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PRONOUN – ANTECEDENT AGREEMENT
Rules
 A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in both
number and gender.
 Ex. The Taylors landscaped their yard in an unusual way.
 Ex. Kim regained her confidence after the test.
 Ex. The cheetah licked its chops.
Examples
 The doctor makes his or her rounds every day.
 Doctors make their rounds every day.
Collective Nouns
 When the antecedent of a pronoun is a collective noun,
the number of the pronoun depends upon whether the
collective noun is used as singular or plural.
 Ex. The class had its first meeting yesterday. ( Class is
used as a single unit; therefore, the singular pronoun is
used.)
Agreement in person
 Incorrect: Henry lives in Tampa where you can sunbathe
all year long.
 Correct: Henry lives in Tampa where he can sunbathe all
year long. Incorrect: They like camping because you
can be close to nature.
 Correct: They like camping because they can be close to
nature.
Agreement with Indefinite Pronouns Antecedents
 When a pronoun’s antecedent is an indefinite pronoun,
the pronoun must agree in number with it.
 Ex. Neither of the girls spent her entire allowance.
 Ex. Several members missed their chance to speak with
the president.
 When no gender is specified use both a masculine and
feminine pronoun.
 Ex. Each of the students should prepare his or her own
homework
Rules
 Use a singular pronoun to refer to each, either, neither,
one, everyone, everybody, no one, nobody, anyone,
anybody, someone, or somebody.
SECOND SEMESTER
BSMLS
 Ex. Each of the teams had its mascot at the game.
 Ex. One of the boys left his pen behind.
 The following indefinite pronouns are plural: both, few, many, and
several
 Examples:
 Many of the actors already know their lines.
 Both of the candidates clearly stated their positions on the issue.
 The indefinite pronouns all, any, more, most, none, and some may
be singular or plural depending on how they are used in a
sentence.
 Most of these coins are rare, but I don’t know what they are
worth.
 Use a singular pronoun to refer to two or more singular
antecedents joined by or or nor.
 Ex. Neither Heidi nor Beth took her umbrella with her.
 Use a plural pronoun to refer to two or more antecedents joined
by and.
 Ex. The guide and the ranger wrapped their rain ponchos in their
saddle rolls
ADJECTIVES
Sample Item
 Jacob ate slow, chewing his food thoroughly.
 His mother was really impressed since she often accused him of
bolting dinner.
A. slowly B. thorough C. real D. No change is necessary.
Adjectives describe nouns.
The HANDSOME man lay on the RED couch
Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs.
The man flirted in a bold manner.The man shamelessly flirted in an
extremely bold manner.
PREPOSITIONS
Preposition is a word, which is used before a noun, a noun phrase or a
pronoun , connecting it to another word.
KINDS OF PREPOSITIONS :
 Simple prepositions: Prepositions which consists only one word.
e.g. in, on, at, with, against etc..,
 Compound prepositions: Prepositions which consists of two or
more words.
e.g. instead of, in the middle of, by the side of etc..,
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SOME PREPOSITIONS Prepositions of Time

on, through, behind, for, beneath, against, beside, over, during,
without, abroad, across, among, against, around ,at the end, at the
bottom, between, behind, below, by , inside , corner, into, via,
after , to , about ,in, on, at, since ,while, under, over, right, left
There are three types in prepositions
 PLACE OF PREPOSITIONS
 TIME OF PREPOSITIONS
 DIRECTION OF PREPOSITIONS
Prepositions of Place
Some prepositions show when something happens. They are called
prepositions of time.
Examples:
 School starts at nine o’clock.
 We’re going to the zoo on Saturday.
 No, you can’t watch a video. It’s past your bedtime already.
 I visited my grandparents during the summer.
 You must finish the work by Friday.
 I’ll do my homework before dinner.

