write’ refers to present time.
Hence the use of ’that’ as the complement is prevalent. ‘Wrote’ refers to past time.
To express a consequence, Result, or Effect; as, ‘Shall write’ refers to future time.
I am so weak that I cannot walk. To each tense there are four different forms
‘That’ Conjunction should never be used before a sen (i) Simple, (ii) Continuous,
tence in Direct Narration, nor before Interrogative Adverb (iii) Perfect,
or Pronoun in Indirect narration. The above sentence is in (iv) Perfect Continuous
Indirect narration. ’How’ is an interrogative adverb. Remem PRESENT TENSE
ber the rule of narration. ’that’ or any conjunction is not Simple Present (Present Indefinite)
used before wh-questions (where, which, what, how etc.) Structure :
Hence, ’that’ shuld be omitted. Sub + V1 / V 5 + ...........,
8. But Sub + is / are / am + Complement
 Use of but as a conjunction : The simple present tense is used :
It never rains but it pours (i) To express general truths; as,
 As an adversative conjunction of the coordinating The earth revolves round the sun.
class : (ii) To express a habitual action; as,
He is intelligent but cruel. I go to school daily.
 Note : ’Although / though ......... but’ is not used. I get up before sunrise.
9. Not only but also (iii) In vivid narrative, as substitute for the simple past;
Not only --- but also can go immediately before the as,
words or expression they modify. Immediately the minister hurries to New Delhi.
Not only + Verb ....... but also + Verb (Neither not (iv) To introduce quotations; as,
only + Noun ....... but also + Verb nor Not only + Verb Vivekananda says, ‘To me every particle of my moth
....... but also + Noun is possible) erland is holy’.
Not only + Noun ....... but also + Noun. etc. (v) It is used, instead of the Simple Future Tense, in clause
We go there not only in winter, but also in summer. of time and of Condition : When, as soon as, after in
10. When or before is used after Hardly / Scarcely: case, as long as, if, unless, until, till etc. as,
“He had scarcely (or hardly) heard the news before If he comes we shall go to Delhi.
(Not than) he wept aloud”. Present Progressive / Imperfect / Continuous
These three expressions ( hardly, scarcely and no Structure : Subject + is / am / are / + V 4 (v+ing)
sooner) can be used (often with a past perfect tense) to +......
suggest that one thing happened very soon after another. As — I am reading a book.
Note the sentence structure :
 
hardly ....... when / before
Sub. am V 4 (V+ing) .....
scarcely ....... when / before
The Present Continuous is used:
no sooner ....... than
(i) For an action going on at the time of speaking; as,
I hadhardly / scarcely closed my eyeswhen the phone
rang. I am working.
She was hardly / scarcely inside the house before (ii) For an action that is planned or arranged to take place
the kids started sreaming. in the near future; as.
I had no sooner closed the door than some body IGNOU is going to launch a new postgraduate
knocked“ programme in English.
 Therefore, from examination point of view, one should(iii) For a temporary action which may not be actually hap
use when / before with hardly / scarcely and than with pening at the time of speaking; as
SEE–86
I am reading ‘Hamlet’ (but I am not reading at this mo Present Perfect Continuous
ment) Structure :
(iv) We also use the present progressive to talk about de Subject + have / has + been + V4 (V+ing) + ....... (for /
veloping and changing situations, even if these are very since + time)
long lasting. (i) The present perfect tense is used to indicate an
The climate is getting warmer. (Notgets warmer) action which began at some time in the past and is still
Verbs not normally used in Continuous Tenses : continuing; as
hear, see, smell, notice, observe, admire (respect), I have been living in Delhi since 1986.
adore, appreciate (value), care for (=like), desire, detest, He has been playing for hours.
dislike, fear, hate, like, loathe, love, mind (care), respect, (ii) To Indicate the event which has been finished now
value, want, wish, agree, appreciate (=understand), assume, means its effect is continuing :
believe, expect (think), see (think), sure, certain, forget, They have been drinking a lot.
know, mean, perceive, realize, recall, recognize, recollect, Simple Past Tense (or Past Indefinite)
remember, see through, suppose, think (= have an opin Structure :
ion), trust (=believe, have confidence in), belong, owe, own, (i) Subject + V 2 + ..........
possess, appear, concern, consist, contain, hold (=contain),
(ii) Subject + was / were + complement
keep (=continue), matter, seem, signify, sound (=seem /
Affirmative : I worked.
appear), please, refuse, forgive, hope, imagine, mean, cost,
resemble, require, suffice. Negative : I did not work.
I am loving you. - incorrect Interrogative : Did I work?
Affirmative : You worked.
I love you . - correct
Negative : You did not work.
I am hating her. - incorrect
Interrogative : Did you work?
I hate her. - correct
He / she / it worked. He / she / it did not work. Did
It is sounding queer. - incorrect he / she / it work?
It sounds queer. - correct The simple past is used :
Exception to the rule : (i) To indicate an action completed in the past. It is
Feel, look, smell, taste, see, hear, think, assume and often used with adverbs or adverb phrases of past time.
expect are used in the continuous forms under following For example
circumstances : I saw him yesterday.
Present Perfect Do not use was / were + V 2
Structure : Sub + have / has + V 3 + ............. Use of I was saw him yesterday.
has / have - incorrect
The present perfect is used : I saw him yesterday. - correct
(i) To indicate completed activities in the immediate past; ’Was / Were’ is used only with complements.
as,
(ii) Sometimes it is used without an adverb of time.
I have just finished the book.
I learnt English in London.
Note : Forms of verb
(iii) It is used for past habits :
V1 V2 V3 V+ing V+ies/s
go went gone, going goes He always carried a notebook.
Read read read reading reads. Always, daily, every day, every month, used to, every
write worte written writing writes year, once a week / month / year etc. are used to indicate
Reach reached reached reaching reaches the habits of the past.
(ii) The present perfect tense is used for recent actions Past Imperfect (Past Conti-nuous) or Past Progressive
when the time is not mentioned : Structure : SUBJECT + was / were + V 4 (V +
Have you read ’Macbeth’? I have read the booklet but I ing)............
do not understand it. The past continuous tense is used :
(iii) To express past events when we think more of
(i) To denote an action going on at sometime in the
their effect in the present than of the action itself; as,
past. The time of action may or may not be indicated.
The lift has broken down. (We’ll have to use the stairs)
It was getting darker.
(iv) To denote an action beginning in the past and con
At eight he was having breakfast.
tinuing upto the present moment; as,
(ii) With always, continually etc. for persistent habits
He has lived here for five years.
in the past.
We have not seen sonali for several days.
He was always working.
(v) Use present perfect with the following adverbs :
Affirmative : He was working.
Just, often, never, ever (in questions only)
Negative : He was not working.
So far, till now, yet (in negatives and questions only)
Interrogative : Was he working?
already, since phrases.
Affirmative : You were working.
With, today, this week, this month etc.
Negative : You were working.
He has just gone out?
Interrogative : Were you working?
SEE–87
Structure : (iv) Will must not be confused with want / wish / would.
Negative : Sub + was / were + not + V 4 (V + ing) Will expresses an intention + a decision to fulfill it :
Interrogative : Was / were + Sub + V 4 (V + ing) ... ? Note : To express determination or intention we use
(’was’ is used) (‘were’ is used) will instead of ‘shall’.
Past Perfect Tense Want / wish / would like merely express desire. They
Structure : (Sub + had + V 3 + ....) do not give any information about intended actions :
Use : (v) Structure : Subject + is / are / am / about to / to
(i) The past perfect is the past equivalent of the present + V 1
perfect or the past perfect describes an action completed Future Continuous
before a certain moment in the past; as, The Future Continuous is used :
I had seen her last three years before. (i) For an action going on at sometime in future.
(Indicator : an action completed before a certain mo (ii) It is also used for future events that are planned.
ment in the past) Future Perfect Tense
(ii) Past perfect is used with ’I wish’, ’as if’, ’as though’ Structure : Subject + Shall / will + have + V 3 + ............
to indicate the unfulfilled desire, condition, wish of the past. Use :
As, The Future perfect is used :
I wish I had passed in civil services Exam.
(i) to indicate the completion of an action by a certain
(iii) Present perfect tenses in direct speech become future time;
past perfect tenses in the indirect speech provided the in
(ii) indicate the prior information of a person about a
troductory verb is in the past tense :
thing.
He, said, ‘I have been in Darbhanga for ten years’ = He
Note : Future Perfect Continuous Tense is not much
said that he had been in Darbhanga for ten years.
in use.
Simple past tense in direct speech usually change simi
larly : INFINITIVE, PARTICIPLE & GERUND
She said, ‘I knew O.P. very well’. A Verb may be Finite (limited) or Infinite (unlimited). It is
Finite when it is limited by the Number and Person of its
She said that she had known O.P. Very well.
Subject. On the other hand, a Verb which has not Subject
Affirmative : I had written him a letter.
and is therefore not limited by Number and Person, is called
Negative : I had not writer him a letter.
a Verb Infinite.
Interrogative : Had he written a letter to me.
Structure :
Negative : Sub + had not + V 3 + ........
Interrogative : Had + Sub + V 3 + ............?
Past Perfect Continuous
Structure :
Subject + had + been + V 4 (V+ing) + ............. For /
Since + Time
The past perfect continuous tense is used for :
An action that began before a certain point in the past
and continued up to that time; as,
It was now five and she was tired because she had For example,
been working since dawn. (i) He is going to school.
FUTURE TENSE (ii) They are going to school.
Future Indefinite In both these sentences going remains going. But is
Structure : Subject + shall / will + V 1 + ............ turns into are. This transformation ofis into are is not due
Negative : Subject + shall / will + not + V 1 + .... to the change of the Tense, but due to the change in the
Interrogative : Will + Subject + V 1 + ...................? Number. When Subject was Singular, the Verb was is. When
Use of shall / will Subject becomes Plural (they), the Verb becomesare (Plu
‘Shall’ is used only with ’I’ and ‘we’ and ‘will’ is used ral). So we find that the form of the Verb is (to be) is changed
with all other numbers and persons : with the change in the Subject. It may also be proved that
But in Interrogative sentences ‘will’ is used with all the the Verb is (to be) is also changed with the change in the
three persons (I, we, you, he, they). Person of the Subject. But the Verb going remains con
stant and it can be changed only when tense is changed.
* Simple Future Tense is used for :
So, Verb is (to be) is Finite andgoing is NonFinite. Verbis
(i) an action that has still to take place.
has a Subject and is limited by the Number and Person of
I shall go to Chennai tomorrow.
the Subject. But going is not related to any Subject in this
They will play cricket tomorrow.
way.
(ii) When the future is coloured with intention, thego-
As you know, there are three types of NonFinite Verbs.
ing to + infinitive construction is preferred.
(To some grammarians there are four types). The three types
In case of compulsion.
are : Infinitive, Participle and Gerund.
(iii) Structure : Subject + has / have + to + V1
SEE–88
INFINITIVE 5. If but is used as a Preposition and is preceded by the
Infinitive can take two forms in Active Voice : Verb “to do” , then but is followed by a Bare Infinitive.
For example,
He did nothing but wander.
 