Some prepositions show where something happens. They are called In general, we use:
prepositions of place.
 at - for a PRECISE TIME
Examples:-  at 3 o’clock, at noon, at dinnertime
 in - for MONTHS, YEARS, CENTURIES and
 Sanny was sitting under a tree. LONG PERIODS
 There’s a wooden floor underneath the carpet.  in May, in summer, in 1990,
 Some geese flew over their house.  on - for DAYS and DATES
 John and Sarah were hiding inside the wardrobe.  on Sunday, on 6 March, on Christmas Day
 There was a tree beside the river.
 I have a friend who lives in America. at

Prepositions of Place: AT, IN, ON  at night

 at the weekend
In general, we use:
 at Christmas
 at - for a POINT  at the same time
 at present
at the corner, at the bus stop, at the door
Prepositions of Direction
 in - for an ENCLOSED SPACE in the garden,
Some prepositions show where something is going. They are called
in London, in my wallet prepositions of direction.

 on - for a SURFACE Examples:-

on the wall, on the ceiling, on a page
Notice the use in these standard expressions
 The boys chased after each other.
 The football rolled down the hill.
 A man was walking his dog along the riverbank.
 The freeway goes right through the city.
 We were travelling towards Miami.

Prepositions with special uses

Usage of OF

 Our modules are full of real life examples.

 I ate a plate of rice and a quarter of milk.
 Would you like a glass of lemon juice?
 I need three pieces of paper.
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Usage of “FOR”
 I made this bookmark for Mom.
 Is there room for me on this seat?
 I’d like a new computer for Christmas.
 We’re going downtown for a meeting. I made this gift for my
mother.
 Is there place for me on this seat?
 I’d like a new Laptop for Next year.
Usage of “WITH”
 He pounds nails with a hammer.
 Mix the flour with water.
 She painted the picture with her new paints.
 Would you like to come with us to the cinema?
 I can do difficult problems with help from Mom.
 Who is the man with the beard?
Usage of “EXCEPT” AND “INSTEAD OF”
 I like all kinds of food except Upma.
 Everyone likes chocolate except Tom.
 We go to school every day except Saturday and Sunday.
 You should eat fruit instead of candy.
 Dad is coming to the theater with us instead of Mom.
 We could watch TV instead of reading our books.
Usage of “LIKE” , “AS” and “THAN”
 Kathleen looks like her dad.
 Andrew smiles like his mother.
 Peter sings like a professional singer.
 Are these shoes the same as those?
 Sue is nearly as tall as the teacher.
 My backpack is bigger than John’s
 . Dad is taller than all of us.
 This painting is more beautiful than that one.
 The neighborhood streets are less busy than downtown
streets.
Prepositions with Adjective ,Verbs .
Prepositions are used with some adjectives. The adjectives in these
examples are printed in color.
 Dad was angry with us.
 We were afraid of the big dog.
 She’s not very interested in sports.
 John is very good at drawing.
 Mr. Lee is pleased with our work.
SECOND SEMESTER
BSMLS
Prepositions are used with some verbs. The verbs in these examples are
printed in color.
 I’m looking for my pencil. Have you seen it?
 Can you think of another word for ‘pleased’?
 Does this book belong to you?
 We’re listening to CDs.
 I agree with you.
 Tell me about the show you saw.
 Cut the cake into five pieces.
 They borrowed money from the bank.
Prepositions are used with some nouns. The nouns in these examples are
printed in color.
 What’s the answer to this question?
 Is there a reason for this delay?
 What’s the matter with you?
 Here’s an example of good behavior.
 Congratulations on winning the competition!
 Traffic can cause damage to the environment
1. A cat was sitting _______the roof of my car.
(place)
2. Some people were talking ___the movie. (time)
3. A man was coming____ us on his bike.
(direction)
4. The party starts_____ six o’clock. (time)
5. . She put the book ____her bag. (place)
6. We walked____ the street to the park. (place)
7. She keeps her slippers____ her bed. (place)
8. We always wash our hands ____meals. (time)
9. She ran ____the dog because she was
frightened. (direction)
Using Formal and Informal Language Appropriately
Art Imitates Life
- In writing, formal and informal language work in a similar way…
to influence tone, which, in turn, speaks to your audience.
Tone
- Tone is defined as the writer’s attitude toward the subject
matter and his or her readers.
Audience
- The audience is your reader or listener– the recipient of your
verbal or written communication.
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Diction Informal

- Diction is word choice  Situations

- Word choice is important in establishing tone  text message
- Three levels of diction:  friendly letter
1. high or formal diction
 “locker” conversation
2. neutral diction
 Journal-style writing
3. informal or low diction
What makes INFORMAL language?
Characteristic of Formal and Informal Language

Formal  Simple grammatical structure

 Personal evaluation
 Serious - Using first person
 Objective - Using forms of “you”
 impersonal  Colloquial or slang vocabulary
 reasoned - Contractions are considered slang
 controlled
 reserved What makes FORMAL language?

Informal  Formal language, even when spoken, is often associated

with the conventions expected of written standard English.
 light  Although you generally don’t worry as much about formality
 humorous in speaking, it is extremely important in writing because of
 personal the knowledge you are recording through the written word.
 casual
 offhanded What makes formal language (continued)?
 "loose"
 plainspoken  Formal language does not use contractions
 simple  Avoids personal pronouns such as: you, I, us, me, and we
 Includes more polysyllabic words—BIGGER words
Why does it even matter?
 Complex, complete sentences
 Official or serious situations are often signaled by the use of  Avoidance of colloquial or slang vocabulary
formal language, while ordinary or relaxed situations are
What to avoid in formal writing
signaled by the use of informal language.
- What determines formal or informal:
 Exclamation marks
 public versus private occasion,
 Needless words like “well” and “you know”
 The size of the audience,
 First and second person point of view
 The relationship of the speaker/writer with the audience,
 Beginning sentences with coordinating conjunctions
 The ability to vary your language according to the situation is
 Too many short, choppy sentences that could be combined
often considered a mark of an educated person.
to make more complex sentence structures
Certain Situations  Avoid most shortenings in formal writing. In formal English,
you talk on the “telephone,” not the “phone”
Formal Situations  Know what acronyms may be used in your writing. In formal
English, you should limit your use of acronyms, abbreviations
 job interview making use of letters that stand for certain words
 principal’s office visit  Similarly, limit your use of absolute terms, such as
 business letter "everybody," "always," "never"
 class essay  Avoid cliché’s and colloquialisms
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Common Colloquialisms and Informal Words 1. Contrast/Antonym Clues

- Sometimes a word or phrase is clarified by the presentation of the
 A lot, alot opposite meaning somewhere close to its use. Look for signal
 Ain't words when applying context clues.
 Alright, all right
Example: "Lou wanted to go to the haberdashery, but Ann wanted to shop
 Anyways
at the boutique.” The signal word but tells the reader that an opposite
 Anybody, anyone
thought is going to be stated
 As
 Big, large great 2. Inference/General Context Clues
 Buy - Sometimes a word or phrase is not immediately clarified within
 Contraption the same sentence. Relationships, which are not directly apparent,
 Could of, would of, should of are inferred or implied. The reader must look for clues within,
before, and after the sentence in which the word is used.
 Cute
 Fellow Example: “The haberdashery was Lou’s favorite place. He loved shopping
 For sure for nice suits. The people who worked there were so kind and helpful.”
 Get, obtain
 Get, understand 3. Punctuation
- Readers can also use clues of punctuation and type style to infer
 Gonna, wanna
meaning, such as quotation marks (showing the word has a special
 Got
meaning), dashes , parentheses or brackets (enclosing a
 How come definition), and italics (showing the word will be defined).
 How do you do
 Humongous Examples: Tom's father was a haberdasher, or men’s shop keeper, in the
 Kid story. Tom's father was a haberdasher (men’s shop keeper) in the story. In
the story, Tom's father was a haberdasher-or men’s shop keeper. Tom's
CONTEXT CLUES – words or phrases that precede or follow a difficult father was a “haberdasher”. He had a clothing store for men
word or idea to help readers understand it.
Conjunctions and Interjections
The five types of context clues
What is a Conjunction?
 CLUE #1 Restatement/Synonym Clues
 CLUE #2 Contrast/Antonym Clues - A conjunction is like glue. It helps things to stick together.
 CLUE #3 Inference/General Context Clue - A conjunction joins words, phrases, and sentences, which are
 CLUE #4 Definition/Explanation Clues called clauses.
 CLUE #5 Punctuation
There Are 3 Types of Conjunctions
The five types of context clues are:
1. Coordinating Conjunctions
1. Definition/Explanation Clues 2. Subordinating Conjunctions
- Sometimes a word's or phrase's meaning is explained 3. Correlative Conjunctions
immediately after its use.
What is a Conjunction?
Example: "Haberdashery, which is a store that sells men’s clothing, is
- Conjunctions join two or more words.
becoming more common today.”
Example: I went to the store to buy eggs, milk, and bread.
2. Restatement/Synonym Clues
- Sometimes a hard word or phrase is said in a simple way - Conjunctions can join two prepositional phrases.