BUT V 1
Infinitive can be used as —
(i) Subject SPLIT INFINITVE
For example, An adverb or adverbial phrase placed between to and
To swim is a good exercise. V1 is called Split Infinitive which should be avoided.
 Incorrect-
SUB. Sam agreed to thoroughly go into the matter. 
(ii) Object 
For example, TO ADV. V 1
No one likes to die. Correct- Sam agreed to go thoroughly into the matter.
 

TO V 1
OBJ.
This shows that if there is a TO Infinitive in a sentence
(iii) Complement to the Verb.
we cann’t use to and V 1 apart, they should be used to
For example,
gether.
He is to go.
PARTICIPLE

COMP. The word that partcipates in the function of a Verb as
well as in that of an Adjective in a sentence, is called a
There are two types of Infinitive To Infinitives and
Participle
Bare Infinitives (Infinitive without to). There are some spe
cific cases where ToInfinitives are used. Similarly, Bare (i) It is a large building.
Infinitives are also used under Certain Conditions. In Com 
mon Errors/Phrase Replacement, questions are asked on NOUN
the uses of ToInfinitives and Bare Infinitives. Now, we shall (ii) Building a house I lived in it
discuss this. 
1. Bare Infinitive is used with let, bid, watch, behold, PARTICIPLE
see, feel, make, etc. Broadly speaking there are two types of Participles :
For example, Present Participles and Past Participles.
Correct- Let him sit there. 1. Present Participle- A participle which is formed by
 addinging to the Verb and which states an action as going
V1 on or incomplete is called a Present Participle.
Incorrect- Let him to sit there For example,
 (i) Who set the ball rolling ?
TO + V 1 
2. After Modal Auxiliaries (can could, may, might, shall, PAR (Pre.)
should, will, would, must, dare not, need not) we use Bare (ii) The enemy caught isnapping.
Infinitive. 
For example, PAR (Pre.)
I shall go to the station. The Present (or Active) Participle ending in ing is used
  in forming Continuous Tense.
SHALL V 1 For example,
But with dare, need, ought etc. we use ToInfinitive. (i) I am going.
For example, (ii) She was going.
(i) I dare to go there 2. Past Participle A participle which is formed by add
(ii) You ought to go there ing ed, -t, -n, -en or -ne and which denotes a completed
3. Bare Infinitive is also used after had better, had rather,action, is called a Past Participle.
and as soon ..... as ...., had sooner etc. For example,
For example, (i) He is a retired man.
He had better go now. (ii) A burnt child dreads the fire.
 (iii) He is a known man.
V 1 (iv) It was a rotten fish.
4. Bare Infinitive is used after conjunction,than. (v) I dislike half -done work.
For example, In these sentences, participles are formed by adding -
He had better read than write. d, - ed, -t, -n, -en or -ne to the Verb and they state an
  action as completed. They are called Past Participles. The
Past (Passive) Participle is used with an Auxiliary Verb to
THAN V 1
form a Perfect tense, active or passive (active, with tense of
SEE–89
the Verb have and Passive, with tenses of the Verb be).
For example, SUBJECTVERB AGREEMENT
(i) I have loved (Active) The Number and Person of any Finite Verb is deter
mined by the Number and Person of the Subject.
(ii) I was loved (Passive)
For example,
PROBLEMS RELATING TO THE USES OF (i) They go.
PARTICIPLES (ii) He goes.
Here the Verb, go is in Plural form with they , a Plural
1. Participle is sometimes used to connect two sentences,Subject. And with Singular Subject he, it is in Singular form.
that is as conjunction. Remember that the rules relating to Subject Verb Agree
2. Since the Participle is a Verb Adjective, it must be ment (Number) are based on two basic concepts.
attached to some Noun or Pronoun; in other words, it must
always have a proper ‘Subject of Reference’.
l GERUND
A gerund is that form of the Verb which end in — ing, For example,
and has the force of a Noun and a Verb. (i) He is playing in the field.
For example,  
Reading is his favourite pas SUB. VERB.
 time. SING. SING.
VERB + NOUN (ii) They are playing in the field.
The word reading is formed from the Verbread by add  
ing — ing. Here heading is used as the Subject. It is there SUB. VERB
fore, a Verb Noun, and is called a Gerund. As both the PLU. PLU.
Gerund and the Infinitive have the force of a Noun and a RULES GOVERNING SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT
Verb, they have the same uses. Thus in many sentences 1. Two or more singular Subjects connected by and
either of them may be used without any special difference usually take a verb in the Plural.
in meaning. For example,
For example, Oil and water do not mix.
(i) Teach me how to swim. 2. If two Singular Nouns refer to the same person or
thing, the Verb must be Singular.