Example: "Lou was sent to the haberdashery to find a new suit. He
needed to wear one for his uncle’s wedding." Because the sentence says
that Lou would find a suit at the haberdashery, then it must be a place
where clothes for men are sold
Ex. I went skiing down the hill and past the trees.
- Conjunctions can connect two clauses or sentences.
- When two sentences are joined, a comma MUST be placed before
the conjunction.
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Ex. I played cards for awhile, but then I played chess.
Types of Conjunctions
 One type of conjunction is the coordinating conjunction.
 They connect words, phrases, and clauses, which are
sentences.
 They connect things of equal value. (This means that they
would connect a noun with another noun or a prepositional
phrase with another prepositional phrase.)
There are seven coordinating conjunctions: Use FANBOYS to remember
 Coordinating conjunctions affect the meaning of your
sentence.
 “And” connects things that are alike or joined together.
 Ex. I want popcorn and pizza.
 Coordinating conjunctions affect the meaning of your
sentence.
 “But” is used to connect things that are different or separated.
 Ex. I want popcorn but not pizza.
 Coordinating conjunctions affect the meaning of your
sentence.
 “Or” is used to offer a choice.
 Ex. Do I want popcorn or pizza?
 Coordinating conjunctions affect the meaning of your
sentence.
 “Nor” is used to offer a negative choice.
 Ex. I do not want popcorn nor pizza
 Coordinating conjunctions affect the meaning of your
sentence.
 “Yet” is used to show a change. When it is used to combine
two sentences, you must put a comma before it.
 Ex. I want popcorn, yet I also want pizza
 Coordinating conjunctions affect the meaning of your
sentence.
 “So” is used to show a relationship between things. When it is
used to combine two sentences, you must put a comma before
it.
 Ex. I want popcorn, so I made some
 Coordinating conjunctions affect the meaning of your
sentence.
 “For” is also used to show a relationship between things. When
it is used to combine two sentences, you must put a comma
before it.
 Ex. I ordered a pizza, for I was hungry.
SECOND SEMESTER
BSMLS
 Another Type of Conjunction is a Subordinating
Conjunction. A subordinating conjunction-
- Connects a dependent clause (a clause that cannot be
written as a separate sentence) with an independent
clause.
IF, WHILE, BECAUSE, ALTHOUGH, AFTER, BEFORE,
UNLESS, WHEN, UNTIL, SINCE, THEN, AS
 We celebrated after we won the game.
 Because our train was delayed, we arrived late.
 Watson listened quietly while Holmes explained his theory
 Another type of conjunction is called correlative
conjunctions.
 Correlative conjunctions connect words, phrases, and
clauses, which are sentences.
 Correlative conjunctions connect things of equal value.
(This means that they will connect a verb with another verb
or a sentence with another sentence.)
 Correlative Conjunctions are not single words. They work in
pairs.
 There are five pairs of correlative conjunctions:
Examples of Correlative Conjunctions
 I saw both the Statue of Liberty and the Empire State
Building
 I don’t want neither pickles nor tomato on my hamburger.
 I don’t know whether to play baseball or to play basketball
this year
 Either the student or the teacher can answer the question.
 Not only do I play the flute, but I also play the clarinet.
What is an Interjection?
 An interjection is something that interrupts a sentence.
 It is something that also expresses your emotions like
happiness, fear, anger, or pain.
 Some examples of interjections are: ouch, wow, uh oh, oh
no, gosh, shhhh
Punctuating Interjections
 If an interjection is spoken calmly, simply put a comma
after it and continue the sentence.
Ex. Shhh, the baby is sleeping.
Ex. Oh my, I dropped my pencil.
 If an interjection is spoken with more emotion, it is
followed by an exclamation point. The next word is then
capitalized.
Ex. Ouch! I just cut my finger.
Ex. He scored the winning touchdown. Wow
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COHESION VS. COHERENCE COHESIVE NOUNS