For example,
INFINITIVE
My friend and benefactor has come.
(ii) Teach me swimming
Here, though my friend and benefactor are connected
 by and still the Verb is Singular. This is because both these
GERUND subjects refer to one person.
These two sentences convey the same meaning. 3. If two Subjects together express one idea, the Verb
Both the Gerund and the Present Participle end in — may be in the Singular.
ing. So they must be carefully distinguished. The differ For example,
ences are — Bread and butter is his favourite food.
1. Gerund = Verb + Noun 4. If the Singular Subjects are preceded by each or ev-
Participle = Verb + Adjective ery, the Verb is usually Singular.
2. Gerund can be substituted with an Infinitive. But Every boy and girl was ready.
Participle cannot be substituted with an Infinitive. 5. Two or more Singular Subjects connected by “or”,
Note : If a Noun or Noun equivalent is used before a “nor”, “either ....... or”, “neither ....... nor” take a Verb in
the Singular.
Gerund, it should be in Possessive Case.
For example,
For example,
(i) Neither he nor I was there.
Incorrect- I hope you will excuse
(ii) Either Abdul or Amir has stolen the watch.
me leaving early.
6. When the Subject joined by or, nor are of different

numbers, the Verb must be Plural, and the Plural Subject
OBJ. GERUND must be placed next to the Verb.
CASE For example,
Correct- I hope you will excuse Correct Rama or his brothers have done this
my leaving early. Incorrect- Rama’s brothers or Rama have done this.
  7. When the Subjects joined by or, nor are of different
POSS. GERUND. Persons, the Verb agrees in Person with the one nearest to it.
CASE. For example,
Similarly, (i) Correct Either he or I am mistaken.
(i) We rejoiced at his being promoted. (ii) Correct- Neither you nor he is to blame.
(ii) I insist on your being present. (iii) Incorrect- Either he or I is mistaken.
SEE–90
(iv) Incorrect - Neither you nor he are to blame. nothing or anything.
8. When Subject differing in number, or person, or both, For example,
are connected by and, the Verb must always by in the Plu (i) Something is better than nothing
ral; and of the First Person, if one of the subjects is of that 
person; of the second person, if one of the Subjects is of SUB. VERB
the that person and none of the first.
SING.
For example,
(ii) Everybody among your friends likes playing.
(i) He and I are well.
17. The Verb takes the Plural form if the Subject is
(ii) My father and I have lived here five years. many, both, few or a few.
(iii) You and he are birds of the same feather.
(i) Both are happy.
(iv) You and I have done our duty.
 
9. A Collective Noun takes a Singular Verb when the
SUB. VERB
collection is thought of as a whole; a Plural Verb when the
PLU.
individuals of which it is composed are thought of.
(ii) Many were invited but a few have come.  
For example, 
(i) The committee was agreed on the main question. SUB VERB SUB VERB
(ii) India have scored 250 for three wickets. PLU. PLU.
10. Some Nouns which are Plural in form, but Singular 18. Both of, a few of or many of is followed by a Plural
in meaning take a Singular Verb. Noun or Noun Equivalent and a Plural Verb as well.
The news is true. Many of the trees are green.
11. Some Nouns which are Singular in form but Plural  
in meaning, take a Plural Verb. NOUN VERB
For example, PLU. PLU.
According to the present market rate twelve dozencost 19. Many, a great many or a good many is generally
one hundred rupees.  followed by a Plural Noun and a Plural Verb.
PLU. For example,
12. When a Plural Noun comes between a Singular Sub A great many boys are sitting here.
ject and its Verb, the Verb is often wrongly made to agree  
with the nearest Plural Noun instead of with the real Sub NOUN VERB
ject. We should guard against this error and say. For ex PLU. PLU.
ample, But, what is to be noted is “Many a” is followed by a
(i) Each of the sisters is clever. Singular Noun and a Singular Verb.
(ii) Neither of the men was very tall. For example,
(iii) A variety of pleasing objects charms the eye. Many a pen is red.
 
(iv) The quality of the mangoes was not good.
NOUN VERB
13. Words joined to a singular Suject bywith , together
SING. SING.
with, in addition to or as well as, etc., are parenthetical
20. Both Noun and Verb used after a number of or a
and therefore do not affect the number of the Verb.
large number of are in Plural Number.
For example,
For example,
(i) The chief , with all his men,was massacred.
A number of girls have passsed.
 
 
SING VERB SING
NOUN VERB
(ii) Rama, and not you, has won the prize.
PLU. PLU.
 
But, note that, the number of is followed by a Plural
SUB SING. VERB SING.
Noun and a Singular Verb.
14. The Verb “to be” takes the same case after it as For example,
before it. The Number of the buses is increasing.
For example, 
NOUN VERB
(i) He said to them; it is I; be not afraid. PLU. SING.
(ii) It was you who did it for me. 21. If a Countable Noun is used after some, some of,
15. When the Subject of the Verb is a Relative Pronoun all, all of, enough, most, most of, great deal of, lots of,
care should be taken to see that the Verb agrees in Number a lot of or planty of , then this Noun should be in Plural
and Person with the antecedent of the Relative Pronoun. and also followed by a Plural Verb.
I, who am your friend, will guard your interest. (i) All Men are mortal.
16. The Verb in a sentence remains in Singular, if the  
Subject is everyone, someone, some-body, nobody, any- NOUN VERB
body, no one, everyone, anyone, everything, something, COUNT. PLU.
SEE–91
PLU. 2. Compound Prepositions :
But in case, the Noun is an Uncountable Noun, Both (i) Prepositions formed by fixing a Preposition (Usually
Noun and Verb should be in Singular. a=no, or be=by) to a Noun, an Adjective, or an Adverb :
(i) Some money is needed Above, across, along, amidst, around, before, below,
  beneath, between, into (in+to), besides, outside, within,
NOUN VERB without,
(UNCOUNT. SING. (ii) Two or more words habitually thrown together and ending
SING. with a simple preposition may be called compound prepo
(ii) Lots of milk is available. sitions.
 
They are
NOUN VERB
(UNCOUNT. SING. By means of; because of; in fornt of, in opposition to;
SING. inspite of; on accouunt of; with reference to; with re
22. If a Countable Noun is used afterhalf of, one third gard to, for the sake of, on behalf of, instead of, in lieu
of, two thirds of or three fourths of , then this Noun takes of, in the place of, with a view to, in the event of; etc.
the Plural form and is followed by a Plural Verb. 3. Participle Prepositions : concerning, considering, ex
For example, cepting, judging, regarding, respecting etc. belong to
Half of the hotels are closed. this class.
  To have a clear comprehension of this topic one must
NOUN VERB have a regular practice of words associated with preposi
(COUNT. PLURAL tions.
PLURAL
23. More than one is always followed by Singular Noun NARRATION
and Singular Verb.
He said, “I am very busy now”.
More than one room is vacant.
 When the Verb in one sentence reports what is said by
NOUN VERB some speaker in another sentence, the Verb in the first
Note- But, after the formation — sentence (He ‘ said’) is called the Reporting Verb (R.V.),
and what is said in the second sentence is called the Re-
ported Speech.
the verb is always in Plural Number. “(I am very busy now)”.
For example,
More teachers than one arelate.
We may report the words of a speaker in two ways :
 (i) We may quote his actual words . This is called direct
MORE NOUN THAN VERB speech.
24. If there or it is used as Introductory Subject, then (ii) We may report what he said without quoting his exact
the Verb used after it is related to the Noun used after the words. This is called indirect speech.
Verb. ‘Speech’ = Narration.
For example, He said, “I am very busy now”. — Direct
(i) There was a king.
He said that he was very busy then. — Indirect
(ii) There were two kings.
25. If a “NUMERAL + PLURAL NOUN” denotes a defi Note :
nite amount, distance, deposit, weight or height, etc, then (i) The Tense of the Reporting Verb (R.V.) is never changed.
the Verb used must be in Singular. (ii) If the R.V. is in Present or Future Tense, the tense of
For example, the verb in the R.S. is not changed at all.
Two thousand rupees (iii) If the R.V. is in Past Tense, the tense of the Verb in
  the R.S. must be changed to one or other of the four
NUMERAL NOUN forms of the Past Tense.
PLU. Rules for Changing Direct Speech into Indirect
is a handsome amount. When the R.V. is in the Past Tense, the tense of R.S.
 changes according to this rule :
VERB
Simpe Present is changed Simpe Past
SING.
Present Progressive into Past
(ii) Ten tonnes of coal is enough for me.
Progressive
PREPOSITION Present Perfect into Past Perfect
Preposition : Word governing (and usually preceding) Present Perfect into Past Perfect
a Noun or Pronoun and expressing a relation to another Continuous Continuous
word, as in : ‘the manon the platform’, ‘cameafter dinner’, Simple Past into Past Perfect
’went by train’, etc. Past progressive into Past Perfect
Prepositions may be divided into following categories Continuous
as per their formation : In the R.S., when the present tense is changed into
1. Simple preposition : of, on, up, off, to, by, at, for, the past, an Adjective, Verb, or Adverb expressing near-
per, with, in, from, etc. ness is similarly changed into the expressingdistance .
SEE–92
Thus as a general rule we change: * Inverted commas (“ ” or ‘ ’) deleted.
(A) (B) * If the R.S. is Yes/No question, if / whether is used
Now  then before the R.S. in the Indirect Speech. As,
This  that * He said to me, “Is Gopal Your brother”? - Direct.
These  those He asked me if Gopal was my brother. Indirect
Ago  before If the R.S. is Whquestion (the R.S. beginning with who
/ what / how / where / when / why ), no conjunction
Thus  so
is used before the R.S. As,
Here  there He said, “where is the book?”
Hence  thence - Direct
Today  That day He asked me where the book was. - Indirect
Tomorrow the next day * The R.S. becomes Assertive.
Yesterday  the previous day/ Interrogative R.S. changes into Assertive R.S.
the day before Verb + Subject  Subject + Verb
Last night the previous As, Nitu said to me, “When will he sleep?”
night/ the night Nitu asked me when he would sleep.
before *Will changes into would
Next weekthe following week Shall changes into should
If the tense of the R.S. changes, the following words *In the end ‘?’ (Mark of Interrogative) is deleted and full
also change stop (.) is used instead of ‘?’
(A) (B) * Note : Do not use ‘asked to’. Use object after ‘ask’ ask
Shall should me, asked him etc.
Will would General rules for changing the Direct Speech of Im-
Can could perative sentences into the Indirect speech :
May might * Imperative sentence has ‘Order’, ‘Request’, ‘Negative
Am/is was command’.
Are were * This type of sentence begins with Go, Bring (with
Makes made verb)
Would help would have helped * Negative command begins with ‘do not’ or ‘don’t.’
Note : Universal or habitual facts can be expressed only As,
in the Simple Present (Present Indefinite) He said, “Don’t be foolish”.
For example His friend said to him, “Join his party”. etc.
He said, “The earth moved round the sun.” — Rules regarding order / request :
Incorrect * Say / said is changed into order / ordered, request /
He said, “The earth moves round the sun.” — requested; ask/ asked, beg / begged, tell /told etc.
Correct * Inverted commas deleted
He said, “Honesty is the best policy.” — Direct * ‘to’ is used in front of the R.S.
He said that honesty is the best policy. — Indirect * Kindly / please is not used in the Indirect speech,
In direct speech the R.S. begins with capital letter, but because we do not use kindly / please with request.
in Indirect the R.S. begins with small letters, barring a few Rules regarding Negative Command
exception (as, ’I’) * Say / said is changed into ask / asked, tell / told,
Indirect Narration of Assertive Sentences remind / reminded, as per need.
He said, “Man is mortal”.— Direct * ‘do’ is avoided in the Indirect speech.
The R.S. of the sentence bears universal fact : * Negative word ‘Not’ is used before ‘to’.
“Man is mortal”. * Please / kindly is not used in the Indirect speech.
He said (Ist Part of the sentence) is in past tense. Ac As,
cording to rules, the tense of the R.S. Changes, if the R.V. Mohan said to me, “Do not forget to tell her”. - Direct
is in the Past Tense. But, if the R.S. is a universal fact (i.e. Mohan told / asked / reminded me not to forget to tell
in simple present tense), the tense of R.S. does not change. her. - Direct I advised him
Thus, both tje parts of the given sentence remain unchanged not to go abroad for further studies. - Correct
while changing it from direct to indirect. The only change * Remember,
can take place is the use of that between the R.V. and the
Forbid / Forbade + Object + to + V 2
R.S. and inverted commas (“ ”) will be deleted.
Prohibit / prohibited, prevent / prevented + Object +
He said that Man is mortal.
From + V(ing)
— Indirect
Sita said to him, “Don’t go out”.- Direct
General rules for changing the Direct speech of In-
Sita forbade him to go out.- Indirect
terrogative Sentences into the Indirect Speech.
*Rules for changing the sentences beginning with let
* R.V. ‘Say’ is changed into ask, enquire (of), want to
from the Direct to the Indirect :
know (of).
SEE–93
(a) Regarding ‘to suggest’, ‘to propose’ * The R.S. in the Direct (Having verb + sub) is changed
(i.e. when ‘let’ is meant for ’to suggest’ or ‘to propose’) into the R.S. in the Indirect (Sub + verb) and it be
* Say / said is changed into propose / proposed; sug comes Assertive.
gest / suggested. Optative = Verb + Sub
* If their is an object in the R.V., the object is used after Assertive = Sub + Verb
adding ‘to’—to proposed / suggested. As, * Should / might is used in the Indirect.
Suggested to her. Remember : Should + V 1
Proposed to me.
= Should go
* ‘that’ is used in front of the R.S. instead of inverted
commas (“ ”) Should come etc.
* (Should + V 1) is used after the subject of the R.S. * Use pray / prayed with ‘God’, ‘Almighty’.
* If there is no object after the R.V., we use (V+ing) after Exclamatory Sentences
suggest / propose. * Generally exclamatory sentences begin with Alas /
Remember : Ah / How / Hurrah / Oh / What.
For the structure having an ‘Object’ after the R.V. * Sentences are in Assertive (i.e. Subject + Verb)