 as the act of forming a whole unit.  A kind of lexical reference.

 A subset of coherence  Can summarize many words.
 Focused on the grammatical aspect of writing.  Can be used to signal what is to come or can refer back.
 Degree to which sentences are connected.
 Quality of being logical, consistent and able to understood. EXAMPLES:
 Rhetorical aspects of writing which include developing and
1. Two cars collided on the flyover. However, nobody was hurt in
supporting your argument, synthesizing and integrating
the accident.
reading, organizing and clarifying ideas.
2. The accident mentioned above,
 A text will be cohesive if cohesive ties are used. However, it
will only be coherent if the cohesive ties are used
CONJUNCTION
appropriately to create meaning.
EXAMPLE: firstly ,next, moreover, however, but and more
EXAMPLE
LEXICAL CHAIN
I had the most beautiful experience when I went to the zoo. I saw
different kinds of birds. But it was my first time to see a carabao flying.  One word is related to another.
 Sequence of related words in writing.
You can have cohesion without coherence but you cannot have
coherence without cohesion. COHERENCE------logical order COHERENC E
COHESION-------Helpful links– (glue)
 about creating texts that make sense and are logical.
COHESION  Coherence comes from making logical connections between
ideas in each part of the text and the context.
Cohesion is defined as the set of resources for constructing for
conducting relations in discourse which transcend grammatical HOW CAN YOU ACHIEVE COHERENT TEXT?
structure. (Halliday 1994).
 Clarify the meaning
6 main ways that cohesion is created in a text ( Halliday and Hasan  Indicate a change of topic
1976)  Headings and subheadings
 Layout
 REFERENCE
 Formatting
 SUBSTITUTION
 ELLIPSIS Coherence can achieved…
 LEXICAL CHAINS
 COHESIVE NOUNS  Logical ordering of ideas
 CONJUNCTION  Formatting/ clear communication stages
 Eliminating ambiguity
REFERENCE  Maintaining consistency in lexis and syntax ( don’t forget the
cohesive devices)
EXAMPLE: I have collected calathea plants and I love it.
COHERENCE VS COHESION?
SUBSTITUIO N
 Cohesion is where you can see connections
- Uses a word or phrase to replace a word/phrase used earlier  Coherence is where you infer connections.
 Coherence is a feature of cohesive texts, but texts can be
ELLIPS ES
cohesive without being coherent.