Sub + Propose / suggest + to + Object + that + Sub * Sign of Exclamation (!) is used As, You said, “Well done!
(sub of the R.S.) + Should + V 1 my friends”.
But, for the structure having no object after the R.V. : Rules for changing from Direct into Indirect :
Subject + Propose / suggest + (V+ing) * ‘Said’ is changed into exclaimed / exclaimed with joy /
Jyoti said, “Let us go home”. exclaimed with sorrow / exclaimed with grief / ex
- Direct claimed with regret/ shouted with applause / cried
First of all, we notice, there is no object after the R.V. out / eagerly wished, according to ‘feeling’.
(i.e. said). Hence we change ‘said’ into ‘suggested’. * Inverted commas (‘ ’ or “ ”) deleted
Jyoti suggested............... * ‘That’ is used to connect the R.V. and the R.S.
If there is no object after ‘suggested’, there will be * Sign of Exclamation (!) is changed into Full Stop (.).
(V+ing) after ’suggested’ (i.e. go+ing)
* Great / very can also be used as per need.
Jyoti suggested going home.
For Example :
- Indirect
He said, “What a pity!” - Direct
Now, another example, Jyoti said to
her friends, “Let us go home”. - Direct He exclaimed that it was a great pity. - Indirect
Jyoti proposed / suggested to her friends that they If the R.V. is in the past tense, the R.S. will also be in
should go home. - Indirect the past tense.
Oh! How did this change take place? Exercise! (Of brain). Sentences with question tags
Remember the structure of the sentence beginning with * Example of question tags
‘let’ and its changed from in the Indirect speech : He said to me, “you are going to the cinema, aren’t
Sub + Propose / suggested + to + Object + that + Sub you?”
(Sub of the R.S.) + Should + V 1 * In Indirect speech we leave out question tags (i.e.
Note : Do not use ‘to’ after propose / suggest. question tags should not be used in Indirect speech)
Use of ‘let’ in the context of ‘to allow’. * Otherwise, we apply the process, used for changing
Interrogative sentences.
Rules :
As,
* Say to / said to is changed into order / ordered, re
quest / requested, as per need. He asked me whether I was going to the cinema.
—Indirect
* We begin the R.S. with ‘to allow’.
Sentences with ‘must’, ‘mustn’t or needn’t.
* ‘To’ is used in front of the main verb of the R.S.
* If ‘must’ reflects the feeling of natural law or universal
* Sometimes ‘let’ is changed into ‘to let’ and is used in truth, ‘must’ is not changed in the Indirect speech.
the sentence.
If ‘must’ indicates present / future meaning, must is
They said to the teacher, “Let us go home”. - Di- changed into had to / would have to / has to / will
rect have to etc.
They requested the teacher to allow then to go home * Mustn’t and needn’t are generally not changed in the
Optative Sentences Indirect Speech.
Rules for changing the Direct Speech into the Indi- * ‘Said’ is not changed. (But ‘told’ can also be used).
rect Speech * ‘that’ is used to connect the R.V. and the R.S.
* Optative sentences have wishes / desires / curses * We use ‘respectfully’ and delet, sir/madam etc. in
etc. As, People said, “God save the king”. the Indirect speech.
* Said is changed to prayed / wished. Rupa said, “Sir, May I go home?”
* ‘That’ is used in front of the R.S. - Direct
* Inverted commas deleted Rupa respectfully asked whether he could go home.
SEE–94
(viii) If the question asks you for the meaning of a word or
COMPREHENSION a phrase in the passage which might you new or fa
miliar then make use of the context. Read the whole
Preparation for competitive exams is no easy task. The sentence which has that word and understand its
approach and strategy should be well in place so that you meaning then answer.
can achieve maximum gain in limited time. Comprehension
Besides these, it is essential for you to improve your
is an important segment that tests the ability of an indi
vidual to understand the language, his knowledge of words word power in order to understand the passage thoroughly.
and how nicely can an examinee understand the given pas Your entire answers depends on how well have you under
sage. Bigger things are difficult to handle as we do not stood the passage. Having a grasp over difficult words will
proceed in a directed fashion. In fact, you end up messing assist you to comprehend the passage in less time. This
up with things so it applies same when it comes to crack will not only help you save time but also help you to answer
ing lengthy and difficult comprehension passages at com appropriately. Reading of newspapers, books and maga
petitive exams. This part is in fact very easy but many fail zines helps a candidate to increase his knowledge domain
to fix it since they fail to follow the rules defined to ap and also aid in improving vocabulary. While reading the
proach it. Many of us simply leave this section or just do passage you can underline or mar the important words so
guess work blindly. This happens as we stay in the con that you can quickly summarize the comprehension. This
vention that it takes lot of time to solve. will be beneficial to save time and get the hang of the pas
Here are few tips that help you to find the right an sage. Also, when you are answering the questions, you can
swer choices with greater accuracy and with in relatively quickly go through these important words to write correct
less amount of time. answers. It is necessary for you to important parts of the
1. Understand the context of the passage and the situ passage that provides answers to a lot of questions. When
ation of the passage. Capture the whom, why, when as you are a giving a section reading, you can just simply
pects in the passage. focus on these important parts which will provide a clear
2. Domain of the passage – Find out to which subject picture. You must answer the questions correctly there
or discipline is the passage related to e.g., is it related to fore, it is very important for you to know the important
Science or Technology or Literature and so on. parts in a passage which gives answers to the questions.
3. Type of the passage – Know what the content of the A Few Specifics About How To Attempt Compre-
passage is whether it is an extract of an article, research
hensions: Comprehensions may contain the topic about
paper or an event or news.
science, social, politics, general, financial, etc. It contains
These things help you to set your mind and think it in about 5–10 questions to answer and some antonyms and
those terms with in no time. Now that you have identified
synonyms based on the passage having some bold words.
what it is related to exactly, remember these standard rules
So, to give answer of those questions does not need you to
that are common and apply to levels and kinds of pas
sages. be expertise in the either field, just you have to read out
the passage with meaningfully and mark the important sen
(i) Read the questions first and remember the things the
tences, phrases, etc.
examiner is asking so that you read only those para
graphs related to those. Now proceed to the reading Note down the points specified below to find out the
of the passage. ways of how to tackle a comprehension at ease.
(ii) Find and understand the main outline and idea of the 1. Read the passage and quickly jump to the short
passage. This can be done by reading the first two answered questions, like antonyms, synonyms, to give title
sentences of each paragraph which tell you about whatof passage, etc. It is better to leave the questions to an
this paragraph consists of. Read the starting and end swer at last, because antonyms and synonyms take a sec
ing of every part. ond to solve and questions take a minute.
(iii) Now read a bit more in detail say a sentence more or 2. If you are familiar to any passage related to your
search for key words of only those asked in ques knowledge and your academics, then quickly read out that
tions. one and solve the following questions of that passage. It
(iv) Do not try to analyze, make your conclusions and will take less time and you will be accurate.
answers questions. Go with the ideology and bound
3. By the time you are reading the passage, figure
ary of the passage. Do not make assumptions.
out the tone/idea/inference/situation of the passage, it will
(v) When the question asks you to guess like about your help to find the answers quickly. Use a pencil to under
opinion or suitable title to this passage then answer
line the specific sentences and phrases/words.
that question based on choices which are either too
general or direct to the point. 4. There is always a question about the main idea of
(vi) The words that convey emotions in the passage tell the passage. Then look at the starting and end of the pas
you about the opinion of the author of the passage if sage and try to summarize the paragraph to get the main
it is an article based passage. You can judge about idea of the passage. It will ask about the main idea of that
the author’s mood and tone to answer the questions. passage.
(vii) Keywords are the best ways to find answers if you 5. When it is asked that to give a suitable title of the
can scan through the lines of the passage fast. Such passage then watch out for choices that are too specific
words are like nouns or included as phrases. At least or broad. Sometimes, the title is already given in the first
find closely related words that mean the same as askedparagraph of the passage. Use the narrow approach to find
in question. out the title. Do not think beyond the passage.
SEE–95
6. Some passage contains the questions about attitude, cedent for taking his message to other countries was to
mood, tone, etc. of the passage. Then look for words that a certain extent fulfilled. And although the partition has
convey emotion, values and expressions. I think its not caused wounds and raised problems which claimed all
hard question to give the answer, because any passage his time and energy, he might have been able to turn his
cannot be concluded by emotions, moods, values, etc. attention to this larger question even in the midst of his
7. There can be a question about to give specific de distractions. But Providence had ordained otherwise. May
tail of the passage – then spot some keywords in the ques some individual or nation arise and carry forward the ef
tion and look out for those in the passage and may be fort launched by him till the experiment is completed, the
those words are in the form of synonym or antonym. work finished and the objective achieved.
8. Put yourself in place of author and think, you can 1. What effect did partition have on Gandhiji’s time and
apply your ideas according to the passage in the new situ energy? His time and energy—
ation. You have to find out three things from the passage,
first reason, second perceive feelings and third sense a (1) remained unaffected
larger structure. (2) were wasted a lot
9. In order to count on unfamiliar words, you have to (3) had claimed utility
be very keen about the passage saying. Your vocabulary (4) were not distracted
will be tested here. There are many unfamiliar words you
2. Gandhiji did not accept invitations to visit foreign
will find in a passage, for that you have to look out for
countries because—
the meaning by searching the nearby clues.
10. Familiarize yourself with the technical terms used (1) he was not keeping good health
in describing the passage. Some passages are from sci (2) he had no time from his busy schedule in India
ence background, so be logical in thinking and organize (3) he did not like anything which was originated in
and understand what author is saying. May be it will be a foreign countries
difficult question.
(4) he was busy with other important tasks
Well friends, now that you have learnt all the funda
3. Which of the following was a shortcoming in the prac
mental aspects of how to deal with a comprehension pas
sage, we are sure that you can do your best in attempt tice of Gandhiji’s method?
ing the questions which will be provided along with the (1) It led to partition
comprehension. Just remember the points stated above (2) It distracted his attention
and keep cool to answer the questions correctly. Compre (3) It was not understood by the foreigners
hension is generally presented as the first question in most
of the one day competitive examinations; however the se (4) None of these
quence might vary from Board to Board. 4. Which of the following statement (s) is/are TRUE re
You can also get an input about “Comprehension”, dis garding Gandhij’s teaching?
cussed in “Topic-Wise Discussion ” in the beginning of the (A) His teaching was not meant for his country
book. (B) His teaching has a timebound applicability.
(C) His teaching did not inspire the masses.
EXERCISE–1 (1) Only A (2) Only B
Read the following passage carefully and answer the (3) Only C (4) None of these
questions given below it. Certain words/phrases are 5. Gandhiji emphasized the moral purity of —
printed in bold to help you to locate them while answer (1) means only (2) ends only
ing some of the questions.
(3) both means and ends (4) truth alone
The essence of Gandhiji’s teaching was meant not for
6. Gandhiji advocated that full selfrealization could be
his country or his people alone but for all mankind and
is valid not only for today but for all the time. He wanted achieved through—
all men to be free so that they could grow unhampered (1) unrestricted growth which is possible only through
into full selfrealisation. He wanted to abolish the exploi freedom
tation of man by man in any shape or form because both (2) unhampered growth attainable through exploita
exploitation and submission to it are sin not only against tion
society but against the moral law, the law of our being. (3) submission to unhampered exploitation
The means to be compatible with this end therefore, he
(4) giving inspiring lectures to people in foreign coun
said have to be purely moral, namely unadulterated truth
tries
and nonviolence. He had been invited by many foreign
ers to visit their countries and deliver his message to 7. Which of the following statements isTRUE in the con
them directly but he declined to accept such invitations text of the passage?
as, he said, he must make good what he claimed for ; (1) Gandhiji wanted to abolish exploitation and encour
Truth and Ahimsa in his own country before he could age submission
launch on thegigantic task of winning or rather converting (2) Gandhiji wanted every individual to achieve self
the world. With the attainment of freedom by India, by realization
following his method, though in a limited way and in spite
(3) To Gandhiji, moral purity of means was more im
of all the imperfections in its practice, the condition pre
portant than moral purity of ends
SEE–96
(4) Gandhiji was praised even by the people who were He set out with a bag of mangoes. He walked through
adversely affected by the partition the forest till it was midway. He took shelter under a
8. Which of the following statement isNOT TRUE in shady tree and pretended to be fast asleep. However, af
the context of the passage? ter some time, he really fell as leep. After a while, he
(1) India’s freedom from the British Raj cannot be felt that someone was trying to snatch his bag of man
entirely attributed to Gandhiji’s methods goes, Suddenly, he woke up and caught hold of the per
(2) Converting the entire mankind to truth and non son. It was the witch who tried to frighten Dhiru and run
violence was a macroscopic task away. But Dhiru was strong and bold enough to hold the
(3) Gandhiji’s energy was consumed by the problems withc fast. The witch finally surrendered. Dhiru forced
caused by the partition has to tell him who she really was. The witch removed
(4) Gandhiji’s teaching was relevant only to his time. her mask and narrated her and story. She told that she
9. Gandhiji wanted to — was a poor old widow and she had nobody to look after
(1) remove poverty from India her. Therefore, she used to live in the forest, wearing a
(2) educated masses to achieve freedom for India fearfullooking mask. People passing through the forest
got frightened due to her appearance and took her for a
(3) establish a just social order
witch. She then robbed the people of their belongings to
(4) oppose the partition of India
make both ends meet. Dhiru took pity on her and gave
Choose the word which is most nearly the SAME in her the bag of ranages.
meaning as the word given in bold as used in the pas
sage. 1. What made Dhiru curious?
10. ORDAINED (1) The fearful appearance of the witch
(1) requested (2) wished (2) The fact that the witch lived in the forest