Omitting words because it is already understood in the context

EXAMPLE: I can play basketball and he can too.
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ADJECTIVES & ADVERBS EXAMPLES:

 Modifies Nouns  Negative

 Modifies Pronouns - I can scarcely believe my eyes. ( correct)
- I haven’t no more sea shells. (incorrect)
DEFINITION OF AN ADJECTIVE:
Familiar Adverbs to Know
 It tells what kind of person, place, or thing. A noun or a pronoun
is. almost finally seldom unusually certainly hardly quite so usually just
 It may also point out which one or how many. rather very rather fairly nearly too scarcely well

EXAMPLES: Kind of Adverbs

 The ship was an English vessel. (what kind)  Adverbs of Frequency

 This factory is mine. (which one) - This kind of adverb adds information on occurrence
 Many people enjoy the annual dinner. (how many, which one) an action or state of being. This kind of adverb
answers the question “how recurrent” or for “how
AN ADVERB: often” the action o r state of being is repeated.
Examples:
- Modifies an active verb or a verb phrase by expressing manner, 1. They regularly visit their grannies from their
place, time, degree, or number. hometown
2. Often, the students forget the complete names of
TYPES OF ADVERBS:
their teachers.

 Simple
 Adverbs of Time
- This kind of adverb indicates the time of occurrence of
 Interrogative
action or state of being in the sentence. This adverb
 Negative
answers the question” when”.
Examples:
EXAMPLES:
1. I need you today.
SIMPLE: 2. In 1986 Filipinos reunited to regain the democracy
in the Philippines.
- She moved quietly. (Manner and tell how) 3. Submit to my office the Annual Financial Report
- I waited there for an hour. (Place and tell where) next week.
- You may leave soon. (Time, tells when) – I called you once. 4. There will be Freshmen Orientation on Monday.
(Number, tells how many)  Adverbs of Manner
- He sat very still. (Degree, tells how much) - The state of the means on how the action is being
done described by this adverb. In short, this adverb
Interrogative Adverb answers the question” how”?
Examples:
 Introduces a sentence that asks a question
1. The teacher hurriedly called the attention of the
 where, when, why and how students.
2. My parents are patiently waiting for me outside the
EXAMPLES:
auditorium.
3. Quantine sings well.
 Interrogative:
- When will you return?  Adverbs of Place
- How is the trunk being sent? - This kind of adverb answers the question “where” or
locates the action or state of being in the sentence.
Negative Adverb Examples:
1. The ambulance moves northwest.
- Denies or contradicts a statement 2. Have you seen the kid who was sitting there?
- no, not , never, only, scarcely and hardly 3. Here I am.

Note: two negative adverbs should not be used together.

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 Adverbs of Intensity or Degree Order of Adjectives in a Series

- Adverb of Intensity or degree responds to the question “ up
to what extent” or “up to what level”. What’s the correct order?
Examples:
 a Venetian glass ashtray
1. The performance of the cadets was so great!
2. The question that our teacher posted was very confusing.  a brown German beer-mug
 the first three days
ADJECTIVES  my last two jobs
 a big black cat
 Proper Adjectives: French fries, Spanish bread
 the round glass table
 Collective Adjectives: The rich of Connecticut are responsible
 Possessive Adjectives: my , your, his, her AN ADVERB:
The bakery sold his favorite bread.
Chidren are neglected by their parents. - Modifies an active verb or a verb phrase by expressing manner,
place, time, degree, or number.
 Demonstrative Adjectives this - these; that - those
- Pron. : This is my house.
- Adj. : This house is mine.
 Interrogative Adjectives
- Pron.: What is your name?
- Adj.: What book are you reading?
 Indefinite Adjectives
- Pron. Many attended the meeting.
- Adj: Many people believe that corporations are under-taxed.

DEFINITION OF AN ADJECTIVE:

 It tells what kind of person, place, or thing. A noun or a

pronoun is.
 It may also point out which one or how many.

Order of Adjectives

 Determiners ( a, an, the)

 Observations (beautiful, interesting)
 Size and Shape (large, round)
 Age (young, old, new, ancient)
 Color (red, violet)
 Origin (Persian, Canadian, French)
 Material (woolen, metallic, wooden)
 Qualifier (rocking chair, hunting cabin)

Order of Adjectives in a Series

What’s the correct order?

 a glass Venetian ashtray

 a German brown beer-mug
 the three first days •
 my two last jobs
 a black big cat
 the glass round table