(3) told (4) questioned (3) The fearful attitude of the people towards the
11. DELIVER witch.
(1) transfer (2) confer (4) The distinct difference between the witch and
(3) communicate (4) furnish other witches
12. BEING 2. Why did Dhiru enter the forest?
(1) existence (2) through (1) NO find out the truth about the witch
(3) morality (4) survival (2) To give the bag of mangoes to the witch
Choose the word which is most nearly OPPOSITE in (3) To invite the witch to the village
meaning to the word given in bold as used in the passage. (4) To sleep under a shady tree
13. RAISED 3. What did the witch do soon after Dhiru caught her?
(1) developed (2) suppressed (1) She threw away his bag of mangoes
(3) accelerated (4) disappeared (2) She tried to frighten Dhiru and run away
14. GIGANTIC (3) She removed her mask and showed him her face
(1) immeasurable (2) massive
(4) She narrated her sad story to Dhiru
(3) negligible (4) trivial
4. Which of the following qualities of Dhiru helped him
15. VALID to overpower the witch?
(1) unreliable (2) undesirable
(1) Courage and anxiety
(3) timeless (4) irrelevant
(2) Eagerness and wisdom
EXERCISE–2 (3) Intelligence and wisdom
Read the following passage carefully and answer the (4) Courage and strength
questions given below it. Certain words/phrases are 5. How was the ‘witch’ described in this passage dif
printed in bold to help you to locate them while answer ferent from other witches?
ing some of the questions. (1) While other witches used to frighten the people,
Survival is the most essential factor for every living this witch didn’t
organism. People resort to different tricks to make both (2) Other witches used to take people’s belonings; this
ends meet. One such live instances is mentioned here. witch didn’t
Villagers of Makhrada village believed that a witch lived
(3) Other witches used to eat flesh; this witch didn’t
in the denseforest near Makhrada. The passers by were
much harassed by the witch who used to frighten them (4) Other witches were not as fearful as this witch
and also took their belongings. In the village there lived was
a young man named Dhiru who was fond of adventures. 6. When the witch came to snatch away the bag, Dhiru
When he heard about the witch, he did not believe that was ....
it was one of the witches who ate flesh. But there was (1) fast asleep under the tree
something elseabout the witch, which made Dhiru curi
(2) pretending to be awake
ous. She did not eat flest but took away the belongings
of the people. Therefore, he was keen to solve this mys (3) looking fast asleep but he was awake
tery. (4) trying to remove the witch’s mask
SEE–97
7. Which of the following made the widow look fright said the pedal. “If anyone should grumble, it is me”, said
ening? the small reel inside the bobbin. When the needle moved,
(1) Her ugly face it took the thread from the bobbin and made stitches un
(2) Her proverty der the cloth “I do all the important work and here I am
stuck up day and night in this stuffy box. You all have a
(3) Her lack of clearnliness
fine time sitting there staring at the world”, he contin
(4) Her mask
ued.
8. According to the author, people play different tricks
“Now children”, said the kindly old balance wheel,' 'You
in order to ...
all know what important work the lady is doing today.
(1) frighten others who are feebleminded She is stitching a school dress for her daughter who will
(2) expose people who lead a different life be admitted in school tomorrow. We must all work hard
(3) earn their bread and stitch it beautifully”. “I have had enough food today.
(4) connect both the ends of the forest It is too hot here and I am tired of the needle poking his
9. Which of the following is NOT TRUE in the context nose in all the time”, said the small reel. “Listen my chil
of the passage? dren”, continued the old wheel. “I have been with this
(1) The witch was really a fearful monster machine for about hundred years. At first we belonged
(2) Dhiru succeeded in solving the mystery about the to a dress maker. He made us work hard. One day this
witch lady's grandfather come to the shop. He liked the ma
(3) Dhiru was stronger than the witch chine and bought it. The old gentleman wanted his daugh
ters to learn sewing but they did not use us much. Still,
(4) The witch had no relatives to take care of her
we were fed regularly with oil and cleaned by the ser
10. The wido had nobody to support her. This made
vants for years. We have stood in this corner and seen
Dhiru....
many things. We saw the old gentleman die. His children
(1) eager to solve the mystery about the witch then started quarrelling. Slowly they became poor. The
(2) bold enough to hold her fast servants were dismissed . Then one by one, the children
(3) feel sympathy for her went away and the house was closed. After many years
(4) curious to known her story this lady came with her husband. She had a daughter
Choose the word which is most nearly the SAME in after a few years. The lady started using us after pour
meaning as the word given in bold as used in the pas ing oil into these old joints. She did not listen to her
sage. husband's suggestion to sell us off to a scrapdealer.”
11. TOOK.....FOR As the wheel finished everyone was quiet for some
(1) sought (2) remembered time. Then the reel said, “We are very sorry and we
(3) considered (4) offered would rather break into pieces than let down the lady.”
12. HARASSED They all continued to work till the scissors snipped the
thread and the beautiful dress was ready.
(1) deceived (2) troubled
1. Why was the reel of thread feeling dizzy?
(3) stolen (4) frightened
13. KEEN (1) It was moving on the needle stand.
(1) careful (2) perfect (2) It was being shaken by the needle.
(3) efficient (4) eager (3) It was being wound with thread.
Choose the word which is most OPPOSITE in mean (4) It was made to rotate at a very fast rate.
ing of the word givne in bold as used in the passage. (5) None of these
14. FINALLY 2. What was the lady doing on the sewing machine?
(1) usually (2) partially (1) She was stitching a dress for herself.
(3) lately (4) initially (2) She was winding cotton thread on the reel.
15. FAST (3) She was stitching a dress to sell.
(1) slowly (2) lightly (4) She was stitching a school dress for her daugh
(3) idly (4) loosely ter.
(5) None of these
EXERCISE–3
3. Who brought the sewing machine to the house?
Read the following passage carefully and answer the (1) The child's grandfather
questions given below it. Certain words are printed inbold (2) The lady's father
to help you locate them while answering some of the ques
(3) The grandfather of the child's mother
tions.
(4) The lady's husband's father
The balance wheel whirled and the rusty food pedal
clattered up and down. The needle hopped over the (5) None of these
smooth stitching pleats, folds and moving smoothly 4. Which of the following did not happen after the old
around the neckline. The reel of cotton thread jumped gentleman's death?
and shook on its needle stand. “Stop, you are making me (1) The infighting among his children.
dizzy”, said the reel. “stop, grumbling , you foolish thing”,
SEE–98
(2) The cleaning of the machine by the servants. Gandhiji emphasized the moral purity of both means
(3) The gradual abandoning of the house by the chil and ends.
dren. 6. (1) The answer is contained in the following state
(4) The old man's children becoming economically ment :
weak. “He wanted all men to be free so that they could
5. Who is the narrator of the story of the lady's ances grow unhampered into full selfrealisation”.
tors? From this statement we can say, Gandhiji advocated
(1) The sewing machine. that full selfrealisation could be achieved through
(2) The big reel of cotton thread. unrestricted growth which is possible only through
(3) The pedal. freedom.
(4) None of these 7. (2) Gandhiji did not want to encourage submission.
So the statement (1) is false.
ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS To Gandhiji both moral purity of means and moral
purity of ends are equally important. So the 3rd
EXERCISE–1 statement is also wrong.
Statement (4) and (5) are inconsistent with what is
1. (2) 2. (2) 3. (4) 4. (4) 5. (3) said or implied in the passage.
6. (1) 7. (2) 8. (4) 9. (3) 10. (2) Only 2rd statement is true in the context of the pas
11. (3) 12. (1) 13. (2) 14. (4) 15. (4) sage. The second sentence of the passage produces
enough evidences in its support.
1. (2) The effect of partition on Gandhiji finds mention 8. (4) Nothing is said clearly in the passage in support
in the following sentence of the passage : or against the statement 1 and 2. Statements 3 and
“And although the partition had caused wounds and 5 are true as per what is/are said in the passage.
raised problems which claimed all his (Gandhiji’s) Only what is said in the statement (4) is quite con
time and energy .......” trary to what is said in the passage in this respect.
It is clear in this very sentence that a lot of his time 9. (3) The old balance wheel.
and energy were wasted due to partition. 10. (2) If some authority or power ordains something,
2. (2) He has been invited by many foreigners to visit they decide that it should happen or be in exist
their countries and deliver his message to them di ence.
rectly but he declined to accept such invitations as, Ordain (Verb) means order or command; decide in
he said, he must make good what he claimed for : advance. For example,
Truth and Ahimsa in his own country before he Fate had ordained that he should die in poverty.
could launch on the gigantic task of winning or It is very clear that, we can substitute word, or-
rather converting the world. dained with wished, in the passage.
This shows that he wanted to accomplish the task (Page 1164, Collins Combuild English Dictionary)
of converting his countrymen first. So he declined 11. (3) Deliver (Verb) means give (a lecture, sermon,
such proposals. speech, etc.)
This shows that he was busy in India (his own coun For example,
try) and could not spare time to visit abroad. She delivered a talk on philosophy to the society.
3. (4) The author did not consider Gandhiji’s method Though the word deliver bears many other mean
from critical point of view. So, he did not mention ing, but in context to the passage, it bears the mean
any shortcoming of Gandhiji’s method. obviously, the ing stated above.
answer is (5). So, we can choose communicate without any hesi
4. (4) “The assence of Gandhiji’s teaching was meant tation.
not for his country or his people alone but for all (Page 317, Oxford Advanced
mankind and is valid not only for today but for all Learner’s Dictionary)
the time.” 12. (1) Being (Noun) means (i) existence.
From this statement we can conclude : For example,
(i) His teaching was meant for his country. What is the purpose of our being?
(ii) His teaching has not timebound applicability. (ii) One’s essence or nature, self.
(iii) As it is meant for all mankind so it insipired the For example,
masses also. I detest violence with my whole being
Hence, we can conclude that none of these state (iii) living creature : human being.
ments is correct. In the passage we can substitute the wordbeing
5. (3) “The means to be compatible with this end there with existence without distorting the meaning of the
fore, he said have to be purely moral, namely sentence.
unadultarated truth and nonviolence”. (Page 97, Oxford Advanced
From this premise, we can approach the truth that Learner’s Dictionary)
SEE–99
13. (2) Raise (Verb) means (i) to lift or move something 11. (3) “Take somebody/something for” means sup
to a higher level. pose, assume or consider somebody/something to
(ii) to increase the amount or level of something. be somebody/something.
Considering the meaning the word riased conveys So, took for means considered. Hence the answer
in the passage, we can choose suppressed. is (3).
(Page 960, Oxford Advanced 12. (2) Harass (Verb) means trouble and annoy (some
Learner’s Dictionary) body) continuously.
14. (4) Gigantic (Adjective) means of very great in size For example,
or extent; huge : gigantic mountain ranges. Political dissidents complained of being harassed by
Trivial means very little in size, mundane. the police.
15. (4) Valid (Adjective) means well based or logical; le In the passage harassed bears the same meaning
gally effective because made or done with the cor as troubled.
rect procedure; that can be legally used or accepted. Page 567, Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary
For example, 13. (4) Keen when used as an Adjective means eager
enthusiastie etc. In the passage also keen bears the
A cheque card is not a valid proof of identity.
same meaning. So the answer is (5).
— Page 1319, Oxford Advanced
14. (4) Finally (Adverb) means (i) lastly; in conclusion;
Learner’s Dictionary.
(ii) conclusively; decisively; (iii) at last; eventually.
EXERCISE–2 If we consider the given options and the sense of
1. (4) 2. (1) 3. (2) 4. (4) 5. (3) the term finally in the passage we should choose
initially as the antonym.
6. (1) 7. (4) 8. (3) 9. (1) 10. (3)
15. (1) Fast is used in the passage as an Adverb which
11. (3) 12. (2) 13. (4) 14. (4) 15. (1)
means speedily. So, slowly is the correct antonym
1. (4) “When he heard about the witch, he did not be for fast.
lieve that it was one of the witches who ate flesh.
EXERCISE–3
But there was something else about the witch, which
made Dhiru curious”. 1. (4) 2. (4) 3. (3) 4. (2) 5. (4)
This shows that the distinction between the witch
1. (4) Dizzy means feeling as if everything is spinning
and other witches made him curious.
around; unable to balance, confused.
2. (1) Dhiru was keen to solve the mystery. Subsequent
For example,
actions of Dhiru were quided by this curiosity. So,
After another glass of whisky I began to feel dizzy.
we can say that Dhiru entered the forest to find out
the truth about the witch. In the passage, the reel of thread feels dizzy as it
is rotating at a very fast rate. We know that if some
3. (2) “It was the witch who tried to frighten Dhiru and
one rotates speedily, he feels dizziness.
run away.” This shows that, soon after she was
caught, the witch tried to frighten Dhiru and run 2. (4) In the passage, the balance wheel says, “She is
away. stitching a school dress for her daughter who will
be admitted in school tomorrow.” From this state
4. (4) “But Dhiru was strong and bold enough to hold
ment it becomes clear that the lady is stitching a
the witch fast.” This very sentence clearly indicates
school dress for her daughter.
that it were Dhiru’s courage and strength which
3. (3) “One day this lay's grandfather came to the shop.
helped him to overpower the witch.
He liked the machine and bought it”. The lady is
5. (3) The important different as per the passage was :
the child's mother. So we can say that the machine
other witches used to eat flesh; this witch didn’t. was bought by the child's grandfather.
6. (1) “However, after some time, he really fell asleep.” 4. (2) “We saw the old gentleman die. His children then
The witch came after he had fallen asleep. So, the started quarrelling. Slowly they become poor. The
correct answer is (1). servants were dismissed. Then one by one, the chil
7. (4) “Therefore, she used to live in th forest, wear dren went and the house was closed.
ing a fearful mask.” So, we can conclude that the From this part of the passage we find that all the
mask made the widow look frightening. things mentioned in the given options were hap
8. (3) The author syas, “People resort to different tricks pened except (2).
to make both ends meet”. From this statement we 5. (4) “Listen my children”, continued the old
can decide in favour of option (3). wheel.......”
9. (1) The witch was not really a fearful monster. It Subsequently the old wheel narrates the story of the
was an old widow who took the role of a witch to lady's ancestors. As none of the options contains old
earn her livelihood. So, the statement (1) is not true. wheel, the answer is (5).
10. (3) feel sympathy for her. qqq
SEE–100

An Introduction To English Grammar & Language: Subject-Verb Agreement

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AN INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH GRAMMAR & LANGUAGE

AN INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH GRAMMAR & LANGUAGE

Bush Bushes Watch Watches Wolf Wolves Shelf Shelves

TABLE OF TENSES OF VERB TO GIVE

Simple Continuous Perfect Perfect

Uses of Tenses [in both the cases, none is reading at this moment].

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